mark the {@code } and {@code } tags in your source with
+ * {@code class=prettyprint.}
+ * You can also use the (html deprecated) {@code <![CDATA[} tag, but the pretty
+ * printer needs to do more substantial DOM manipulations to support that, so
+ * some css styles may not be preserved.
+ * </ol>
+ * That's it. I wanted to keep the API as simple as possible, so there's no
+ * need to specify which language the code is in, but if you wish, you can add
+ * another class to the {@code <pre>} or {@code <code>} element to specify the
+ * language, as in {@code <pre class="prettyprint lang-java">}. Any class that
+ * starts with "lang-" followed by a file extension, specifies the file type.
+ * See the "lang-*.js" files in this directory for code that implements
+ * per-language file handlers.
+ * <p>
+ * Change log:<br>
+ * cbeust, 2006/08/22
+ * <blockquote>
+ * Java annotations (start with "@") are now captured as literals ("lit")
+ * </blockquote>
+ * @requires console
+ */
+
+// JSLint declarations
+/*global console, document, navigator, setTimeout, window, define */
+
+/** @define {boolean} */
+var IN_GLOBAL_SCOPE = true;
+
+/**
+ * Split {@code prettyPrint} into multiple timeouts so as not to interfere with
+ * UI events.
+ * If set to {@code false}, {@code prettyPrint()} is synchronous.
+ */
+window['PR_SHOULD_USE_CONTINUATION'] = true;
+
+/**
+ * Pretty print a chunk of code.
+ * @param {string} sourceCodeHtml The HTML to pretty print.
+ * @param {string} opt_langExtension The language name to use.
+ * Typically, a filename extension like 'cpp' or 'java'.
+ * @param {number|boolean} opt_numberLines True to number lines,
+ * or the 1-indexed number of the first line in sourceCodeHtml.
+ * @return {string} code as html, but prettier
+ */
+var prettyPrintOne;
+/**
+ * Find all the {@code <pre>} and {@code <code>} tags in the DOM with
+ * {@code class=prettyprint} and prettify them.
+ *
+ * @param {Function} opt_whenDone called when prettifying is done.
+ * @param {HTMLElement|HTMLDocument} opt_root an element or document
+ * containing all the elements to pretty print.
+ * Defaults to {@code document.body}.
+ */
+var prettyPrint;
+
+
+(function () {
+ var win = window;
+ // Keyword lists for various languages.
+ // We use things that coerce to strings to make them compact when minified
+ // and to defeat aggressive optimizers that fold large string constants.
+ var FLOW_CONTROL_KEYWORDS = ["break,continue,do,else,for,if,return,while"];
+ var C_KEYWORDS = [FLOW_CONTROL_KEYWORDS,"auto,case,char,const,default," +
+ "double,enum,extern,float,goto,inline,int,long,register,short,signed," +
+ "sizeof,static,struct,switch,typedef,union,unsigned,void,volatile"];
+ var COMMON_KEYWORDS = [C_KEYWORDS,"catch,class,delete,false,import," +
+ "new,operator,private,protected,public,this,throw,true,try,typeof"];
+ var CPP_KEYWORDS = [COMMON_KEYWORDS,"alignof,align_union,asm,axiom,bool," +
+ "concept,concept_map,const_cast,constexpr,decltype,delegate," +
+ "dynamic_cast,explicit,export,friend,generic,late_check," +
+ "mutable,namespace,nullptr,property,reinterpret_cast,static_assert," +
+ "static_cast,template,typeid,typename,using,virtual,where"];
+ var JAVA_KEYWORDS = [COMMON_KEYWORDS,
+ "abstract,assert,boolean,byte,extends,final,finally,implements,import," +
+ "instanceof,interface,null,native,package,strictfp,super,synchronized," +
+ "throws,transient"];
+ var CSHARP_KEYWORDS = [JAVA_KEYWORDS,
+ "as,base,by,checked,decimal,delegate,descending,dynamic,event," +
+ "fixed,foreach,from,group,implicit,in,internal,into,is,let," +
+ "lock,object,out,override,orderby,params,partial,readonly,ref,sbyte," +
+ "sealed,stackalloc,string,select,uint,ulong,unchecked,unsafe,ushort," +
+ "var,virtual,where"];
+ var COFFEE_KEYWORDS = "all,and,by,catch,class,else,extends,false,finally," +
+ "for,if,in,is,isnt,loop,new,no,not,null,of,off,on,or,return,super,then," +
+ "throw,true,try,unless,until,when,while,yes";
+ var JSCRIPT_KEYWORDS = [COMMON_KEYWORDS,
+ "debugger,eval,export,function,get,null,set,undefined,var,with," +
+ "Infinity,NaN"];
+ var PERL_KEYWORDS = "caller,delete,die,do,dump,elsif,eval,exit,foreach,for," +
+ "goto,if,import,last,local,my,next,no,our,print,package,redo,require," +
+ "sub,undef,unless,until,use,wantarray,while,BEGIN,END";
+ var PYTHON_KEYWORDS = [FLOW_CONTROL_KEYWORDS, "and,as,assert,class,def,del," +
+ "elif,except,exec,finally,from,global,import,in,is,lambda," +
+ "nonlocal,not,or,pass,print,raise,try,with,yield," +
+ "False,True,None"];
+ var RUBY_KEYWORDS = [FLOW_CONTROL_KEYWORDS, "alias,and,begin,case,class," +
+ "def,defined,elsif,end,ensure,false,in,module,next,nil,not,or,redo," +
+ "rescue,retry,self,super,then,true,undef,unless,until,when,yield," +
+ "BEGIN,END"];
+ var RUST_KEYWORDS = [FLOW_CONTROL_KEYWORDS, "as,assert,const,copy,drop," +
+ "enum,extern,fail,false,fn,impl,let,log,loop,match,mod,move,mut,priv," +
+ "pub,pure,ref,self,static,struct,true,trait,type,unsafe,use"];
+ var SH_KEYWORDS = [FLOW_CONTROL_KEYWORDS, "case,done,elif,esac,eval,fi," +
+ "function,in,local,set,then,until"];
+ var ALL_KEYWORDS = [
+ CPP_KEYWORDS, CSHARP_KEYWORDS, JSCRIPT_KEYWORDS, PERL_KEYWORDS,
+ PYTHON_KEYWORDS, RUBY_KEYWORDS, SH_KEYWORDS];
+ var C_TYPES = /^(DIR|FILE|vector|(de|priority_)?queue|list|stack|(const_)?iterator|(multi)?(set|map)|bitset|u?(int|float)\d*)\b/;
+
+ // token style names. correspond to css classes
+ /**
+ * token style for a string literal
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_STRING = 'str';
+ /**
+ * token style for a keyword
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_KEYWORD = 'kwd';
+ /**
+ * token style for a comment
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_COMMENT = 'com';
+ /**
+ * token style for a type
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_TYPE = 'typ';
+ /**
+ * token style for a literal value. e.g. 1, null, true.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_LITERAL = 'lit';
+ /**
+ * token style for a punctuation string.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_PUNCTUATION = 'pun';
+ /**
+ * token style for plain text.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_PLAIN = 'pln';
+
+ /**
+ * token style for an sgml tag.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_TAG = 'tag';
+ /**
+ * token style for a markup declaration such as a DOCTYPE.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_DECLARATION = 'dec';
+ /**
+ * token style for embedded source.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_SOURCE = 'src';
+ /**
+ * token style for an sgml attribute name.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_ATTRIB_NAME = 'atn';
+ /**
+ * token style for an sgml attribute value.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_ATTRIB_VALUE = 'atv';
+
+ /**
+ * A class that indicates a section of markup that is not code, e.g. to allow
+ * embedding of line numbers within code listings.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_NOCODE = 'nocode';
+
+ include("regexpPrecederPatterns.pl");
+
+ include("combinePrefixPatterns.js");
+
+ include("extractSourceSpans.js");
+
+ /**
+ * Apply the given language handler to sourceCode and add the resulting
+ * decorations to out.
+ * @param {number} basePos the index of sourceCode within the chunk of source
+ * whose decorations are already present on out.
+ */
+ function appendDecorations(basePos, sourceCode, langHandler, out) {
+ if (!sourceCode) { return; }
+ var job = {
+ sourceCode: sourceCode,
+ basePos: basePos
+ };
+ langHandler(job);
+ out.push.apply(out, job.decorations);
+ }
+
+ var notWs = /\S/;
+
+ /**
+ * Given an element, if it contains only one child element and any text nodes
+ * it contains contain only space characters, return the sole child element.
+ * Otherwise returns undefined.
+ * <p>
+ * This is meant to return the CODE element in {@code <pre><code ...>} when
+ * there is a single child element that contains all the non-space textual
+ * content, but not to return anything where there are multiple child elements
+ * as in {@code <pre><code>...</code><code>...</code></pre>} or when there
+ * is textual content.
+ */
+ function childContentWrapper(element) {
+ var wrapper = undefined;
+ for (var c = element.firstChild; c; c = c.nextSibling) {
+ var type = c.nodeType;
+ wrapper = (type === 1) // Element Node
+ ? (wrapper ? element : c)
+ : (type === 3) // Text Node
+ ? (notWs.test(c.nodeValue) ? element : wrapper)
+ : wrapper;
+ }
+ return wrapper === element ? undefined : wrapper;
+ }
+
+ /** Given triples of [style, pattern, context] returns a lexing function,
+ * The lexing function interprets the patterns to find token boundaries and
+ * returns a decoration list of the form
+ * [index_0, style_0, index_1, style_1, ..., index_n, style_n]
+ * where index_n is an index into the sourceCode, and style_n is a style
+ * constant like PR_PLAIN. index_n-1 <= index_n, and style_n-1 applies to
+ * all characters in sourceCode[index_n-1:index_n].
+ *
+ * The stylePatterns is a list whose elements have the form
+ * [style : string, pattern : RegExp, DEPRECATED, shortcut : string].
+ *
+ * Style is a style constant like PR_PLAIN, or can be a string of the
+ * form 'lang-FOO', where FOO is a language extension describing the
+ * language of the portion of the token in $1 after pattern executes.
+ * E.g., if style is 'lang-lisp', and group 1 contains the text
+ * '(hello (world))', then that portion of the token will be passed to the
+ * registered lisp handler for formatting.
+ * The text before and after group 1 will be restyled using this decorator
+ * so decorators should take care that this doesn't result in infinite
+ * recursion. For example, the HTML lexer rule for SCRIPT elements looks
+ * something like ['lang-js', /<[s]cript>(.+?)<\/script>/]. This may match
+ * '<script>foo()<\/script>', which would cause the current decorator to
+ * be called with '<script>' which would not match the same rule since
+ * group 1 must not be empty, so it would be instead styled as PR_TAG by
+ * the generic tag rule. The handler registered for the 'js' extension would
+ * then be called with 'foo()', and finally, the current decorator would
+ * be called with '<\/script>' which would not match the original rule and
+ * so the generic tag rule would identify it as a tag.
+ *
+ * Pattern must only match prefixes, and if it matches a prefix, then that
+ * match is considered a token with the same style.
+ *
+ * Context is applied to the last non-whitespace, non-comment token
+ * recognized.
+ *
+ * Shortcut is an optional string of characters, any of which, if the first
+ * character, gurantee that this pattern and only this pattern matches.
+ *
+ * @param {Array} shortcutStylePatterns patterns that always start with
+ * a known character. Must have a shortcut string.
+ * @param {Array} fallthroughStylePatterns patterns that will be tried in
+ * order if the shortcut ones fail. May have shortcuts.
+ *
+ * @return {function (Object)} a
+ * function that takes source code and returns a list of decorations.
+ */
+ function createSimpleLexer(shortcutStylePatterns, fallthroughStylePatterns) {
+ var shortcuts = {};
+ var tokenizer;
+ (function () {
+ var allPatterns = shortcutStylePatterns.concat(fallthroughStylePatterns);
+ var allRegexs = [];
+ var regexKeys = {};
+ for (var i = 0, n = allPatterns.length; i < n; ++i) {
+ var patternParts = allPatterns[i];
+ var shortcutChars = patternParts[3];
+ if (shortcutChars) {
+ for (var c = shortcutChars.length; --c >= 0;) {
+ shortcuts[shortcutChars.charAt(c)] = patternParts;
+ }
+ }
+ var regex = patternParts[1];
+ var k = '' + regex;
+ if (!regexKeys.hasOwnProperty(k)) {
+ allRegexs.push(regex);
+ regexKeys[k] = null;
+ }
+ }
+ allRegexs.push(/[\0-\uffff]/);
+ tokenizer = combinePrefixPatterns(allRegexs);
+ })();
+
+ var nPatterns = fallthroughStylePatterns.length;
+
+ /**
+ * Lexes job.sourceCode and produces an output array job.decorations of
+ * style classes preceded by the position at which they start in
+ * job.sourceCode in order.
+ *
+ * @param {Object} job an object like <pre>{
+ * sourceCode: {string} sourceText plain text,
+ * basePos: {int} position of job.sourceCode in the larger chunk of
+ * sourceCode.
+ * }</pre>
+ */
+ var decorate = function (job) {
+ var sourceCode = job.sourceCode, basePos = job.basePos;
+ /** Even entries are positions in source in ascending order. Odd enties
+ * are style markers (e.g., PR_COMMENT) that run from that position until
+ * the end.
+ * @type {Array.<number|string>}
+ */
+ var decorations = [basePos, PR_PLAIN];
+ var pos = 0; // index into sourceCode
+ var tokens = sourceCode.match(tokenizer) || [];
+ var styleCache = {};
+
+ for (var ti = 0, nTokens = tokens.length; ti < nTokens; ++ti) {
+ var token = tokens[ti];
+ var style = styleCache[token];
+ var match = void 0;
+
+ var isEmbedded;
+ if (typeof style === 'string') {
+ isEmbedded = false;
+ } else {
+ var patternParts = shortcuts[token.charAt(0)];
+ if (patternParts) {
+ match = token.match(patternParts[1]);
+ style = patternParts[0];
+ } else {
+ for (var i = 0; i < nPatterns; ++i) {
+ patternParts = fallthroughStylePatterns[i];
+ match = token.match(patternParts[1]);
+ if (match) {
+ style = patternParts[0];
+ break;
+ }
+ }
+
+ if (!match) { // make sure that we make progress
+ style = PR_PLAIN;
+ }
+ }
+
+ isEmbedded = style.length >= 5 && 'lang-' === style.substring(0, 5);
+ if (isEmbedded && !(match && typeof match[1] === 'string')) {
+ isEmbedded = false;
+ style = PR_SOURCE;
+ }
+
+ if (!isEmbedded) { styleCache[token] = style; }
+ }
+
+ var tokenStart = pos;
+ pos += token.length;
+
+ if (!isEmbedded) {
+ decorations.push(basePos + tokenStart, style);
+ } else { // Treat group 1 as an embedded block of source code.
+ var embeddedSource = match[1];
+ var embeddedSourceStart = token.indexOf(embeddedSource);
+ var embeddedSourceEnd = embeddedSourceStart + embeddedSource.length;
+ if (match[2]) {
+ // If embeddedSource can be blank, then it would match at the
+ // beginning which would cause us to infinitely recurse on the
+ // entire token, so we catch the right context in match[2].
