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<h1 class="clb">AI History</h1>
<h3 class="clb">The origins of Artificial Intelligence</h3>
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<li><a href="education_games.html">Games & Puzzles</a></li>
<li class="current"><a href="history.html">History</a></li>
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AI Topics > History
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<h4 style="text-align:center">Contents</h4>
Readings
<ul>
<li><a href="#starting" >Good Starting Places</a></li>
<li><a href="#timelines">Timelines</a></li>
<li><a href="#overviews">Overviews And Introductory Readings</a></li>
<li><a href="#ancient">Ancient Precursors to AI</a></li>
<li><a href="#others">Other Readings</a></li>
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<p class="auto-style2" ><img src="images/Greekruins.jpg" alt="Greek Ruins" style="float:right;padding-left:5px" />
Perhaps the earliest examples of the urge to make artificial persons are the Greek Gods. ... As a present from Zeus to Europa, Hephaestus makes Talos, a man of bronze whose duty is to patrol the beaches of Crete. He thwarts invaders by hurling great rocks at them, or by heating himself red hot and squeezing trespassers in a warm embrace.
<br/>-Pamela McCorduck from Machines Who Think</p>
<p class="auto-style3">The intellectual roots of AI, and the concept of intelligent machines, may be found in Greek mythology. Intelligent artifacts appear in literature since then, with mechanical devices actually (and sometimes fraudulently) demonstrating behaviour with some degree of intelligence. After modern computers became available following World War II, it has become possible to create programs that perform difficult intellectual tasks. Even more importantly, general purpose methods and tools have been created that allow similar tasks to be performed.</p>
<hr/>
<h3><a name="starting">Good Starting Places</a></h3>
<p>Timeline of AI: A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence. By Bruce G. Buchanan, University Professor Emeritus, University of Pittsburgh. CHRONOLOGICAL OVERVIEW of significant events in the history of AI. (Prepared for the Introduction to AI class at the University of Pittsburgh and updated with links to relevant online articles.)</p>
<p>Boden, Margaret A. (1995). AI's Half-Century. AI Magazine 16(4): Winter 1995, 96-99. "The first 50 years of AI are reviewed, and current controversies outlined. Scientific disputes include disagreements over the best research methodology, including classical AI, connectionism, hybrid systems, and situated and evolutionary robotics. Philosophical disputes concern (for instance) whether computation is necessary and sufficient for mentality, whether representations are essential for intelligence, whether consciousness can be explained objectively, and whether the Cartesian presuppositions of (most) AI should be replaced by a neo-Heideggerian approach. With respect to final verdicts, both juries (scientific and philosophical) are still out. But AI has aided theoretical psychology and revivified the philosophy of mind."</p>
<p>Buchanan, Bruce G. (2005). A (Very) Brief History of Artificial Intelligence. AI Magazine 26(4), Winter 2005, 53–60. "In this brief history, the beginnings of artificial intelligence are traced to philosophy, fiction, and imagination. Early inventions in electronics, engineering, and many other disciplines have influenced AI. Some early milestones include work on problem solving, including basic work in learning, knowledge representation, and inference as well as demonstration programs in language understanding, translation, theorem proving, associative memory, and knowledge-based systems. The article ends with a brief examination of influential organizations and current issues facing the field."</p>
<p>Knight, Heather (2006). Early Artificial Intelligence Projects: A Student Perspective. A short overview of the history of AI, with a few pictures, a timeline, and good starting bibiliography.</p>
<p>Luger, George (2005). AI: Early History and Applications. Chapter One of George F. Luger's textbook, Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving, 5th Edition (Addison-Wesley; 2005), is available online. "As one of the originators of the science of operations research, as well as the designer of the first programmable mechanical computing machines, Charles Babbage, a nineteenth century mathematician, may also be considered an early practitioner of artificial intelligence (Morrison and Morrison 1961). Babbage's difference engine was a special-purpose machine for computing the values of certain polynomial functions and was the forerunner of his analytical engine. The analytical engine, designed but not successfully constructed during his lifetime, was a general-purpose programmable computing machine that presaged many of the architectural assumptions underlying the modern computer."</p>
<hr/>
<h3><a name="timelines">Timelines</a></h3>
<p>Timeline of AI: A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence. By Bruce G. Buchanan, University Professor Emeritus, University of Pittsburgh. A chronological list of significant events in the history of AI, prepared for the Introduction to AI class at the University of Pittsburgh and updated with links to relevant online articles.</p>
<p>Timeline of Computer History from The Computer Museum History Center. "This timeline explores the history of computing from 1945 to 1994. Each year features illustrated descriptions of significant innovations in hardware and software technology, as well as milestones in areas such as commercial applications and artificial intelligence. When appropriate, biographical sketches of the pioneers responsible for the advances are included." The photos are sure to capture the attention of your students.</p>