+ embeddedSourceEnd = token.length - match[2].length;
+ embeddedSourceStart = embeddedSourceEnd - embeddedSource.length;
+ }
+ var lang = style.substring(5);
+ // Decorate the left of the embedded source
+ appendDecorations(
+ basePos + tokenStart,
+ token.substring(0, embeddedSourceStart),
+ decorate, decorations);
+ // Decorate the embedded source
+ appendDecorations(
+ basePos + tokenStart + embeddedSourceStart,
+ embeddedSource,
+ langHandlerForExtension(lang, embeddedSource),
+ decorations);
+ // Decorate the right of the embedded section
+ appendDecorations(
+ basePos + tokenStart + embeddedSourceEnd,
+ token.substring(embeddedSourceEnd),
+ decorate, decorations);
+ }
+ }
+ job.decorations = decorations;
+ };
+ return decorate;
+ }
+
+ /** returns a function that produces a list of decorations from source text.
+ *
+ * This code treats ", ', and ` as string delimiters, and \ as a string
+ * escape. It does not recognize perl's qq() style strings.
+ * It has no special handling for double delimiter escapes as in basic, or
+ * the tripled delimiters used in python, but should work on those regardless
+ * although in those cases a single string literal may be broken up into
+ * multiple adjacent string literals.
+ *
+ * It recognizes C, C++, and shell style comments.
+ *
+ * @param {Object} options a set of optional parameters.
+ * @return {function (Object)} a function that examines the source code
+ * in the input job and builds the decoration list.
+ */
+ function sourceDecorator(options) {
+ var shortcutStylePatterns = [], fallthroughStylePatterns = [];
+ if (options['tripleQuotedStrings']) {
+ // '''multi-line-string''', 'single-line-string', and double-quoted
+ shortcutStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_STRING, /^(?:\'\'\'(?:[^\'\\]|\\[\s\S]|\'{1,2}(?=[^\']))*(?:\'\'\'|$)|\"\"\"(?:[^\"\\]|\\[\s\S]|\"{1,2}(?=[^\"]))*(?:\"\"\"|$)|\'(?:[^\\\']|\\[\s\S])*(?:\'|$)|\"(?:[^\\\"]|\\[\s\S])*(?:\"|$))/,
+ null, '\'"']);
+ } else if (options['multiLineStrings']) {
+ // 'multi-line-string', "multi-line-string"
+ shortcutStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_STRING, /^(?:\'(?:[^\\\']|\\[\s\S])*(?:\'|$)|\"(?:[^\\\"]|\\[\s\S])*(?:\"|$)|\`(?:[^\\\`]|\\[\s\S])*(?:\`|$))/,
+ null, '\'"`']);
+ } else {
+ // 'single-line-string', "single-line-string"
+ shortcutStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_STRING,
+ /^(?:\'(?:[^\\\'\r\n]|\\.)*(?:\'|$)|\"(?:[^\\\"\r\n]|\\.)*(?:\"|$))/,
+ null, '"\'']);
+ }
+ if (options['verbatimStrings']) {
+ // verbatim-string-literal production from the C# grammar. See issue 93.
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_STRING, /^@\"(?:[^\"]|\"\")*(?:\"|$)/, null]);
+ }
+ var hc = options['hashComments'];
+ if (hc) {
+ if (options['cStyleComments']) {
+ if (hc > 1) { // multiline hash comments
+ shortcutStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_COMMENT, /^#(?:##(?:[^#]|#(?!##))*(?:###|$)|.*)/, null, '#']);
+ } else {
+ // Stop C preprocessor declarations at an unclosed open comment
+ shortcutStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_COMMENT, /^#(?:(?:define|e(?:l|nd)if|else|error|ifn?def|include|line|pragma|undef|warning)\b|[^\r\n]*)/,
+ null, '#']);
+ }
+ // #include <stdio.h>
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_STRING,
+ /^<(?:(?:(?:\.\.\/)*|\/?)(?:[\w-]+(?:\/[\w-]+)+)?[\w-]+\.h(?:h|pp|\+\+)?|[a-z]\w*)>/,
+ null]);
+ } else {
+ shortcutStylePatterns.push([PR_COMMENT, /^#[^\r\n]*/, null, '#']);
+ }
+ }
+ if (options['cStyleComments']) {
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push([PR_COMMENT, /^\/\/[^\r\n]*/, null]);
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_COMMENT, /^\/\*[\s\S]*?(?:\*\/|$)/, null]);
+ }
+ var regexLiterals = options['regexLiterals'];
+ if (regexLiterals) {
+ /**
+ * @const
+ */
+ var regexExcls = regexLiterals > 1
+ ? '' // Multiline regex literals
+ : '\n\r';
+ /**
+ * @const
+ */
+ var regexAny = regexExcls ? '.' : '[\\S\\s]';
+ /**
+ * @const
+ */
+ var REGEX_LITERAL = (
+ // A regular expression literal starts with a slash that is
+ // not followed by * or / so that it is not confused with
+ // comments.
+ '/(?=[^/*' + regexExcls + '])'
+ // and then contains any number of raw characters,
+ + '(?:[^/\\x5B\\x5C' + regexExcls + ']'
+ // escape sequences (\x5C),
+ + '|\\x5C' + regexAny
+ // or non-nesting character sets (\x5B\x5D);
+ + '|\\x5B(?:[^\\x5C\\x5D' + regexExcls + ']'
+ + '|\\x5C' + regexAny + ')*(?:\\x5D|$))+'
+ // finally closed by a /.
+ + '/');
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push(
+ ['lang-regex',
+ RegExp('^' + REGEXP_PRECEDER_PATTERN + '(' + REGEX_LITERAL + ')')
+ ]);
+ }
+
+ var types = options['types'];
+ if (types) {
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push([PR_TYPE, types]);
+ }
+
+ var keywords = ("" + options['keywords']).replace(/^ | $/g, '');
+ if (keywords.length) {
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_KEYWORD,
+ new RegExp('^(?:' + keywords.replace(/[\s,]+/g, '|') + ')\\b'),
+ null]);
+ }
+
+ shortcutStylePatterns.push([PR_PLAIN, /^\s+/, null, ' \r\n\t\xA0']);
+
+ var punctuation =
+ // The Bash man page says
+
+ // A word is a sequence of characters considered as a single
+ // unit by GRUB. Words are separated by metacharacters,
+ // which are the following plus space, tab, and newline: { }
+ // | & $ ; < >
+ // ...
+
+ // A word beginning with # causes that word and all remaining
+ // characters on that line to be ignored.
+
+ // which means that only a '#' after /(?:^|[{}|&$;<>\s])/ starts a
+ // comment but empirically
+ // $ echo {#}
+ // {#}
+ // $ echo \$#
+ // $#
+ // $ echo }#
+ // }#
+
+ // so /(?:^|[|&;<>\s])/ is more appropriate.
+
+ // http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-2.95.3/cpp_1.html#SEC3
+ // suggests that this definition is compatible with a
+ // default mode that tries to use a single token definition
+ // to recognize both bash/python style comments and C
+ // preprocessor directives.
+
+ // This definition of punctuation does not include # in the list of
+ // follow-on exclusions, so # will not be broken before if preceeded
+ // by a punctuation character. We could try to exclude # after
+ // [|&;<>] but that doesn't seem to cause many major problems.
+ // If that does turn out to be a problem, we should change the below
+ // when hc is truthy to include # in the run of punctuation characters
+ // only when not followint [|&;<>].
+ '^.[^\\s\\w.$@\'"`/\\\\]*';
+ if (options['regexLiterals']) {
+ punctuation += '(?!\s*\/)';
+ }
+
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push(
+ // TODO(mikesamuel): recognize non-latin letters and numerals in idents
+ [PR_LITERAL, /^@[a-z_$][a-z_$@0-9]*/i, null],
+ [PR_TYPE, /^(?:[@_]?[A-Z]+[a-z][A-Za-z_$@0-9]*|\w+_t\b)/, null],
+ [PR_PLAIN, /^[a-z_$][a-z_$@0-9]*/i, null],
+ [PR_LITERAL,
+ new RegExp(
+ '^(?:'
+ // A hex number
+ + '0x[a-f0-9]+'
+ // or an octal or decimal number,
+ + '|(?:\\d(?:_\\d+)*\\d*(?:\\.\\d*)?|\\.\\d\\+)'
+ // possibly in scientific notation
+ + '(?:e[+\\-]?\\d+)?'
+ + ')'
+ // with an optional modifier like UL for unsigned long
+ + '[a-z]*', 'i'),
+ null, '0123456789'],
+ // Don't treat escaped quotes in bash as starting strings.
+ // See issue 144.
+ [PR_PLAIN, /^\\[\s\S]?/, null],
+ [PR_PUNCTUATION, new RegExp(punctuation), null]);
+
+ return createSimpleLexer(shortcutStylePatterns, fallthroughStylePatterns);
+ }
+
+ var decorateSource = sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': ALL_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': true,
+ 'cStyleComments': true,
+ 'multiLineStrings': true,
+ 'regexLiterals': true
+ });
+
+ include("numberLines.js");
+
+ include("recombineTagsAndDecorations.js");
+
+ /** Maps language-specific file extensions to handlers. */
+ var langHandlerRegistry = {};
+ /** Register a language handler for the given file extensions.
+ * @param {function (Object)} handler a function from source code to a list
+ * of decorations. Takes a single argument job which describes the
+ * state of the computation. The single parameter has the form
+ * {@code {
+ * sourceCode: {string} as plain text.
+ * decorations: {Array.<number|string>} an array of style classes
+ * preceded by the position at which they start in
+ * job.sourceCode in order.
+ * The language handler should assigned this field.
+ * basePos: {int} the position of source in the larger source chunk.
+ * All positions in the output decorations array are relative
+ * to the larger source chunk.
+ * } }
+ * @param {Array.<string>} fileExtensions
+ */
+ function registerLangHandler(handler, fileExtensions) {
+ for (var i = fileExtensions.length; --i >= 0;) {
+ var ext = fileExtensions[i];
+ if (!langHandlerRegistry.hasOwnProperty(ext)) {
+ langHandlerRegistry[ext] = handler;
+ } else if (win['console']) {
+ console['warn']('cannot override language handler %s', ext);
+ }
+ }
+ }
+ function langHandlerForExtension(extension, source) {
+ if (!(extension && langHandlerRegistry.hasOwnProperty(extension))) {
+ // Treat it as markup if the first non whitespace character is a < and
+ // the last non-whitespace character is a >.
+ extension = /^\s*</.test(source)
+ ? 'default-markup'
+ : 'default-code';
+ }
+ return langHandlerRegistry[extension];
+ }
+ registerLangHandler(decorateSource, ['default-code']);
+ registerLangHandler(
+ createSimpleLexer(
+ [],
+ [
+ [PR_PLAIN, /^[^<?]+/],
+ [PR_DECLARATION, /^<!\w[^>]*(?:>|$)/],
+ [PR_COMMENT, /^<\!--[\s\S]*?(?:-\->|$)/],
+ // Unescaped content in an unknown language
+ ['lang-', /^<\?([\s\S]+?)(?:\?>|$)/],
+ ['lang-', /^<%([\s\S]+?)(?:%>|$)/],
+ [PR_PUNCTUATION, /^(?:<[%?]|[%?]>)/],
+ ['lang-', /^<xmp\b[^>]*>([\s\S]+?)<\/xmp\b[^>]*>/i],
+ // Unescaped content in javascript. (Or possibly vbscript).
+ ['lang-js', /^<script\b[^>]*>([\s\S]*?)(<\/script\b[^>]*>)/i],
+ // Contains unescaped stylesheet content
+ ['lang-css', /^<style\b[^>]*>([\s\S]*?)(<\/style\b[^>]*>)/i],
+ ['lang-in.tag', /^(<\/?[a-z][^<>]*>)/i]
+ ]),
+ ['default-markup', 'htm', 'html', 'mxml', 'xhtml', 'xml', 'xsl']);
+ registerLangHandler(
+ createSimpleLexer(
+ [
+ [PR_PLAIN, /^[\s]+/, null, ' \t\r\n'],
+ [PR_ATTRIB_VALUE, /^(?:\"[^\"]*\"?|\'[^\']*\'?)/, null, '\"\'']
+ ],
+ [
+ [PR_TAG, /^^<\/?[a-z](?:[\w.:-]*\w)?|\/?>$/i],
+ [PR_ATTRIB_NAME, /^(?!style[\s=]|on)[a-z](?:[\w:-]*\w)?/i],
+ ['lang-uq.val', /^=\s*([^>\'\"\s]*(?:[^>\'\"\s\/]|\/(?=\s)))/],
+ [PR_PUNCTUATION, /^[=<>\/]+/],
+ ['lang-js', /^on\w+\s*=\s*\"([^\"]+)\"/i],
+ ['lang-js', /^on\w+\s*=\s*\'([^\']+)\'/i],
+ ['lang-js', /^on\w+\s*=\s*([^\"\'>\s]+)/i],
+ ['lang-css', /^style\s*=\s*\"([^\"]+)\"/i],
+ ['lang-css', /^style\s*=\s*\'([^\']+)\'/i],
+ ['lang-css', /^style\s*=\s*([^\"\'>\s]+)/i]
+ ]),
+ ['in.tag']);
+ registerLangHandler(
+ createSimpleLexer([], [[PR_ATTRIB_VALUE, /^[\s\S]+/]]), ['uq.val']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': CPP_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': true,
+ 'cStyleComments': true,
+ 'types': C_TYPES
+ }), ['c', 'cc', 'cpp', 'cxx', 'cyc', 'm']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': 'null,true,false'
+ }), ['json']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': CSHARP_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': true,
+ 'cStyleComments': true,
+ 'verbatimStrings': true,
+ 'types': C_TYPES
+ }), ['cs']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': JAVA_KEYWORDS,
+ 'cStyleComments': true
+ }), ['java']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': SH_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': true,
+ 'multiLineStrings': true
+ }), ['bash', 'bsh', 'csh', 'sh']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': PYTHON_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': true,
+ 'multiLineStrings': true,
+ 'tripleQuotedStrings': true
+ }), ['cv', 'py', 'python']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': PERL_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': true,
+ 'multiLineStrings': true,
+ 'regexLiterals': 2 // multiline regex literals
+ }), ['perl', 'pl', 'pm']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': RUBY_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': true,
+ 'multiLineStrings': true,
+ 'regexLiterals': true
+ }), ['rb', 'ruby']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': JSCRIPT_KEYWORDS,
+ 'cStyleComments': true,
+ 'regexLiterals': true
+ }), ['javascript', 'js']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': COFFEE_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': 3, // ### style block comments
+ 'cStyleComments': true,
+ 'multilineStrings': true,
+ 'tripleQuotedStrings': true,
+ 'regexLiterals': true
+ }), ['coffee']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': RUST_KEYWORDS,
+ 'cStyleComments': true,
+ 'multilineStrings': true
+ }), ['rc', 'rs', 'rust']);
+ registerLangHandler(
+ createSimpleLexer([], [[PR_STRING, /^[\s\S]+/]]), ['regex']);
+
+ function applyDecorator(job) {
+ var opt_langExtension = job.langExtension;
+
+ try {
+ // Extract tags, and convert the source code to plain text.
+ var sourceAndSpans = extractSourceSpans(job.sourceNode, job.pre);
+ /** Plain text. @type {string} */
+ var source = sourceAndSpans.sourceCode;
+ job.sourceCode = source;
+ job.spans = sourceAndSpans.spans;
+ job.basePos = 0;
+
+ // Apply the appropriate language handler
+ langHandlerForExtension(opt_langExtension, source)(job);
+
+ // Integrate the decorations and tags back into the source code,
+ // modifying the sourceNode in place.
+ recombineTagsAndDecorations(job);
+ } catch (e) {
+ if (win['console']) {
+ console['log'](e && e['stack'] || e);
+ }
+ }
+ }
+
+ /**
+ * Pretty print a chunk of code.