<p>Timeline for the Evolution of Cybernetics. From the American Society for Cybernetics' (ACS). "Cybernetics precipitated out of diverse threads of work fortuitously intersecting during the 1940's. In the ensuing decades, the themes circumscribing cybernetics' original definition diverged again to engender or facilitate the rise of an even greater diversity of fields, labels, and disciplines. ... [The timeline] is deliberately intended to reflect at least a sample of the many subjects and disciplines from which cybernetics descended and into which its themes subsequently flowed."</p>
<hr/>
<h3><a name="overviews">OVERVIEWS AND INTRODUCTORY READINGS</a></h3>
<ul>
<li><b>Components</b> - for example, from 1986: "Compaq beat IBM to the market when it announced the Deskpro 386, the first computer on the market to use Intel's new 80386 chip, a 32-bit microprocessor with 275,000 transistors on each chip. At 4 million operations per second and 4 kilobytes of memory, the 80386 gave PCs as much speed and power as older mainframes and minicomputers. The 386 chip brought with it the introduction of a 32-bit architecture, a significant improvement over the 16-bit architecture of previous microprocessors. It had two operating modes, one that mirrored the segmented memory of older x86 chips, allowing full backward compatibility, and one that took full advantage of its more advanced technology. The new chip made graphical operating environments for IBM PC and PC-compatible computers practical."</li>
<li><b>Computers</b> - wonderful photos, specs and more about ENIAC, AVIDAC, Manchester Mark I, Pilot ACE, MIT Whirlwind, UNIVAC I, Micral, and many others.</li>
<li><b>Software And Languages</b> - here are just two examples from this exciting collection:
<ul>
<li>"Claude Shannon's 'The Mathematical Theory of Communication' showed engineers how to code data so they could check for accuracy after transmission between computers. Shannon identified the bit as the fundamental unit of data and, coincidentally, the basic unit of computation."</li>
<li>" LISP made its debut as the first computer language designed for writing artificial intelligence programs. Created by John McCarthy, LISP offered programmers flexibility in organization."</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul><hr/>
<h3><a name="ancient">ANCIENT PRECURSORS TO AI</a></h3>
<p>In search of lost time - The ancient Antikythera Mechanism doesn't just challenge our assumptions about technology transfer over the ages -- it gives us fresh insights into history itself. By Jo Marchant. [email protected] (November 29, 2006). "This thing spent 2,000 years at the bottom of the sea before making it to the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, and it shows. ... This is the Antikythera Mechanism. These fragments contain at least 30 interlocking gear-wheels, along with copious astronomical inscriptions. Before its sojourn on the sea bed, it computed and displayed the movement of the Sun, the Moon and possibly the planets around Earth, and predicted the dates of future eclipses. It's one of the most stunning artefacts we have from classical antiquity. ... 'It's the same way that we would do things today, it's like modern technology,' says [Yanis] Bitsakis. 'That's why it fascinates people.' What fascinates me is that where we see the potential of that technology to measure time accurately and make machines do work, the Greeks saw a way to demonstrate the beauty of the heavens and get closer to the gods."</p>
<hr/>
<h3><a name="others">Other Readings</a></h3>
<ul>
<li>A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence, August 31, 1955. By John McCarthy, Marvin L. Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, and Claude E. Shannon. "The 1956 Dartmouth summer research project on artificial intelligence was initiated by this August 31, 1955 proposal, authored by John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, and Claude Shannon. The original typescript consisted of 17 pages plus a title page. Copies of the typescript are housed in the archives at Dartmouth College and Stanford University. The first 5 papers state the proposal, and the remaining pages give qualifications and interests of the four who proposed the study. In the interest of brevity, this article reproduces only the proposal itself, along with the short autobiographical statements of the proposers.</li>
<li>Happy Silver Anniversary, AI! By Edward A. Feigenbaum. (A reprint of his AAAI President’s Message from AI Magazine (2)1: Winter 1980.) "Artificial intelligence (AI), on the twenty-fifth anniversary of its naming, is a “kid, finally grown up.” In this letter to his field, Feigenbaum recounts AI’s stumbles and successes, its growing pains and maturation, to a place of preeminence among the sciences; standing with molecular biology, particle physics, and cosmology as owners of the best questions of science</li>
<li>We Are Golden! By Alan K. Mackworth. "Artificial intelligence (AI), on the 50th anniversary of its naming, is an autonomous discipline. The field has an established record of success, as exemplified by three recent achievements presented at AAAI-06/IAAI-06. It is now mature enough to collaborate productively with its sister disciplines, realizing the dream of ubiquitous computational intelligence.";</li>
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