+ * @param sourceCodeHtml {string} The HTML to pretty print.
+ * @param opt_langExtension {string} The language name to use.
+ * Typically, a filename extension like 'cpp' or 'java'.
+ * @param opt_numberLines {number|boolean} True to number lines,
+ * or the 1-indexed number of the first line in sourceCodeHtml.
+ */
+ function $prettyPrintOne(sourceCodeHtml, opt_langExtension, opt_numberLines) {
+ var container = document.createElement('div');
+ // This could cause images to load and onload listeners to fire.
+ // E.g. <img onerror="alert(1337)" src="nosuchimage.png">.
+ // We assume that the inner HTML is from a trusted source.
+ // The pre-tag is required for IE8 which strips newlines from innerHTML
+ // when it is injected into a <pre> tag.
+ // http://stackoverflow.com/questions/451486/pre-tag-loses-line-breaks-when-setting-innerhtml-in-ie
+ // http://stackoverflow.com/questions/195363/inserting-a-newline-into-a-pre-tag-ie-javascript
+ container.innerHTML = '<pre>' + sourceCodeHtml + '</pre>';
+ container = container.firstChild;
+ if (opt_numberLines) {
+ numberLines(container, opt_numberLines, true);
+ }
+
+ var job = {
+ langExtension: opt_langExtension,
+ numberLines: opt_numberLines,
+ sourceNode: container,
+ pre: 1
+ };
+ applyDecorator(job);
+ return container.innerHTML;
+ }
+
+ /**
+ * Find all the {@code <pre>} and {@code <code>} tags in the DOM with
+ * {@code class=prettyprint} and prettify them.
+ *
+ * @param {Function} opt_whenDone called when prettifying is done.
+ * @param {HTMLElement|HTMLDocument} opt_root an element or document
+ * containing all the elements to pretty print.
+ * Defaults to {@code document.body}.
+ */
+ function $prettyPrint(opt_whenDone, opt_root) {
+ var root = opt_root || document.body;
+ var doc = root.ownerDocument || document;
+ function byTagName(tn) { return root.getElementsByTagName(tn); }
+ // fetch a list of nodes to rewrite
+ var codeSegments = [byTagName('pre'), byTagName('code'), byTagName('xmp')];
+ var elements = [];
+ for (var i = 0; i < codeSegments.length; ++i) {
+ for (var j = 0, n = codeSegments[i].length; j < n; ++j) {
+ elements.push(codeSegments[i][j]);
+ }
+ }
+ codeSegments = null;
+
+ var clock = Date;
+ if (!clock['now']) {
+ clock = { 'now': function () { return +(new Date); } };
+ }
+
+ // The loop is broken into a series of continuations to make sure that we
+ // don't make the browser unresponsive when rewriting a large page.
+ var k = 0;
+ var prettyPrintingJob;
+
+ var langExtensionRe = /\blang(?:uage)?-([\w.]+)(?!\S)/;
+ var prettyPrintRe = /\bprettyprint\b/;
+ var prettyPrintedRe = /\bprettyprinted\b/;
+ var preformattedTagNameRe = /pre|xmp/i;
+ var codeRe = /^code$/i;
+ var preCodeXmpRe = /^(?:pre|code|xmp)$/i;
+ var EMPTY = {};
+
+ function doWork() {
+ var endTime = (win['PR_SHOULD_USE_CONTINUATION'] ?
+ clock['now']() + 250 /* ms */ :
+ Infinity);
+ for (; k < elements.length && clock['now']() < endTime; k++) {
+ var cs = elements[k];
+
+ // Look for a preceding comment like
+ // <?prettify lang="..." linenums="..."?>
+ var attrs = EMPTY;
+ {
+ for (var preceder = cs; (preceder = preceder.previousSibling);) {
+ var nt = preceder.nodeType;
+ // <?foo?> is parsed by HTML 5 to a comment node (8)
+ // like <!--?foo?-->, but in XML is a processing instruction
+ var value = (nt === 7 || nt === 8) && preceder.nodeValue;
+ if (value
+ ? !/^\??prettify\b/.test(value)
+ : (nt !== 3 || /\S/.test(preceder.nodeValue))) {
+ // Skip over white-space text nodes but not others.
+ break;
+ }
+ if (value) {
+ attrs = {};
+ value.replace(
+ /\b(\w+)=([\w:.%+-]+)/g,
+ function (_, name, value) { attrs[name] = value; });
+ break;
+ }
+ }
+ }
+
+ var className = cs.className;
+ if ((attrs !== EMPTY || prettyPrintRe.test(className))
+ // Don't redo this if we've already done it.
+ // This allows recalling pretty print to just prettyprint elements
+ // that have been added to the page since last call.
+ && !prettyPrintedRe.test(className)) {
+
+ // make sure this is not nested in an already prettified element
+ var nested = false;
+ for (var p = cs.parentNode; p; p = p.parentNode) {
+ var tn = p.tagName;
+ if (preCodeXmpRe.test(tn)
+ && p.className && prettyPrintRe.test(p.className)) {
+ nested = true;
+ break;
+ }
+ }
+ if (!nested) {
+ // Mark done. If we fail to prettyprint for whatever reason,
+ // we shouldn't try again.
+ cs.className += ' prettyprinted';
+
+ // If the classes includes a language extensions, use it.
+ // Language extensions can be specified like
+ // <pre class="prettyprint lang-cpp">
+ // the language extension "cpp" is used to find a language handler
+ // as passed to PR.registerLangHandler.
+ // HTML5 recommends that a language be specified using "language-"
+ // as the prefix instead. Google Code Prettify supports both.
+ // http://dev.w3.org/html5/spec-author-view/the-code-element.html
+ var langExtension = attrs['lang'];
+ if (!langExtension) {
+ langExtension = className.match(langExtensionRe);
+ // Support <pre class="prettyprint"><code class="language-c">
+ var wrapper;
+ if (!langExtension && (wrapper = childContentWrapper(cs))
+ && codeRe.test(wrapper.tagName)) {
+ langExtension = wrapper.className.match(langExtensionRe);
+ }
+
+ if (langExtension) { langExtension = langExtension[1]; }
+ }
+
+ var preformatted;
+ if (preformattedTagNameRe.test(cs.tagName)) {
+ preformatted = 1;
+ } else {
+ var currentStyle = cs['currentStyle'];
+ var defaultView = doc.defaultView;
+ var whitespace = (
+ currentStyle
+ ? currentStyle['whiteSpace']
+ : (defaultView
+ && defaultView.getComputedStyle)
+ ? defaultView.getComputedStyle(cs, null)
+ .getPropertyValue('white-space')
+ : 0);
+ preformatted = whitespace
+ && 'pre' === whitespace.substring(0, 3);
+ }
+
+ // Look for a class like linenums or linenums:<n> where <n> is the
+ // 1-indexed number of the first line.
+ var lineNums = attrs['linenums'];
+ if (!(lineNums = lineNums === 'true' || +lineNums)) {
+ lineNums = className.match(/\blinenums\b(?::(\d+))?/);
+ lineNums =
+ lineNums
+ ? lineNums[1] && lineNums[1].length
+ ? +lineNums[1] : true
+ : false;
+ }
+ if (lineNums) { numberLines(cs, lineNums, preformatted); }
+
+ // do the pretty printing
+ prettyPrintingJob = {
+ langExtension: langExtension,
+ sourceNode: cs,
+ numberLines: lineNums,
+ pre: preformatted
+ };
+ applyDecorator(prettyPrintingJob);
+ }
+ }
+ }
+ if (k < elements.length) {
+ // finish up in a continuation
+ setTimeout(doWork, 250);
+ } else if ('function' === typeof opt_whenDone) {
+ opt_whenDone();
+ }
+ }
+
+ doWork();
+ }
+
+ /**
+ * Contains functions for creating and registering new language handlers.
+ * @type {Object}
+ */
+ var PR = win['PR'] = {
+ 'createSimpleLexer': createSimpleLexer,
+ 'registerLangHandler': registerLangHandler,
+ 'sourceDecorator': sourceDecorator,
+ 'PR_ATTRIB_NAME': PR_ATTRIB_NAME,
+ 'PR_ATTRIB_VALUE': PR_ATTRIB_VALUE,
+ 'PR_COMMENT': PR_COMMENT,
+ 'PR_DECLARATION': PR_DECLARATION,
+ 'PR_KEYWORD': PR_KEYWORD,
+ 'PR_LITERAL': PR_LITERAL,
+ 'PR_NOCODE': PR_NOCODE,
+ 'PR_PLAIN': PR_PLAIN,
+ 'PR_PUNCTUATION': PR_PUNCTUATION,
+ 'PR_SOURCE': PR_SOURCE,
+ 'PR_STRING': PR_STRING,
+ 'PR_TAG': PR_TAG,
+ 'PR_TYPE': PR_TYPE,
+ 'prettyPrintOne':
+ IN_GLOBAL_SCOPE
+ ? (win['prettyPrintOne'] = $prettyPrintOne)
+ : (prettyPrintOne = $prettyPrintOne),
+ 'prettyPrint': prettyPrint =
+ IN_GLOBAL_SCOPE
+ ? (win['prettyPrint'] = $prettyPrint)
+ : (prettyPrint = $prettyPrint)
+ };
+
+ // Make PR available via the Asynchronous Module Definition (AMD) API.
+ // Per https://github.com/amdjs/amdjs-api/wiki/AMD:
+ // The Asynchronous Module Definition (AMD) API specifies a
+ // mechanism for defining modules such that the module and its
+ // dependencies can be asynchronously loaded.
+ // ...
+ // To allow a clear indicator that a global define function (as
+ // needed for script src browser loading) conforms to the AMD API,
+ // any global define function SHOULD have a property called "amd"
+ // whose value is an object. This helps avoid conflict with any
+ // other existing JavaScript code that could have defined a define()
+ // function that does not conform to the AMD API.
+ if (typeof define === "function" && define['amd']) {
+ define("google-code-prettify", [], function () {
+ return PR;
+ });
+ }
+})();
diff --git a/docs/static/js/scripts.js b/docs/static/js/scripts.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ebfc15
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/js/scripts.js
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+//<![CDATA[
+ $(window).load(function() { // makes sure the whole site is loaded
+// $('#status').fadeOut(); // will first fade out the loading animation
+// $('#preloader').delay(150).fadeOut('fast'); // will fade out the white DIV that covers the website.
+ $('body').delay(100).css({'overflow':'visible'});
+ })
+//]]]]><![CDATA[>
+
+ !function ($) {
+ $(function(){
+ window.prettyPrint && prettyPrint()
+ })
+ }(window.jQuery)
+
+ (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){
+ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o),
+ m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m)
+ })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga');
+
+ ga('create', 'UA-XXXXXXXX-X', 'auto');
+ ga('send', 'pageview');
+
diff --git a/docs/static/js/spaceg.stylesheets.min.js b/docs/static/js/spaceg.stylesheets.min.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f644731
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/js/spaceg.stylesheets.min.js
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+/*!
+ Top spaceg.stylesheets.min.js js for my Blog!
+ spaceg.github.io by Lucas Gatsas.
+ */
+ /* New Update Mo. 2 Feb. 2015 -02:33:45*/
+/* New Update Fr. 6 Feb. 2015 -01:57:13 */
+/* New Update Sa. 21. February. 2015 -02:58:16*/
+/* New Update Fr. 27. February. 2015 -21:53:19*/
+
+
+/* New Update Mo. 09. April. 2015 -15:39:28*/
+
+
+
+
+$(function(){$("[data-toggle='tooltip']").tooltip()}),$(function(){$("input,textarea").jqBootstrapValidation({preventSubmit:!0,submitError:function(){},submitSuccess:function(a,b){b.preventDefault();var c=$("input#name").val(),d=$("input#email").val(),e=$("input#phone").val(),f=$("textarea#message").val(),g=c;g.indexOf(" ")>=0&&(g=c.split(" ").slice(0,-1).join(" ")),$.ajax({url:"././mail/contact_me.php",type:"POST",data:{name:c,phone:e,email:d,message:f},cache:!1,success:function(){$("#success").html("<div class='alert alert-success'>"),$("#success > .alert-success").html("<button type='button' class='close' data-dismiss='alert' aria-hidden='true'>×").append("</button>"),$("#success > .alert-success").append("<strong>Your message has been sent. </strong>"),$("#success > .alert-success").append("</div>"),$("#contactForm").trigger("reset")},error:function(){$("#success").html("<div class='alert alert-danger'>"),$("#success > .alert-danger").html("<button type='button' class='close' data-dismiss='alert' aria-hidden='true'>×").append("</button>"),$("#success > .alert-danger").append("<strong>Sorry "+g+", it seems that my mail server is not responding. Please try again later!"),$("#success > .alert-danger").append("</div>"),$("#contactForm").trigger("reset")}})},filter:function(){return $(this).is(":visible")}}),$('a[data-toggle="tab"]').click(function(a){a.preventDefault(),$(this).tab("show")})}),$("#name").focus(function(){$("#success").html("")}),function(a){function b(a){return new RegExp("^"+a+"$")}function c(a,b){for(var c=Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments).splice(2),d=a.split("."),e=d.pop(),f=0;f<d.length;f++)b=b[d[f]];return b[e].apply(this,c)}var d=[],e={options:{prependExistingHelpBlock:!1,sniffHtml:!0,preventSubmit:!0,submitError:!1,submitSuccess:!1,semanticallyStrict:!1,autoAdd:{helpBlocks:!0},filter:function(){return!0}},methods:{init:function(b){var c=a.extend(!0,{},e);c.options=a.extend(!0,c.options,b);var h=this,i=a.unique(h.map(function(){return a(this).parents("form")[0]}).toArray());return a(i).bind("submit",function(b){var d=a(this),e=0,f=d.find("input,textarea,select").not("[type=submit],[type=image]").filter(c.options.filter);f.trigger("submit.validation").trigger("validationLostFocus.validation"),f.each(function(b,c){var d=a(c),f=d.parents(".form-group").first();f.hasClass("warning")&&(f.removeClass("warning").addClass("error"),e++)}),f.trigger("validationLostFocus.validation"),e?(c.options.preventSubmit&&b.preventDefault(),d.addClass("error"),a.isFunction(c.options.submitError)&&c.options.submitError(d,b,f.jqBootstrapValidation("collectErrors",!0))):(d.removeClass("error"),a.isFunction(c.options.submitSuccess)&&c.options.submitSuccess(d,b))}),this.each(function(){var b=a(this),e=b.parents(".form-group").first(),h=e.find(".help-block").first(),i=b.parents("form").first(),j=[];if(!h.length&&c.options.autoAdd&&c.options.autoAdd.helpBlocks&&(h=a('<div class="help-block" />'),e.find(".controls").append(h),d.push(h[0])),c.options.sniffHtml){var k="";if(void 0!==b.attr("pattern")&&(k="Not in the expected format<!-- data-validation-pattern-message to override -->",b.data("validationPatternMessage")&&(k=b.data("validationPatternMessage")),b.data("validationPatternMessage",k),b.data("validationPatternRegex",b.attr("pattern"))),void 0!==b.attr("max")||void 0!==b.attr("aria-valuemax")){var l=b.attr(void 0!==b.attr("max")?"max":"aria-valuemax");k="Too high: Maximum of '"+l+"'<!-- data-validation-max-message to override -->",b.data("validationMaxMessage")&&(k=b.data("validationMaxMessage")),b.data("validationMaxMessage",k),b.data("validationMaxMax",l)}if(void 0!==b.attr("min")||void 0!==b.attr("aria-valuemin")){var m=b.attr(void 0!==b.attr("min")?"min":"aria-valuemin");k="Too low: Minimum of '"+m+"'<!-- data-validation-min-message to override -->",b.data("validationMinMessage")&&(k=b.data("validationMinMessage")),b.data("validationMinMessage",k),b.data("validationMinMin",m)}void 0!==b.attr("maxlength")&&(k="Too long: Maximum of '"+b.attr("maxlength")+"' characters<!-- data-validation-maxlength-message to override -->",b.data("validationMaxlengthMessage")&&(k=b.data("validationMaxlengthMessage")),b.data("validationMaxlengthMessage",k),b.data("validationMaxlengthMaxlength",b.attr("maxlength"))),void 0!==b.attr("minlength")&&(k="Too short: Minimum of '"+b.attr("minlength")+"' characters<!-- data-validation-minlength-message to override -->",b.data("validationMinlengthMessage")&&(k=b.data("validationMinlengthMessage")),b.data("validationMinlengthMessage",k),b.data("validationMinlengthMinlength",b.attr("minlength"))),(void 0!==b.attr("required")||void 0!==b.attr("aria-required"))&&(k=c.builtInValidators.required.message,b.data("validationRequiredMessage")&&(k=b.data("validationRequiredMessage")),b.data("validationRequiredMessage",k)),void 0!==b.attr("type")&&"number"===b.attr("type").toLowerCase()&&(k=c.builtInValidators.number.message,b.data("validationNumberMessage")&&(k=b.data("validationNumberMessage")),b.data("validationNumberMessage",k)),void 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+
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+/*test*/
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diff --git a/docs/static/raw/MidtermSp14.hs b/docs/static/raw/MidtermSp14.hs
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@@ -0,0 +1,112 @@
+-- | Midterm Sp14
+
+module MidetermSp14 where
+
+import Prelude hiding (sum, lookup)
+
+-- Problem 1
+ans1a :: Int
+ans1a =
+ let x = 10 in
+ let f y z = x + y + z in
+ let x = 100 in
+ let h = f 5 in
+ h x
+
+chain :: [t -> t] -> t -> t
+chain [] = \x -> x
+chain (f:fs) = \x -> f (chain fs x)
+
+ans1c :: Int
+ans1c = chain [ \x -> x * x
+ , \x -> 16 * x
+ , \x -> x + 1
+ ] 1
+
+data Tree a
+ = Leaf
+ | Node a (Tree a) (Tree a)
+
+ans0 :: Tree Int
+ans0 = Node 2 (Node 1 Leaf Leaf) (Node 3 Leaf Leaf)
+
+flerb :: [a] -> Tree a
+flerb [] = Leaf
+flerb (x:xs) = Node x Leaf (flerb xs)
+
+ans1f = flerb [0, 1, 2]
+
+glub :: (t -> a) -> Tree t -> Tree a
+glub f Leaf = Leaf
+glub f (Node x l r) = Node (f x) (glub f l) (glub f r)
+
+ans1h :: Tree Int
+ans1h = glub (\x -> 2 * x) ans0
+
+-- Problem 2
+sum :: Int -> Int
+sum 0 = 0
+sum n = n + sum (n - 1)
+
+fac :: Int -> Int
+fac 0 = 1
+fac n = n * fac (n - 1)
+
+sumTR n = helper 0 n
+ where
+ helper :: Int -> Int -> Int
+ helper acc 0 = acc
+ helper acc n = helper (acc + n) (n - 1)
+
+facTR n = helper 1 n
+ where
+ helper :: Int -> Int -> Int
+ helper acc 0 = acc
+ helper acc n = helper (acc * n) (n - 1)
+
+foldn :: (a -> Int -> a) -> a -> Int -> a
+foldn f b n = helper b n
+ where
+ helper acc 0 = acc
+ helper acc n = helper (f acc n) (n - 1)
+
+sum' = foldn (\a n -> a + n) 0
+fac' = foldn (\a n -> a * n) 1
+
+-- Problem 3
+data Option a = None | Some a
+
+-- TODO What _is_ the type of this function?
+safeDiv :: (Eq a, Fractional a) => a -> a -> Option a
+safeDiv num 0 = None
+safeDiv num den = Some (num / den)
+
+lookup :: Eq a => a -> [(a,b)] -> Option b
+lookup k [] = None
+lookup k ((k',v):kvs) = if k == k' then Some v else lookup k kvs
+
+lift1 :: (a -> b) -> Option a -> Option b
+lift1 f None = None
+lift1 f (Some x) = Some (f x)
+
+lift2 :: (a -> b -> c) -> Option a -> Option b -> Option c
+lift2 f None _ = None
+lift2 f _ None = None
+lift2 f (Some x) (Some y) = Some (f x y)
+
+-- Alternatively:
+lift2' :: (a -> b -> c) -> Option a -> Option b -> Option c
+lift2' f None _ = None
+lift2' f (Some x) y = lift1 (f x) y
+
+data Expr
+ = Var String
+ | Con Int
+ | Neg Expr
+ | Plus Expr Expr
+
+eval :: [(String, Int)] -> Expr -> Option Int
+eval env (Var x) = lookup x env
+eval env (Con i) = Some i
+eval env (Neg e) = lift1 (\x -> -x) (eval env e)
+eval env (Plus e1 e2) = lift2 (+) (eval env e1) (eval env e2)
diff --git a/docs/static/raw/MidtermSp15.hs b/docs/static/raw/MidtermSp15.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b1e6908
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/raw/MidtermSp15.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,128 @@
+-- | Midterm Sp15
+
+module MidetermSp15 where
+
+-- Problem 1
+ans1a :: [Int]
+ans1a =
+ let x = 0 in
+ let a1 = let x = 1 in
+ \y z -> [x, y, z]
+ in
+ let a2 = let x = 100 in
+ a1 x
+ in
+ a2 x
+
+data Tree a = Leaf
+ | Node a (Tree a) (Tree a)
+
+fold :: (a -> b -> b -> b) -> b -> Tree a -> b
+fold f b Leaf = b
+fold f b (Node x l r) = f x (fold f b l) (fold f b r)
+
+t0 :: Tree String
+t0 = Node "cat" (Node "dog" Leaf Leaf) (Node "hippo" Leaf Leaf)
+
+-- ans1b =
+-- let f = (\_ vl vr -> 1 + vl + vr)
+-- in fold f 0 t
+
+ans1c :: String
+ans1c =
+ let f = (\x vl vr -> vl ++ x ++ vr)
+ in fold f "" t0
+
+data Option a = None | Some a
+
+find :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> Option a
+find f [] = None
+find f (x:xs') = if f x then
+ Some x
+ else
+ find f xs'
+
+xs0 :: [Int]
+xs0 = [2, 4, 8, 16, 32]
+
+ans1d :: Option Int
+ans1d = let f x = x > 10 in find f xs0
+
+ans1e :: Option Int
+ans1e = let f x = (x `mod` 2) == 1 in
+ find f xs0
+
+-- Problem 2
+data Set a = Set [a]
+
+empty :: Show a => Set a
+empty = Set []
+
+member :: Eq a => a -> Set a -> Bool
+member x (Set []) = False
+member x (Set (x':xs)) = (x' == x) || member x (Set xs) -- TODO Do they know `||`?
+
+add :: a -> Set a -> Set a
+add x s = case s of
+ Set xs -> Set (x:xs)
+
+union :: Set a -> Set a -> Set a
+union s1 (Set x2s) = foldl (\s x -> add x s) s1 x2s
+
+del :: Eq a => a -> Set a -> Set a
+del x (Set xs) = Set (filter (\y -> y /= x) xs)
+
+s0 = empty
+s1 = add 1 s0
+s2 = add 2 s1
+s3 = union s1 s2
+s4 = del 1 s3
+
+-- Problem 3
+data Binop = Plus
+ deriving Show
+
+data Expr
+ = Const Int
+ | Var String
+ | Bin Expr Binop Expr
+ | Let String Expr Expr
+ | App Expr Expr
+ | Fun String Expr
+ deriving Show
+
+e1 :: Expr
+e1 = Bin (Const 1) Plus (Const 2)
+
+e2 :: Expr
+e2 = Let "x" (Const 1)
+ (Let "y" (Const 2)
+ (Bin (Var "x") Plus (Var "y")))
+
+e3 :: Expr
+e3 = Let "x" (Const 10)
+ (App (Fun "y" (Bin (Var "x") Plus (Var "y"))) -- TODO There was a typo here in the exam I think?
+ (Var "x"))
+
+e1' :: Expr
+e1' = Bin (Const 1) Plus (Var "x")
+
+e2' :: Expr
+e2' = Let "y" (Const 2)
+ (Bin (Var "x") Plus (Var "y"))
+
+e3' :: Expr
+e3' = App (Let "z" (Const 10) (Fun "y" (Bin (Var "y") Plus (Var "z")))) (Var "z")
+
+free :: Expr -> Set String
+free (Var x) = Set ["x"]
+free (Const n) = Set []
+free (Bin e1 op e2) = union (free e1) (free e2)
+free (App e1 e2) = union (free e1) (free e2)
+free (Let x e1 e2) = union (free e1) (del x (free e2))
+free (Fun x e1) = del x (free e1)
+
+isWellFormed :: Expr -> Bool
+isWellFormed e = case free e of
+ Set [] -> True
+ _ -> False
diff --git a/docs/static/raw/Pepper_Canyon_106_groups.pdf b/docs/static/raw/Pepper_Canyon_106_groups.pdf
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diff --git a/docs/static/raw/code-4-7.lc b/docs/static/raw/code-4-7.lc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..42a5b66
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/raw/code-4-7.lc
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+eval id :
+(\x -> x) ORANGE
+ =b> ORANGE
+
+eval bizzorra :
+ (\f -> f (\x1 -> x1)) (\x2 -> x2)
+-- ^ formal ^^^^^^^^^^^^ body ^^^^^^^^^^ arg
+ =b> (\x2 -> x2) (\x1 -> x1)
+-- ^ formal ^ body ^^^^^^^^^^ arg
+ =b> \x1 -> x1
+
+eval loop :
+ (\x -> x x) (\y -> y y)
+-- ^ formal ^^^ body ^^^^^^^^^^ arg
+ =b> (\y -> y y) (\y -> y y)
+ =a> (\x -> x x) (\y -> y y)
+
+-- e := x | \x -> e | (e1 e2)
+-- REDEX
+--
+-- (\x -> e1) e2
+--
+-- =b> e1[x := e2]
+
+eval example1:
+ (\x -> x) (\f -> f TGIF)
+ =a> (\x -> x) (\f -> f TGIF)
+ =b> (\f -> f TGIF)
+
+
+eval this_example :
+ (\x -> (\x -> x)) TGIF
+ =a> (\x1 -> (\x2 -> x2)) TGIF
+ =b> (\x2 -> x2)
+
+-- function(x){
+-- return function(x) { return x}
+-- }(TGIF)
+
+eval that_example :
+ (\x -> (\y -> x)) y
+ =a> (\x1 -> (\y1 -> x1)) y
+ =b> (\y1 -> y)
+
+-- function(x){
+-- return function(y){ return x}
+-- }( y )
+
+eval whatever1 :
+ (\x y -> (\x y -> x) y x)
+=a> (\x y -> (\x1 y1 -> x1) y x)
+=b> (\x y -> (\y1 -> y) x)
+=b> (\x y -> y)
+
+-- function(x1){
+-- return function(y1){ return x1}
+-- }( y )
+
+-- When we write
+-- \x -> x (\x -> x) x
+-- we actually mean
+-- (\x -> ((x (\x -> x)) x))
+-- that is to say
+-- (\x1 -> ((x1 (\x2 -> x2)) x1))
diff --git a/docs/static/raw/cow.txt b/docs/static/raw/cow.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..351c221
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/raw/cow.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+ \ ^__^
+ \ (oo)\_______
+ (__)\ )\/\
+ ||----w |
+ || ||
+
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diff --git a/docs/static/raw/intro.pl b/docs/static/raw/intro.pl
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aea921d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/raw/intro.pl
@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
+isMexican(carnitas).
+isDelicious(X) :- isMexican(X).
+
+hasType(t,bool).
+hasType(f,bool).
+hasType(num, int).
+hasType(add(X,Y),int) :- hasType(X,int), hasType(Y, int).
+
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%%
+%% Family %%
+%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+parent(kim, holly).
+parent(margaret, kim).
+parent(herbert, margaret).
+parent(john, kim).
+parent(felix, john).
+parent(albert, felix).
+parent(albert, dana).
+parent(felix, maya).
+
+grandparent(GP, GC) :- parent(GP, P), parent(P, GC).
+greatgrandparent(GGP, GC) :- parent(GGP, GP), grandparent(GP, GC).
+
+has_family(X) :- parent(X, _).
+has_family(X) :- parent(_, X).
+
+ancestor(A,X) :- parent(P,X),ancestor(A,P).
+ancestor(A,X) :- parent(A,X).
+
+sibling(X, Y) :- parent(P,X), parent(P,Y), not(X = Y).
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+%% Arithmetic %%
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+% A
+% addP(X, Y) :- _ is X + Y.
+
+% B
+addP(X, Y, Z) :- Z is X + Y.
+
+% C
+% addP(X, Y, X + Y).
+
+% D
+% addP(X, Y) :- X + Y.
+
+% E
+% addP(X, Y, Z) :- X + Y is Z.
+
+fib(0,1).
+fib(1,1).
+fib(N,R) :- N > 1
+ , N1 is N - 1
+ , N2 is N - 2
+ , fib(N1,R1)
+ , fib(N2,R2)
+ , R is R1 + R2.
+
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%
+%% Lists %%
+%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+
+headOf([H|_],H).
+tailOf([_|T],T).
+
+
+isIn(X,[X|_]).
+isIn(X,[_|T]) :- isIn(X,T).
+
+sum([],0).
+sum([H|T],R) :- sum(T,R1), R is H + R1.
+
+append([],Ys,Ys).
+append([H|T],Ys,[H|Zs]) :- append(T,Ys,Zs).
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+%% Farmer, Wolf, Goat, Cabbage %%
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+change(east,west).
+change(west,east).
+
+move([X,X,P_Goat,P_Cab], move_wolf, [Y,Y,P_Goat,P_Cab]) :- change(X,Y).
+move([X,P_Wolf,X,P_Cab], move_goat, [Y,P_Wolf,Y,P_Cab]) :- change(X,Y).
+move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,X], move_cabbage,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,Y]) :- change(X,Y).
+move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cab],move_nothing,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cab]) :- change(X,Y).
+
+safe([P_Farmer,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cab]) :-
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Wolf,P_Goat),
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Goat,P_Cab).
+
+one_equal(X,X,_).
+one_equal(X,_,X).
+
+solution([east,east,east,east],[]).
+solution(State,[FirstMove|RemainingMoves]) :-
+ move(State,FirstMove,NextState),
+ safe(NextState),
+ solution(NextState,RemainingMoves).
+
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diff --git a/docs/static/raw/lec_1_12_21.lc b/docs/static/raw/lec_1_12_21.lc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5db79f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/raw/lec_1_12_21.lc
@@ -0,0 +1,117 @@
+
+let ID = (\x -> x)
+let FIRST = \x1 x2 x3 -> x1 -- (\x1 -> (\x2 -> (\x3 -> x1)))
+let SECOND = \x1 x2 x3 -> x2 -- (\x1 -> (\x2 -> (\x3 -> x2)))
+let THIRD = \x1 x2 x3 -> x3 -- (\x1 -> (\x2 -> (\x3 -> x3)))
+
+let TRUE = (\x -> (\y -> x))
+let FALSE = (\x -> (\y -> y))
+let ITE = (\b -> (\x -> (\y -> ((b x) y))))
+
+let NOT = \b -> ITE b FALSE TRUE
+let AND = \b1 b2 -> ITE b1 b2 FALSE
+let OR = \b1 b2 -> ITE b1 TRUE b2
+
+--
+eval not_false:
+ NOT FALSE
+ =d> (\b -> ITE b FALSE TRUE) FALSE
+ =b> ITE FALSE FALSE TRUE
+ -- =d> ((((\b -> (\x -> (\y -> ((b x) y)))) FALSE) FALSE) TRUE)
+ -- =*> ((FALSE FALSE) TRUE)
+ -- =d> ((((\x -> (\y -> y))) FALSE) TRUE)
+ -- =b> (\y -> y) TRUE
+ =*> TRUE
+
+eval and_t_t :
+ AND TRUE TRUE
+ =d> (\b1 b2 -> ITE b1 b2 FALSE) TRUE TRUE
+ =*> ITE TRUE TRUE FALSE
+ =*> TRUE
+
+eval and_t_f :
+ AND TRUE FALSE
+ =d> (\b1 b2 -> ITE b1 b2 FALSE) TRUE FALSE
+ =*> ITE TRUE FALSE FALSE
+ =*> FALSE
+
+
+eval ite_true:
+ ITE TRUE xxx yyy
+ =d> (\b x y -> b x y) TRUE xxx yyy
+ =*> TRUE xxx yyy
+ =d> (\x -> (\y -> x)) xxx yyy
+ =b> (\y -> xxx) yyy
+ =b> xxx
+
+eval ite_true:
+ ITE FALSE xxx yyy
+ =d> (\b x y -> b x y) FALSE xxx yyy
+ =*> FALSE xxx yyy
+ =d> (\x -> (\y -> y)) xxx yyy
+ =b> (\y -> y) yyy
+ =b> yyy
+
+eval and_f_t :
+ AND FALSE TRUE
+ =d> (\b1 b2 -> ITE b1 b2 FALSE) FALSE TRUE
+ =*> ITE FALSE TRUE FALSE
+ =*> FALSE
+
+
+
+
+
+eval ex_true:
+ (((ITE TRUE) apple) banana)
+ =d> ((((\b -> (\x -> (\y -> ((b x) y)))) TRUE) apple) banana)
+ =*> ((TRUE apple) banana)
+ =*> (\x y -> x) apple banana
+ =*> apple
+
+eval ex_false:
+ (((ITE FALSE) apple) banana)
+ =d> ((((\b -> (\x -> (\y -> ((b x) y)))) FALSE) apple) banana)
+ =*> ((FALSE apple) banana)
+ =*> (\x y -> y) apple banana
+ =*> banana
+
+
+
+eval ex_first:
+ (((FIRST apple) banana) orange)
+ =d>((((\x1 -> (\x2 -> (\x3 -> x1))) apple) banana) orange)
+ =b> (((\x2 -> (\x3 -> apple)) banana) orange)
+ =b> (\x3 -> apple) orange
+ =b> apple
+
+
+eval ex_second:
+ (((SECOND apple) banana) orange)
+ =d> ((((\x1 -> (\x2 -> (\x3 -> x2))) apple) banana) orange)
+ =b> (((((\x2 -> (\x3 -> x2)))) banana) orange)
+ =b> ((((((\x3 -> banana))))) orange)
+ =b> ((((((banana))))) )
+
+
+
+
+eval tricky :
+ ((\x -> (\y -> x)) y)
+ =a> ((\x -> (\z -> x)) y)
+ =a> ((\tue -> (\z -> tue)) y)
+ =b> (\z -> y)
+
+eval id_apple :
+ ID apple
+ =d> (\x -> x) apple
+ =b> apple
+
+eval ex1 :
+
+ ((\f -> (f ID)) ID)
+ =d> ((\f -> (f (\x -> x))) (\x -> x))
+ =a> ((\f -> (f (\x -> x))) (\y -> y))
+ =b> ((\y -> y) (\x -> x))
+ =b> (\x -> x)
+
diff --git a/docs/static/raw/lec_1_7_21.txt b/docs/static/raw/lec_1_7_21.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ed16eba
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/raw/lec_1_7_21.txt
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+(\y -> y) ]
diff --git a/docs/static/raw/lec_4_10_2019.lc b/docs/static/raw/lec_4_10_2019.lc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..db59c70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/raw/lec_4_10_2019.lc
@@ -0,0 +1,224 @@
+
+let MICKEYMOUSE = (\x -> x)
+let FUNKY = \y -> y y
+
+let TRUE = \x y -> x
+let FALSE = \x y -> y
+let IF = \b stuff other -> b stuff other
+let NOT = \b -> IF b FALSE TRUE
+let AND = \b1 b2 -> IF b1 b2 FALSE
+let OR = \b1 b2 -> IF b1 TRUE b2
+let FIX = \stp -> (\x -> stp (x x)) (\x -> stp (x x))
+
+let PACK = \v1 v2 -> (\choice -> IF choice v1 v2)
+let FST = \box -> box TRUE
+let SND = \box -> box FALSE
+
+let TODO = \x -> x
+
+-- let PACK3 = \v1 v2 v3 -> (\c1 c2 -> IF c1 v1 (IF c2 v2 v3))
+-- let FST3 = \t -> t TRUE TRUE
+-- let SND3 = \t -> t FALSE TRUE
+-- let THD3 = \t -> t FALSE FALSE
+
+let PACK3 = \v1 v2 v3 -> PACK (PACK v1 v2) v3
+let FST3 = \t -> FST (FST t)
+let SND3 = \t -> SND (FST t)
+let THD3 = \t -> SND t
+
+let PACK4 = \v1 v2 v3 v4 sel -> sel v1 v2 v3 v4
+let F1 = \v1 v2 v3 v4 -> v1
+let F2 = \v1 v2 v3 v4 -> v2
+let F3 = \v1 v2 v3 v4 -> v3
+let F4 = \v1 v2 v3 v4 -> v4
+
+
+let ZERO = \f x -> x
+let ONE = \f x -> f x
+let TWO = \f x -> f (f x)
+let THREE = \f x -> f (f (f x))
+let FOUR = \f x -> f (f (f (f x)))
+let SIX = \f x -> f (f (f (f (f (f x)))))
+
+-- n f x == f (f( ... (f x))) -- n times
+
+let INC = \n -> (\f x -> f (n f x))
+
+let ADD = \n m -> n INC m
+let MUL = \n m -> n (ADD m) ZERO
+let ISZ = \t o b e d o n e -> e
+let DEC = \t o b e d o n e -> e
+
+-- let SUM = \n -> 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n
+let SUM_HELPER = \callme -> \n -> IF (ISZ n) ZERO (ADD n (callme (DEC n)))
+let FIX = \step -> (\x -> step (x x)) (\x -> step (x x))
+let SUM = FIX SUM_HELPER
+
+eval sum0:
+ SUM THREE
+ =~> SIX
+
+
+eval mul0:
+ MUL TWO TWO
+ =~> FOUR
+
+
+eval add0:
+ ADD TWO ONE
+ =*> THREE
+
+
+eval pack4:
+ (PACK4 JOHN PAUL GEORGE RINGO) F2
+ -- =*> (\sel -> sel JOHN PAUL GEORGE RINGO) F1
+ -- =b> (F1 JOHN PAUL GEORGE RINGO)
+ -- =d> ((\v1 v2 v3 v4 -> v1) JOHN PAUL GEORGE RINGO)
+ =*> PAUL
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+eval inc0:
+ INC (INC ZERO)
+ =*> TWO
+
+
+eval pack1:
+ FST3 (PACK3 Cookie Sandwich OrangeJuice)
+ =~> Cookie
+
+eval pack2:
+ SND3 (PACK3 Cookie Sandwich OrangeJuice)
+ =~> Sandwich
+
+eval pack3:
+ THD3 (PACK3 Cookie Sandwich OrangeJuice)
+ =~> OrangeJuice
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+eval exPack0:
+ FST (PACK COOKIE SANDWICH)
+ =*> FST (\choice -> IF choice COOKIE SANDWICH)
+ =*> (\choice -> IF choice COOKIE SANDWICH) TRUE
+ =*> IF TRUE COOKIE SANDWICH
+ =*> COOKIE
+
+eval exPack1:
+ SND (PACK COOKIE SANDWICH)
+ =*> SND (\choice -> IF choice COOKIE SANDWICH)
+ =*> (\choice -> IF choice COOKIE SANDWICH) FALSE
+ =*> IF FALSE COOKIE SANDWICH
+ =*> SANDWICH
+
+
+eval asIf0:
+ IF cond this that
+ =d> (\b stuff other -> b stuff other) cond this that
+ =b> (\stuff other -> cond stuff other) this that
+ =b> (\other -> cond this other) that
+ =b> (cond this that)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+eval exNOT:
+ NOT FALSE
+ =d> (\b -> IF b FALSE TRUE) FALSE
+ =b> IF FALSE FALSE TRUE
+ =d> (\b stuff other -> b stuff other ) FALSE FALSE TRUE
+ =b> (\stuff other -> FALSE stuff other ) FALSE TRUE
+ =b> (\other -> FALSE FALSE other) TRUE
+ =b> (FALSE FALSE TRUE)
+ =d> ((\x y -> y) FALSE TRUE)
+ =b> ((\ y -> y) TRUE)
+ =b> TRUE
+
+
+eval exTRUE:
+ (((IF TRUE) apple) banana)
+ =d> ((\b -> (\stuff other -> b stuff other)) TRUE) apple banana
+ =b> ((((\stuff other -> TRUE stuff other))) apple) banana
+ =b> ((((\other -> TRUE apple other)))) banana
+ =b> TRUE apple banana
+ =d> (\x y -> x) apple banana
+ =b> (\y -> apple) banana
+ =b> apple
+
+eval exFALSE:
+ (((IF FALSE) apple) banana)
+ =d> ((\b -> (\stuff other -> b stuff other)) FALSE) apple banana
+ =b> ((((\stuff other -> FALSE stuff other))) apple) banana
+ =b> ((((\other -> FALSE apple other)))) banana
+ =b> FALSE apple banana
+ =d> (\x y -> y) apple banana
+ =b> (\y -> y) banana
+ =b> banana
+
+
+
+
+
+eval mickey0 :
+ MICKEYMOUSE cheese
+ =d> (\x -> x) cheese
+ =b> cheese
+
+
+-- \x1 x2 x3 x4 -> e
+-- abbrev
+-- \x1 -> (\x2 -> (\x3 -> (\x4 -> e)))
+
+-- e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
+-- abbrev
+-- ((((e1 e2) e3) e4) e5)
+
+-- (\x y -> x) apple orange
+-- (((\x -> (\y -> x)) apple) orange)
+
+eval blurb:
+ (\a b -> a) (c a b)
+ =a> (\a b -> a) (c a b)
+
+
+ -- =b> ((\b -> (c a b)))
+ -- (\a -> (\b -> a)) (c a b)
+ -- ^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^
+
+-- eval piazza2:
+-- (\a b -> c b a)
+-- =b> (\b -> c b c)
+
+-- What's up with the below lambda terms?
+
+-- \a b -> a d
+-- \a b c -> a
+
+
+
diff --git a/docs/static/raw/lec_4_1_2019.lc b/docs/static/raw/lec_4_1_2019.lc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a04036
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/raw/lec_4_1_2019.lc
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+
+eval ex0 :
+ (\x -> x) apple
+ =b> apple
+
+eval ex1 :
+ (\f -> f (\x -> x)) (give apple)
+ =b> (give apple) (\x -> x)
+
+
+eval ex2 :
+ (\x -> (\y -> x)) y
+ =a> (\ike -> (\y -> ike)) y
+ =a> (\ike -> (\chip -> ike)) y
+ =b> (\chip -> y)
+
+
+eval ex3 :
+ (\x -> (\y -> y)) y
+ =a> (\x -> (\z -> z)) y
+ =b> (\z -> z)
+
+eval ex5 :
+ (\x -> (\y -> x y))
+ =a> (\apple -> (\y -> apple y))
+ =a> (\apple -> (\orange -> apple orange))
+
+
+eval ex6 :
+ (\f -> f (\x -> x)) (\x -> x)
+ =a> (\f -> f (\y -> y)) (\x -> x)
+ =b> (\x -> x) (\y -> y)
+ =b> (\y -> y)
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/docs/static/raw/lec_4_8_2019.lc b/docs/static/raw/lec_4_8_2019.lc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..330f751
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/raw/lec_4_8_2019.lc
@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+
+let MICKEYMOUSE = (\x -> x)
+let FUNKY = \y -> y y
+
+let TRUE = \x y -> x
+let FALSE = \x y -> y
+let IF = \b stuff other -> b stuff other
+let NOT = \b -> IF b FALSE TRUE
+let AND = \b1 b2 -> IF b1 b2 FALSE
+let OR = \b1 b2 -> IF b1 TRUE b2
+
+eval exNOT:
+ NOT FALSE
+ =d> (\b -> IF b FALSE TRUE) FALSE
+ =b> IF FALSE FALSE TRUE
+ =d> (\b stuff other -> b stuff other ) FALSE FALSE TRUE
+ =b> (\stuff other -> FALSE stuff other ) FALSE TRUE
+ =b> (\other -> FALSE FALSE other) TRUE
+ =b> (FALSE FALSE TRUE)
+ =d> ((\x y -> y) FALSE TRUE)
+ =b> ((\ y -> y) TRUE)
+ =b> TRUE
+
+
+
+
+
+eval exTRUE:
+ (((IF TRUE) apple) banana)
+ =d> ((\b -> (\stuff other -> b stuff other)) TRUE) apple banana
+ =b> ((((\stuff other -> TRUE stuff other))) apple) banana
+ =b> ((((\other -> TRUE apple other)))) banana
+ =b> TRUE apple banana
+ =d> (\x y -> x) apple banana
+ =b> (\y -> apple) banana
+ =b> apple
+
+eval exFALSE:
+ (((IF FALSE) apple) banana)
+ =d> ((\b -> (\stuff other -> b stuff other)) FALSE) apple banana
+ =b> ((((\stuff other -> FALSE stuff other))) apple) banana
+ =b> ((((\other -> FALSE apple other)))) banana
+ =b> FALSE apple banana
+ =d> (\x y -> y) apple banana
+ =b> (\y -> y) banana
+ =b> banana
+
+
+
+
+
+eval mickey0 :
+ MICKEYMOUSE cheese
+ =d> (\x -> x) cheese
+ =b> cheese
+
+
+-- \x1 x2 x3 x4 -> e
+-- abbrev
+-- \x1 -> (\x2 -> (\x3 -> (\x4 -> e)))
+
+-- e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
+-- abbrev
+-- ((((e1 e2) e3) e4) e5)
+
+-- (\x y -> x) apple orange
+-- (((\x -> (\y -> x)) apple) orange)
+
+eval blurb:
+ (\a b -> a) (c a b)
+ =a> (\a b -> a) (c a b)
+
+
+ -- =b> ((\b -> (c a b)))
+ -- (\a -> (\b -> a)) (c a b)
+ -- ^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^
+
+-- eval piazza2:
+-- (\a b -> c b a)
+-- =b> (\b -> c b c)
+
+-- What's up with the below lambda terms?
+
+-- \a b -> a d
+-- \a b c -> a
+
+
+
\ No newline at end of file
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diff --git a/docs/static/raw/midterm-wi12.pdf b/docs/static/raw/midterm-wi12.pdf
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diff --git a/docs/static/raw/moo b/docs/static/raw/moo
new file mode 100755
index 0000000..1b6c440
Binary files /dev/null and b/docs/static/raw/moo differ
diff --git a/docs/static/raw/moo.hs b/docs/static/raw/moo.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6f16c84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/raw/moo.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+import Text.Printf (printf)
+import System.Environment
+import System.IO
+
+main :: IO ()
+main = do
+ cow <- readFile "cow.txt"
+ msg <- getInput
+ cowSays cow msg
+
+cowSays :: String -> String -> IO ()
+cowSays cow msg = do
+ let out = blurb (msgLines lineSize msg)
+ putStrLn (out ++ cow)
+
+getInput :: IO String
+getInput = do
+ args <- getArgs
+ case args of
+ [] -> hGetContents stdin
+ _ -> return (unwords args)
+
+lineSize :: Int
+lineSize = 40
+
+blurb :: [String] -> String
+blurb lines = unlines
+ $ hdr
+ : [ printf "< %s >" (pad l) | l <- lines ]
+ ++ [ hdr ]
+ where
+ pad l = l ++ replicate (n - length l) ' '
+ n = min lineSize (maximum (map length lines))
+ hdr = " " ++ replicate (n + 2) '-' ++ " "
+
+msgLines :: Int -> String -> [String]
+msgLines n str = go [] (words str)
+ where
+ go acc [] = reverse acc
+ go acc ws = let (l, rest) = splitAtSize n ws
+ in go (unwords l: acc) rest
+
+splitAtSize :: Int -> [String] -> ([String], [String])
+splitAtSize n words = go n [] words
+ where
+ go k acc (w:ws)
+ | length w < k = go (k - length w - 1) (w:acc) ws
+ | otherwise = (reverse acc, w:ws)
+ go k acc [] = (reverse acc, [])
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/docs/static/raw/prolog.pl b/docs/static/raw/prolog.pl
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..71c3ea5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/raw/prolog.pl
@@ -0,0 +1,300 @@
+append([] , Ys, Ys).
+append([H|T], Ys, [H|R]) :- append(T, Ys, R).
+
+isIn(X,[X|_]).
+isIn(X,[_|T]) :- isIn(X,T).
+
+headP([H|_],H).
+
+tailP([_|T],T).
+
+fibP(0, 1).
+fibP(1, 1).
+fibP(N, R) :- 1 < N
+ , N1 is N-1
+ , N2 is N-2
+ , fibP(N1, R1)
+ , fibP(N2,R2)
+ , R is R1+R2.
+
+
+% term1 is term2
+
+addP(X,Y,Out) :- Out is X + Y.
+
+% fact
+isMexican(pulpo).
+isMexican(barbacoa).
+isMexican(carnitas).
+
+% rule
+isDelicious(X) :- isMexican(X).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+% List of parent relationships
+
+parent(kim, holly).
+parent(margaret, kim).
+parent(herbert, margaret).
+parent(john, kim).
+parent(felix, john).
+parent(albert, felix).
+parent(albert, dana).
+parent(felix, maya).
+parent(alice, jum).
+
+anc(X, Y) :- parent(X, Y).
+anc(X, Y) :- parent(X, Z1), anc(Z1, Y).
+
+ancLoop(X, Y) :- ancLoop(Z1, Y), parent(X, Z1).
+ancLoop(X, Y) :- parent(X, Y).
+
+
+sib1(X, Y) :- parent(P, X), parent(P, Y), not(X = Y).
+sib2(X, Y) :- not(X = Y), parent(P, X), parent(P, Y).
+
+hasManyKids(X) :- parent(X, Y), parent(X, Z), Y \= Z.
+
+isSibling(X, Y) :- parent(P, X), parent(P, Y), X \= Y.
+
+isGrandParent(GPar, GKid) :- parent(GPar, Par), parent(Par, GKid).
+
+% IF parent(X, Y) and parent(X, Z) and Y \= Z
+% THEN hasManyKids(X)
+
+
+
+
+grandparent(X,Y) :- parent(X,Z), parent(Z,Y).
+
+greatgrandparent(X,Y) :- parent(X,Z),grandparent(Z,Y).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+has_family(X) :- parent(X,_).
+has_family(X) :- parent(_,X).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y).
+ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(Z,Y),ancestor(X,Z).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ancestor1(X,Y) :- ancestor1(X,Z), parent(Z,Y).
+ancestor2(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ancestor2(X,Y) :- parent(Z,Y),ancestor2(X,Z).
+ancestor2(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y).
+
+
+sib(X,Y) :- parent(Z,X), parent(Z,Y).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+sibling1(X,Y) :- not(X=Y),parent(P,X),parent(P,Y).
+
+sibling2(X,Y) :- parent(P,X), parent(P,Y),not(X=Y).
+
+sibling3(X,Y) :- X\=Y,parent(P,X),parent(P,Y).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+factorial(N,R) :- 1 < N, N1 is N-1, factorial(N1,R1), R is N * R1.
+factorial(N,1) :- N < 2.
+
+
+fib(N, 1) :- N < 2.
+fib(N, R) :- 1 < N, N1 is N-1, N2 is N-2, fib(N1, R1), fib(N2,R2), R is R1+R2.
+
+
+app([],Y,Y).
+app([Hx|Tx],Y,[Hx|T]) :- app(Tx,Y,T).
+
+
+
+
+
+tailof([_|X],X).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+has3ormore([_,_,_|_]).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+barbaz([X,_,_,_,_,X|_]).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+isin(X,[X|_]).
+isin(X,[_|T]) :- isin(X,T).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+len([],0).
+len([_|T],N) :- len(T,Nt), N is Nt + 1.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+rev(X,Y) :- acc_rev(X,Y,[]).
+acc_rev([],Y,Y).
+acc_rev([H|T],Y,SoFar) :- acc_rev(T,Y,[H|SoFar]).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+foo(a).
+foo(b).
+foo(c).
+foo(d).
+
+
+
+
+
+allfoos(L) :- listallfoos(L,[]).
+
+
+
+
+
+listallfoos([X|L],SoFar) :-
+ foo(X),
+ not(isin(X,SoFar)),
+ append(SoFar,[X],NewSoFar),
+ listallfoos(L,NewSoFar).
+
+listallfoos([],_).
+
+
+move(A,B) :-
+ nl, write('Move topdisk from '),
+ write(A), write(' to '), write(B).
+
+
+transfer(1,A,B,_) :- move(A,B).
+transfer(N,A,B,X) :-
+ M is N-1,
+ transfer(M,A,X,B),
+ move(A,B),
+ transfer(M,X,B,A).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+change(e,w).
+change(w,e).
+
+
+
+
+move([X,X,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_wolf,[Y,Y,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y).
+move([X,P_Wolf,X,P_Cabbage],move_goat,[Y,P_Wolf,Y,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y).
+move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,X],move_cabbage,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,Y]) :- change(X,Y).
+move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_nothing,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y).
+
+
+one_equal(X,X,_).
+one_equal(X,_,X).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+safe([P_Farmer,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :-
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Goat,P_Wolf),
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Goat,P_Cabbage).
+
+
+
+solution([e,e,e,e],[]).
+solution(State,[FirstMove|RemainingMoves]) :-
+ move(State,FirstMove,NextState),
+ safe(NextState),
+ solution(NextState,RemainingMoves).
+
+
+
+
+
+% ?- length(X,7), solution([w,w,w,w],X).
diff --git a/docs/static/raw/prolog.txt b/docs/static/raw/prolog.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..845d4c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/raw/prolog.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1506 @@
+Logic Programming
+=========================================================================
+(adapted from lecture notes by Henri Casanova and Todd Millstein)
+
+
+=============================== lecture 1 ===============================
+
+------------------------------ introduction -----------------------------
+
+We now turn to a brand new paradigm, called "Logic Programming Languages"
+-- our vehicle for studying this paradigm is Prolog, whose roots are
+in logic and on automated theorem proving.
+Prolog was developed in the 1970s for AI applications. Some such applications
+have a knowledge base (or database) of facts, from which you'd like to
+ask queries and deduce other facts. For example, given facts in the
+knowledge base like "Carnitas is Mexican" and "Mexican food is delicious",
+then we can deduce "Carnitas is delicious".
+
+Prolog probably looks nothing like any language you've seen before.
+Fundamental difference between Prolog and most other languages:
+
+ You don't run a Prolog Program
+
+Instead, you ask questions and the system attempts to answer them using the
+rules and facts that it has been given.
+
+ Logic programs are "declarative": the specification of the
+ desired results are written, rather than how to obtain them.
+
+This approach is very good at expressing problems that involve searching
+a large space of possibilities. For example, given a list of cities and
+distances between them, find me the shortest route that passes through
+each one once (the travelling salesman problem).
+
+The philosophy of this approach is that it is often hard to specify a
+search algorithm -- and in such cases, it is easier to specify
+the characteristics of the solution.
+To do so, you specify *facts* and *rules* for deducing new
+facts from old facts, and then a *query*. So you just state what is
+true and then ask what (else) is true. The language implementation figures
+out how to actually compute appropriate solutions.
+Use the travelling salesman problem as an illustration: I say
+the constraints, not how to search the space of possible solutions.
+Of course, as we will see, this is a simplification, and often for reasons
+of efficiency, one has to impose constraints on the search.
+
+The original and principal applications for Prolog are in various AI
+settings such as (expert databases). Examples include using prolog-based
+databases to determine when credit card fraud has occurred (prolog is used
+to specify rules that indicate when a fraud occurs), and there are
+projects afoot to use ideas from prolog to determine suspicious
+people from phone/communication patterns.
+Note that currently AI researchers devise statistical techniques to
+complement (if not replace) logical approaches for such tasks.
+Another big application is as a database query language.
+E.g., my facts are things like the daily stock prices of various
+stocks over the last year. Queries can be things like: find me all
+pairs of stocks that had the same price on the same day at least 50
+times this year.
+Standard query languages like SQL are inspired by and are really subsets of Prolog.
+Of course, the reason we're studying it is that its a radically different
+way of thinking about computation: "programming as proving".
+You'll be surprised at how many places this paradigm fits beautifully, or
+leads to very elegant and readable systems.
+
+--------------------------- Terms --------------------------------------
+
+Based on propositional logic. The entire program comprises three kinds of
+elements: facts, rules, and queries. The basic unit of each of these are
+terms.
+
+Terms are Prolog's way of encoding data. They are very similar to the
+values of datatypes created in ML. There are three kinds of terms:
+constants, variables and compound terms.
+
+1. Constants: The simplest kind of terms are constants.
+ - integers and reals: are constants.
+
+ - atoms: are identifiers starting with a lowercase letter.
+ For example:
+
+ alice, bob, charlie
+
+ are all atoms.
+ Atoms are NOT variables -- the way to think of them is as TAGS,
+ or special constants, or elements of a giant enum datatype.
+ They are similar to the tags used in ML datatypes:
+
+ datatype day = Alice | Bob | Charlie ...
+
+ Only in ML, the tags start with a capital letter.
+
+ Atoms are *uninterpreted constants*: nothing is known about each tag
+ except that it is equal to itself.
+
+ Intuitively, Prolog knows that:
+ alice = alice
+
+ as the tags are the same. However, to it,
+ alice = bob
+ *never* makes sense, as it has a strange notion of equality, that we
+ will see shortly.
+
+ There are some built-in atoms such as "[]" that signifies the empty
+ list, "." which is used for list concatenation and so on, that we will
+ see shortly.
+
+2. Variables: Any identifier beginning with an upper case letter or an
+underscore is a variable.
+ For example,
+
+ X,Y, Head, Tail, Alfred
+
+ are all variables.
+ The variable "_" is like a "wildcard" variable, whose meaning is similar
+ to the "_" in ML, but more on that when we see what a variable means.
+ As we shall see:
+ -- x = a is nonsense (as x and a are two *different* constants/tags).
+ -- X = a has some sense (but isnt at all what one might think...).
+
+ WARNING: Upercase/Lowercase is a common source of error! Also, variables
+ are NOT declared before use (so be careful!).
+
+3. Compound Terms: These are terms of the form: atom(term,term,term,...)
+ where each "term" is either an atom or a variable or a compound term.
+ Examples include:
+ x(y,z)
+ parent(alice,bob). %here alice,bob are atoms
+ parent(alice,Child). %here alice is an atom, Child is a variable
+
+ In other words, (compound) terms are generated by the following grammar:
+
+ atom := [a-z][A-z,a-z,0-9]* | [0-9]* | ...
+
+ variable := [A-Z][a-z,A-Z,0-9]* | _
+
+ term := atom | variable | atom(term,term,term,...)
+
+ While you may be tempted to think of compound terms like:
+ parent(alice,bob)
+ as function calls, they are NOT! Instead, you should think about this
+ in the same way as we thought of ML the recursive, one-of types in ML.
+
+ type term = Atom of string
+ | Var of string
+ | Compound of string * term list
+
+ Thus, parent(alice,bob) in Prolog is equivalent to the ML value:
+
+ Compound ("parent", [Atom "alice"; Atom "bob"])
+
+ or equivalently represented as a tree:
+
+ parent
+ / \
+ / \
+ alice bob
+
+ and parent(alice, Charlie) in Prolog is "equivalent to" the ML value:
+
+ Compound ("parent", [Atom "alice"; Var "Charlie"]),
+
+ or represented as a tree:
+
+ parent
+ / \
+ / \
+ alice Var
+ |
+ |
+ Charlie
+
+
+ Consider a term: factorial(5)
+
+ NOT a function (despite what it looks like).
+ - there is no associated function implementation
+
+ Prolog has no idea of the meaning you intend for this term -- to it,
+ this is just a box containing "5" with a label "factorial".
+ Another way to view it is as a tree:
+
+ factorial
+ |
+ |
+ 5
+
+ Thus, the only thing Prolog knows is that:
+ factorial(5)=factorial(5)
+
+ i.e. the two terms are the same. In particular, to Prolog,
+ factorial(5)=120 is NOT true.
+
+ Thus Prolog compound terms are really just structured data -- like values
+ of a datatype in ML. Can also think of atoms that begin a compound term
+ as *uninterpreted functions*: e.g., factorial is a function about which
+ NOTHING is known, except that the result of applying this function to the
+ atom x, is the term "factorial(x)".
+ These atoms are called *function symbols*.
+
+-------------------------------------- Facts -------------------------------
+
+A fact is just a term, typically without any variables.
+You specify a fact by writing a term followed by a '.'.
+For example, here are a few facts that one might have in the system.
+
+ % List of parent relationships
+ parent(kim,holly).
+ parent(margaret,kim).
+ parent(herbert,margaret).
+ parent(john,kim).
+ parent(felix,john).
+ parent(albert,felix).
+
+
+Note that kim,holly,margaret,herbert,john,kim,felix,albert are all atoms.
+
+The Prolog interpreter maintains a collection of facts like the above --
+think of it as the underlying data in the database over which queries will be asked.
+You can define your own facts and add them to the database. The function
+symbols beginning a fact are called *predicates*: intuitively, they
+represent functions that evaluate to a boolean.
+
+Thus, (the atom) "parent" is a predicate that, intuitively, takes two arguements
+and returns a boolean -- we say that "parent" is a predicate of arity 2.
+The key thing to note, is that predicates have _no intrinsic meaning_.
+However, they are generally designed and named so that the programmer can
+easily "interpret" them.
+For example, as a programmer, I will decide that
+
+ parent(X,Y)
+
+means that 'X' is a parent of 'Y'. In other words, I will specify the fact:
+
+parent(a,b).
+
+only if the person corresponding to atom a is a parent of the person
+corresponding to atom b. Thus, the predicate is interpreted as a logical
+relation between X and Y.
+
+Prolog uses these facts to answer queries, as well as to infer new facts.
+Lets see how it does the first.
+
+-------------------------- Running Prolog : Queries --------------------------
+
+The standard interface to Prolog is in an interactive shell.
+To run it, first, lets put a bunch of facts into a file, and then load the
+file into the shell. Suppose the list of facts are stored in a file called
+"facts.pl". First, we load prolog, and get the shell prompt:
+
+Prolog prompt: "?-"
+
+At this prompt, enter something like:
+
+?- consult('facts.prolog').
+
+You can manually add the facts one by one by typing at the prompt:
+
+?- assert(parent(margaret,kim)).
+
+(or whatever fact you want to insert).
+
+Once this is done, the facts have been registered into the shell, we can query Prolog as follows:
+
+ 1. Prompts you to type a query
+ 2. You type a query
+ 3. Prolog tries to prove your query
+ 4. Prints out the result (or 'failure')
+ 5. Repeat
+
+The simplest query is a term followed by a '.'
+(looks like a fact, but is just typed at the prompt).
+For example, suppose you type the following query:
+
+?- parent(margaret, john).
+
+The meaning of a query is "is this fact in your database or can it be
+inferred from your database". In other words, we are asking Prolog if it
+can PROVE the fact. Prolog replies:
+
+False
+
+as this is not one of the facts (we have not yet given it any rules to
+infer new facts).
+Instead, if we were to ask:
+
+?- parent(margaret,kim).
+
+Prolog replies:
+
+True
+
+As this is in the database of facts we fed in.
+(Tip: If you forget the period then you can type it on the next line)
+Not bad, but not especially exciting -- we gave it a bunch of facts, and
+basically each query is effectively asking if the query term was one of the
+facts we supplied.
+
+Things get more fun, when we toss variables into the queries.
+
+ ?- parent(margaret,X).
+
+This is where we Prolog departs radically from other paradigms. The meaning
+of this query is:
+
+"What value(s) can you plug in for X such that the fact becomes provable for that value ?"
+Prolog replies:
+
+ X = kim [press enter if you're satisfied]
+ True
+
+This means that it can plug in "kim" for X, and thus, it can deduce the
+fact: parent(margaret,kim). Instead, you can enter the query:
+
+ ?- parent(X,kim).
+
+This asks prolog, for what values of X does the fact parent( _ , kim) hold.
+In other words, this innocent query is asking prolog -- who are the (known)
+parents of kim ? It replies:
+
+ X = margaret ; [press ';' if you want another answer]
+ X = john ;
+ False
+
+Thus, it returns, one-by-one, all the "solutions" for X that make the fact
+parent(X,kim) provable. We can make both the parameters variables:
+
+ ?- parent(X,Y).
+
+This asks prolog -- what are the pairs X,Y such that X is (provably) the
+parent of Y ? It responds:
+
+ X=kim Y=holly ;
+ X=margaret Y=kim;
+ ...
+
+Suppose you want to know if there are any strange circularities in your
+fact database -- for example, does there exist any person who is their own
+parent ? The following query does the trick:
+
+ ?- parent(X,X).
+ False
+
+------------------------------- Unification -----------------------------------
+
+In most other languages, a function designed to look up
+things like this would be less flexible -- it would require tedious
+parentOf() method or a childOf() method, loops, etc.
+With Prolog -- the queries are very flexible, and work like magic.
+Whats going on ?
+
+Turns out that Prolog's computational heart is a fancy pattern matching
+technique (also, btw, at the heart of ML's type system) borrowed from
+logicians, called "Unification". Regrettably, we won't have time to go
+into the details of unification -- and so, lets content ourselves with a
+cartoon version.
+
+
+ Intuitively, two terms can be unified if there a
+ way of assigning values to their variables so that
+ the terms become identical.
+
+This is really what " = " means in prolog -- when you ask it:
+
+ ?- t1 = t2.
+
+For any two terms t1 and t2, you are asking it whether the terms t1 and t2
+can be unified. So, if you ask:
+
+ ?- foo(bar) = foo(bar).
+ True
+
+Because there are no variables and the terms are the same.
+If instead you ask:
+
+ ?- foo(X) = foo(bar).
+
+It replies:
+ X = bar
+ True
+
+Meaning that foo(X) can be unified with foo(bar) by assigning the variable
+X to the term "bar".
+Note that we can ask this from Prolog without "declaring" any of the above
+atoms. This is because everything is symbolic -- everything is a term which
+is an arbitrary notation that can encode whatever concept.
+One can type the above right after starting the interpreter.
+
+
+The more interesting case is when there are several variable in the terms:
+
+ ?- p(X,dog) = p(cat,Y).
+ X = cat
+ Y = dog
+ True
+
+meaning that one can unify the terms p(X,dog) and p(cat,Y) by assigning
+appropriate values to X and Y. However, if we were to ask:
+
+ ?- p(cat) = p(dog).
+ False
+
+As the terms are different, and so, if we ask:
+ ?- q(X,dog,X) = p(cat,Y,Y).
+ False
+
+is the answer as to unify, X must be "cat" and Y must be "dog", but this
+ensures that the last parameter of the term can never be the same!
+
+Similarly, the unification happens "deep" into the terms:
+
+?- a(W,foo(W,Y),Y) = a(2,foo(X,3),Z).
+ W = 2
+ X = 2
+ Y = 3
+ Z = 3
+ True
+
+Intuitively, it first matches up the first position, and so W gets 2,
+next, it tries to match up the second position -- i.e.
+
+ foo(W,Y) with foo(X,3).
+
+now, W is already 2, so X also gets 2, and Y gets 3.
+Finally, it tries to match up the last position,
+and Y is 3 and so Z gets 3.
+
+Instead, the query:
+
+?- a(W,foo(W,Y),Y) = a(2,foo(X,3),X).
+ False
+
+Thus, by using W,X,Y in two places, we are forcing it to find a solution where
+those two places get exactly the same value. As a result, the constraints
+ensure that all the variables must get the same value. However, W and Y
+must get 2 and 3 and so there is no solution.
+
+Thus, this innocent "pattern matching" operation actually does a lot under
+its hood, and it turns out to be a surprisingly powerful and flexible way
+to encode all kinds of computation! All the queries that we asked before,
+were answered via unification.
+
+When we ask:
+
+ ?- parent(margaret, john).
+
+prolog checks if the term "parent(margaret,john)" can be unified with any
+of the known facts (that are also terms). If so, it says True, but as it
+cannot, it replies False.
+
+When we ask:
+
+ ?- parent(margaret,kim).
+
+it can unify the query term with a known fact term, and so it replies True.
+
+When we ask:
+
+ ?- parent(margaret,X).
+
+it tries to find all the known facts with which it can unify the query term
+-- there is only one, and so it "answers the query" by returning the
+substitution required for unification:
+ X = kim
+
+Similarly, when we ask:
+
+ ?- parent(X,kim).
+
+It attempts to find all the known terms with which this query can be
+unified -- this time, there are several terms, and the different
+valid unifying substitutions (called unifiers) yield the different parents
+of kim:
+ X = margaret ;
+ X = john ;
+ False
+
+Finally, to answer the query:
+
+ ?- parent(X,Y).
+
+It attempts to unify the query term with all known facts -- and the list of
+resulting unifiers is exactly the set of known parent child pairs.
+
+------------------------------- Conjunction ------------------------------
+
+Often, its more useful to ask questions about several terms.
+For example, to determine if margaret is holly's grandparent, we would like
+to find if there is some person who is both the child of margaret AND the
+parent of holly.
+To do so, we can issue a conjunctive query which is a list of terms
+separated by commas as follows:
+
+ ?- parent(margaret, X), parent(X, holly).
+
+To answer this query, Prolog attempts to find an X such that
+parent(margaret,X) unifies with the set of known facts, AND,
+parent(X,holly) unifies with the set of known facts.
+Upon finding a unifier that works, it replies:
+
+ X = kim
+ True
+
+Thus, as kim is the intermediate parent, we can conclude that margaret is
+indeed a grandparent of holly. Finally, consider the following query:
+
+ ?- parent(X,Y), parent(Y,Z), parent(Z,kim).
+
+It asks if there are X,Y,Z such that X is Y's parent, Y is Z's parent and Z
+is kim's parent. In other words, the query determines if kim has any
+"great-grandparent". Upon finding appropriate unifiers, prolog replies:
+
+ X = john
+ Y = felix
+ Z = albert
+ True
+
+------------------------------- Rules ------------------------------------
+
+The above is quite nifty -- it allows us to quickly mine the database to
+find interesting relationships. However, it gets somewhat cumbersome as we
+have to devise a complex conjunctive query ever time.
+Instead, it would be nice if we could define complex queries out of simpler
+queries.
+
+Rules serve exactly that purpose. They allow us to specify complex queries
+(i.e. predicates) using simpler ones. In general, the format of a rule is:
+
+ head :- condition1, condition2, condition3....
+
+Intuitively, it means, that the "head" query is true if condition1,
+condition2, condition3,... are all true. In other words, it tells prolog,
+to prove the head query, prove the conditions 1,2,3.
+
+For example, suppose we'd like to define a grandparent relationship
+(predicate). We do so as:
+
+ grandparent(GP,GC) :- parent(GP,P), parent (P,GC).
+
+Intuitively this states:
+
+ "GP is a grandparent of GC if GP is a parent of P AND P is a parent of GC".
+
+With this definition, we can now issue the following query:
+
+ ?- grandparent(X,kim).
+
+and prolog responds with:
+
+ X=herbert
+ True
+
+as it can find that parent(herbert,margaret) and parent(margaret,kim),
+therefore, applying the rule, grandparent(herbert,kim), to which fact the
+query term gets unified. We can use this predicate to write more
+predicates:
+
+ greatgrandparent(GGP,GGC) :- parent(GGP,GP) , grandparent (GP, GGC).
+
+We can now issue the query:
+
+ ?- greatgrandparent(X,holly).
+ X=herbert
+ True
+
+Program = Facts + Rules:
+------------------------
+Facts and Rules are the two kinds of "Clauses" (intuitively, a fact is
+just a rule without any conditions).
+Thus, a prolog program is a set of clauses -- partitioned into a
+database of facts and a set of rules for inferring new facts.
+
+Scope:
+------
+Notice that the same variable P appears twice in the grandparent rule.
+Indeed one may be tempted to reuse P across several rules. In Prolog, the
+scope of a variable is the clause (rule) that contains it. Thus, there is
+no connection whatsoever between variables across clauses.
+
+For example, consider the two clauses:
+
+ foo(P) :- bar(P). % There is no connection between P in
+ stuff(P) :- thing(P). % the 2 clauses.
+
+In other words, there are no global variables, all variables are local to
+the individual clauses.
+
+------------ Multiple Clauses = Disjunction and Recursion ---------------
+
+Suppose we want to define a predicate that is true for all those persons
+that have some family -- that is, those persons who have either a parent OR
+a child. We can do so as follows:
+
+ has_family(X) :- parent(X,_).
+ has_family(X) :- parent(_,X).
+
+If we have multiple rules for the same predicate, effectively we are
+specifying a disjunction. The first rule says:
+
+ "X has a family if there is some _ such that X is the parent of _"
+
+The second rule says:
+
+ "X has a family if there is some _ such that _ is the parent of X"
+
+If either of these clauses fire then, has_family(X) becomes true.
+Like in ML, the symbol "_" represents a "wildcard" or dont-care
+variable that we will use only in one place and so we not bother
+to name it.
+
+Thus,
+ ?- has_family(holly).
+ True
+
+as the second rule fires for holly. While,
+
+ ?- has_family(mugatu).
+ False
+
+as neither rule fires for mugatu.
+
+For those of you who are economical with the keystrokes, there is another
+way to specify disjunctive rules -- via a semicolon:
+
+ has_family(X) :- parent(X,_) ; parent(_,X).
+
+
+Suppose you want to specify an predicate ancestor(X,Y) which is true if
+X is an ancestor of Y, i.e. if by following the parent relationship from Y
+one eventually reaches X. Intuitively, X is an ancestor of Y either if:
+
+ 1. X is the parent of Y, or,
+ 2. Z is the parent of Y, and X is an ancestor of Z.
+
+Thus, we can specify this predicate recursively as follows:
+
+ ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y). %[Base case]
+ ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(Z,Y),ancestor(X,Z) %[Recursive case]
+
+This works quite niftily:
+
+ ?- ancestor(kim,X).
+ X = holly ;
+ False
+
+i.e. holly is the only "descendant" of kim, and:
+
+ ?- ancestor(X,kim).
+ X = margaret ;
+ X = john ;
+ X = herbert ;
+ X = felix ;
+ X = albert ;
+ False
+
+i.e. kim has a long ancestry.
+
+----------------------------- Backtracking Search ---------------------------
+
+At this point, its worth looking into how exactly prolog pulls off this
+trick of answering queries in this manner, as it has its limits, which one
+needs to know to phrase the queries appropriately. Turns out, there's no
+real magic -- just brute force "proof" search.
+
+We can view each clause as a "proof rule":
+
+ goal :- subgoal_1, subgoal_2,...
+
+Thus, the rules for ancestor are as follows:
+
+ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y). %rule 1
+ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(Z,Y),ancestor(X,Z). %rule 2
+
+To prolog, these rules mean the following -- to prove ancestor(X,Y), try to:
+
+ 1. prove the subgoal parent(X,Y), or, failing that,
+ 2. prove the subgoal parent(X,Z), and then the subgoal ancestor(X,Z).
+
+Thus, suppose we ask it the query:
+
+ ?- ancestor(felix,holly).
+
+To prove this query, it undertakes the following backtracking search:
+
+
+ ancestor(felix,holly)?
+ / \
+ parent(felix,holly) parent(Z,holly)
+ NO ancestor(felix,Z)
+ |
+ | Z = kim (by fact)
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,kim)
+ / \
+ parent(felix,kim) parent(Z',kim)
+ NO ancestor(felix,Z') ----------|
+ | | Z'=john
+ Z'=margaret | |
+ | ancestor(felix,john)
+ ancestor(felix,margaret) |
+ / \ parent(felix,john)
+ parent(felix,margaret) parent(Z'',margaret) YES
+ NO ancestor(felix,Z'')
+ |
+ Z'' = herbert |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,herbet)
+ / |
+ parent(felix,herbert) parent(Z''',herbert)
+ NO NO
+
+Thus, it first tries the base rule i.e. to prove the subgoal parent(felix,holly).
+As it cannot unify this query with any known fact, it fails (NO),
+and so it backtracks and tries the other recursive rule.
+The only Z such that parent(Z,holly) unifies with a known fact is when
+Z=kim, thus, it tries to prove the second subgoal ancestor(felix,kim).
+To do so, again it first applies the base rule, which fails, and so it
+backtracks and applies the recursive rule.
+
+This time, there are two different Z (written Z' in the figure to
+distinguish from the upper part of the tree), such that parent(Z,kim) --
+namely Z=margaret and Z=john. It picks margaret first (as that is the first
+unification that succeeds, and tries to prove the the second subgoal
+ancestor(felix,margaret). As we can see, from the subtree, this search
+fails, (as margaret's sole parent is herbert who has no parent).
+
+Thus, prolog backtracks and tries the second Z=john, and tries to prove the
+second subgoal, ancestor(felix,john). This time, the base rule works as
+parent(felix,john) is a known fact, and thus the proof search succeeds and
+prolog returns:
+
+ ?- ancestor(felix,holly).
+ True
+
+This same process is repeated for any query. When there is a variable in
+the query, eg.
+
+ ?- ancestor(X,kim).
+
+Prolog attempts the proof search and returns all the unifiers for X for which
+the proof succeeds. Thus, prolog is literally programming by proving.
+
+
+Hint: Trace mode in prolog shows the tree:
+
+ ?- trace.
+
+The subsequent query is traced: use the on-line help on the ACS Prolog interpreter
+
+ ?- help(trace).
+
+Order Matters:
+--------------
+The rub is that the order of the clauses and terms influences greatly the order
+in which the unification and backtracking happens. This is because, to
+prove a particular goal query, the different clauses are selected in
+order, and further, within each clause, the subgoals are selected from
+left-to-right, which affects how the unification happens.
+
+In the above example, if we had entered the branch Z'=john rather than
+than the branch Z'=margaret, then we would have proven the query faster.
+Similarly, if we had swapped the order of the conjunctions (subgoals) in
+the recursive clause, we would have a rather different tree (try as an
+exercise). Thus, order matters for performance.
+Hint: Try simple things first!
+
+More importantly, there are cases where the program may not even work (may
+not terminate), depending on the order:
+
+ ancestor(X,Y) :- ancestor(X,Z), parent(Z,Y).
+ ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y).
+
+Now lets try the same query:
+
+ ?- ancestor(felix,holly).
+ ERROR: Out of local stack
+
+Why ? Well, if you try to build the search tree, you'll see it goes forever:
+
+ ancestor(felix,holly)?
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,Z) %prove first subgoal,
+ | %then parent(Z,holly)
+ |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,Z') %prove first subgoal,
+ | %then parent(Z',Z)
+ |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,Z'')
+ .
+ .
+ .
+
+So, to avoid this, we must place the parent subgoal first (in the recursive
+rule). If this is done, the unification with the base facts (parent),
+fix the possible unifiers for Z, thereby guaranteeing termination.
+
+Lets see another example. Suppose we want to define a sibling predicate,
+where sibling(X,Y) holds if X and Y have the same parent. How about:
+
+ sibling(X,Y) :- parent(P,X), parent(P,Y).
+
+Almost:
+
+ ? sibling(kim,kim).
+ True
+
+Ah, we have to ensure that X and Y are not the same. Ok, how about:
+
+ sibling(X,Y) :- not(X=Y), parent(P,X), parent(P,Y).
+
+Surely this works ? Nope. The reason is prolog's semantics of equality
+(i.e. unification). This clause is read by prolog as:
+
+first, find a X,Y such that X cannot be unified with Y,
+then, find a P such that parent(P,X), and parent(P,Y).
+
+Now the catch is that to process the first subgoal, prolog finds it can
+always unify (two unconstrained variables) X and Y, by simply assigning X to Y!
+ ?- X=Y.
+ X=Y
+ True
+
+ ?- not(X=Y).
+ False
+
+Thus, the very first subgoal always fails, thereby ensuring that:
+
+ ?- sibling(X,Y).
+ False
+
+Thus, to get the rule right, we must make sure that the goal that ensures
+that X and Y are not the same, is fired AFTER X and Y have been unified
+with appropriate atoms. We can do so by simply placing the subgoal at the
+end.
+ sibling(X,Y) :- parent(P,X), parent(P,Y), not(X=Y).
+
+ ?- sibling(X,Y).
+ X = john
+ Y = maya ;
+
+ X = felix
+ Y = dana ;
+
+ X = dana
+ Y = felix ;
+
+ X = maya
+ Y = john ;
+ False
+
+This shows a major weakness: You can's just rely on the logical
+meanings and you sort of need to know how things work.
+Oh well, nothing's perfect.
+We'll see that many, many things break down the pure philosophy
+that says: "Just write what you need logically"
+
+
+
+
+---------------------------- Numeric Computation --------------------------
+Although Prolog is mostly symbolic, there is a need for numeric
+computation.
+
+ - '=' is the unification operator
+ ?- X = 2+3.
+ X = 2+3
+ True
+ - 'is' evaluates arithmetic expressions before doing unification
+ ?- X is 2+3.
+ X = 5
+ True
+When prolog tries to solve an "is" goal it evalutes the second argument
+and then unifies, as opposed to "=" which just does the unification.
+
+ ?- Y is X+2, X=1.
+ ERROR: Args are not sufficiently instantiated
+
+ ?- X=1, Y is X+2.
+ X=1
+ Y=3
+ True
+
+Again, order of evaluation matters!
+
+Functions are Predicates:
+-------------------------
+Lets try to write a factorial function in Prolog. We need to somehow encode
+functions as predicates. Here's the deal:
+Whenever you have a function f(x), you can write a predicate
+
+ pred_f(X,Y)
+
+that captures the behavior of f by being true for all those pairs X,Y
+where Y is f(X).
+
+Thus, we can write a predicate capturing the input/output relationship of
+the factorial function -- i.e. a predicate factorial(X,Y), that is true for
+those pairs X,Y where Y is the factorial of X.
+
+ factorial(0,1). % base case
+ factorial(X,N):- X1 is X-1, factorial(X1,N1), N is X1*N1.
+
+We "call" the function with a query.
+
+ ?- factorial(0,X).
+ X = 1
+ True
+
+ ?- factorial(5,X).
+ X = 120
+
+
+---------------------------- Data Structures: Lists --------------------------------
+
+Let us now see how we can encode lists in Prolog. Again, its useful to
+recall how lists were encoded as a datatype in ML.
+ -- There is a "base atom": [] denoting the empty list
+ -- There is a "cons"tructor: | (different syntax for this).
+
+Thus, ML's list Cons(1,Cons(2,Cons(3,Nil))) is equivalent
+to the prolog term:
+
+ [1|[2|[3|[]]]]
+
+where (1) | is Cons, and (2) [] is Nil.
+
+Also, as they are heavily used, Prolog lets you write the above term as:
+[1,2,3].
+
+ ?- [1,2,3] = [1|[2|[3|[]]]].
+ True
+
+To "deconstruct" a list into head and tail, we use pattern-matching (very
+much like in ML). So:
+
+ [X|Y] unifies with any non-empty list (like h::t),
+ X unified to the first element (head)
+ Y unified to the rest of the list (tail).
+
+ ?- [X|Y] = [1,2,3,4,5].
+ X = 1
+ Y = [2,3,4,5]
+ True
+
+ ?- [X|Y] = [1].
+ X = 1
+ True
+
+ ?- [X|Y] = [].
+ False
+
+ [1|Y] unifies with any list starting with 1 (like 1::t),
+ Y unified to the rest of the list.
+
+
+ However, prolog also lets you write:
+
+ [1,2|X] which unifies with any list that starts with 1 and then 2.
+ ?- [1,2|X] = [1,2,3,4,5].
+ X = [3,4,5]
+ True
+
+ ?- [1,2|X] = [1,2]
+ X = []
+ True
+
+ ?- [1,2|X] = [1,3]
+ False
+
+ One can place variables wherever in the term, so:
+ ?- [X,Y|Z] = [1,2,3].
+ X = 1
+ Y = 2
+ Z = [3]
+
+Ok -- how do we do interesting things with lists. For example, how might we
+"append" two lists ? Well, there is no "concatenation" or sticking
+together. In prolog you write a predicate:
+
+ append(X,Y,Z)
+
+which is true if Z is the result of appending the lists X and Y.
+Turns out such a predicate is built-in, so lets see what it does.
+
+ ?- append([1,2],[3,4],Z).
+ Z=[1,2,3,4]
+ True
+
+It simply "solves" for the right Z that happens to be the result of
+appending [1,2] and [3,4], but wait, predicates can do more:
+
+ ?- append(X,[3,4],[1,2,3,4]).
+ X=[1,2]
+
+whoa! backwards computation -- what X is such that when appended to [3,4]
+you get [1,2,3,4] ? And now, the full power of multiple solutions:
+
+ ?- append(X,Y,[1,2,3]).
+ X = []
+ Y = [1,2,3] ;
+
+ X = [1]
+ Y = [2,3] ;
+
+ X = [1,2]
+ Y = [3] ;
+
+ X = [1,2,3]
+ Y = []
+ True
+
+Try doing that in another language.
+
+There are several such predicates for reverse, sort, append, built-in, but
+lets try to roll our own.
+
+ How would you write append(X,Y,Z) in Prolog?
+
+Well, the base case is that if X is empty then, Z is just Y.
+
+ append([], Y, Y). % base case
+
+The recursive case is when X is of the form [H|Tx], in which case, Z must
+begin with H, and the tail of Z is obtained by appending Tx to Y:
+
+ append([H|Tx], Y, [H|Tz]) :- append(Tx,Y,Tz). % recursive case
+
+Very different way of thinking than imperative languages. Lets see what
+happens with the query:
+ ?- append([1],[2],Z).
+
+ Prolog tries to prove the term append([1],[2],Z)
+ ---> recursive case fires.
+ H unifies to 1
+ Tx unifies to []
+ Y unifies to [2]
+ Z unifies to [1|Tz]
+ ---> prove: append(Tx,Y,Tz)
+ ---> i.e. prove: append([], [2], Tz)
+ base case fires.
+ ---> Tz unifies to [2]
+ ---> therefore: Z = [1,2]
+
+But, because of the magic of pattern matching, proving and predicates, you
+get the backwards computations by the same "proving" process !
+
+Lets do a few more. Lets write a predicate tailof(X,Y) which is true if Y
+is the tail of the list X.
+
+ tailof([_|X],X).
+
+Again, note the judicious use of the wildcard "_". If you actually named
+the variable there, eg.
+
+ tailof([H|X],X).
+
+The compiler would warn you that you named a variable but used it only
+once -- a "Singleton Variable".
+
+Lets write a predicate which is true of lists with three or more elements:
+
+ has3orMoreElements([_,_,_|_]).
+
+What does this predicate do ?
+
+ foo([X,_,_,_,X|_]).
+
+One more tricky one. Lets write a predicate isin(X,L) which is true if
+X is an element of the list L. How ?
+
+base case: if X is the first element of the list L.
+
+ isin(X,[X|_]).
+
+recursive case: if X appears in the tail of the list L.
+
+ isin(X,[_|T]) :- isin(X,T).
+
+Let's give it a spin:
+
+ ?- isin(2,[1,2,3]).
+ True
+
+ ?- isin(X,[1,2]).
+ X=1 ;
+ X=2 ;
+ False
+
+ ?- isin(1,[2,3]).
+ False
+
+
+Let's write another predicate:
+
+ mylength(L,X)
+
+which is true if X is the length of list L
+
+ mylength([],0).
+ mylength([_|Tail],Len) :- mylength(Tail,TailLen),
+ Len is TailLen +1.
+
+ ?- mylength([1,2],L).
+ does not unify with mylength([],0)
+ unifies with mylength([_|Tail],Len) with the bindings:
+ Tail = [2] and Len = L
+
+ now I need to prove the two things:
+ mylength([2],TailLen) and Len is TailLen + 1
+
+ can I prove the first one?
+ mylength([2],TailLen) does not unify with mylength([],0)
+ mylength([2],TailLen) unifies with mylength([_|Tail'],Len')
+ with the bindings:
+ Tail' = [] and Len' = TailLen
+
+ now I need to prove the two conditions:
+ mylength([],TailLen'') and Len' is TailLen'' + 1
+ can I prove the first one?
+ mylength([],TailLen'') unifies with mylength([],0)
+ with the bindings: TailLen'' = 0
+ Len' is TailLen'' + 1 then leads to the binding
+ Len' = 1
+ therefore TailLen is equal to Len', and thus to 1
+ therefore Len is equal to Len' + 1, and thus to 2
+ therefore L is equal to Len, and thus to 2
+ Prolog answers L = 2.
+
+=============================== Lecture 2 ===============================
+
+-------------------------- Accumulators ---------------------------
+
+ - There are cases in which you want to add an argument to a predicate
+ just to keep track of useful information
+
+Example: List Reverse:
+----------------------
+
+We will now write a predicate:
+
+ rev(X,Y)
+
+that is true if the list Y is the reverse of the list X.
+To do so, we will use an accumulator that tracks the elements seen so far
+in X.
+
+ rev(X,Y) :- acc_rev(X,Y,[]).
+
+The third parameter is the "accumulator". We will "push" elements into it
+in the order they appear in X. Thus, when we have pushed all the elements,
+the third parameter is the "reversed" version of X.
+
+ acc_rev([],Y,Y). %base case
+ acc_rev([H|T],Y,SoFar) :- acc_rev(T,Y,[H|SoFar]). %recursive case
+
+
+ ?- rev([1,2,3],Y).
+ Y = [3,2,1]
+ Yes
+
+ ?- rev(X,[3,2,1]).
+ X = 1,2,3
+ Yes
+
+The nice thing about predicates, is one can go forwards or backwards! Its
+completely symmetric...
+
+
+
+
+Example: Finding all solutions:
+-------------------------------
+
+Suppose we have a predicate foo(X), defined:
+
+ foo(a).
+ foo(b).
+ foo(c).
+ foo(d).
+
+and say we want to find all the terms X such that foo(X) is true.
+We will use an accumulator to define a predicate:
+
+ allfoos(L)
+
+that is true for a list of terms iff every term in the list satisfies foo.
+
+
+ allfoos(L) :- listallfoos(L,[]).
+
+listallfoos is a helper predicate, whose second argument is an accumulator
+that "tracks" which terms satisfying foo are already known. We shall then
+"add" those terms that satisfy foo, but are not in the "accumulator".
+
+ % recursive case
+ listallfoos([X|L],SoFar) :- foo(X),
+ not(isin(X,SoFar)),
+ append(SoFar,[X],NewSoFar),
+ listallfoos(L,NewSoFar).
+ % base case
+ listallfoos([],_).
+
+ ?- allfoos(A).
+ must prove listalllfoos(A,[]).
+ unifies with listallfoos([X|L],[])
+ must prove four things: foo(X)
+ not(isin(X,[])
+ append([],[X],NewSoFar)
+ listallfoos(L,NewSoFar)
+ foo(a) true (X is bound to a)
+ not(isin(a,[])) true
+ append([],[a],NewSoFar) true with NewSoFar=[a]
+ must prove listallfoos(L,[a])
+ unifies with liastallfoos([Y|L'],[a])
+ must prove four things: foo(Y)
+ not(isin(Y,[a]).
+ append([a],[Y],NewSoFar')
+ listallfoos(L',NewSoFar')
+ foo(a) true
+ not(isin(a,[a])) false BACKTRACK
+ foo(b) true (Y is bound to b)
+ not(isin(b,[b])) true
+ append([a],[b],NewSoFar') true with NewSoFar' = [a,b]
+ must prove listallfoos(L',[a,b])
+ unifies with listallfoos([Z|L''],[a,b])
+ must prove four things: foo(Z)
+ not(isin(Z,[a,b])
+ one can see that will fail BACKTRACK
+ unifies with listallfoos([],[a,b]).
+ therefore: L' unifies with []
+ therefore: [Y|L'] unifies with [b]
+ therefore L unifies with [b]
+ therefore [X|L] unifies with [a,b]
+ therefore A unifies with [a,b]
+ therefore allfoos([a,b])
+
+If you try this code, and hit ';', you'll get multiple answers
+Try to figure out why (using the "trace" mode)
+Solution: add a cut
+
+ listallfoos_cut([X|L],SoFar) :-
+ foo(X),
+ not(isin(X,SoFar)),
+ append(SoFar,[X],NewSoFar),
+ listallfoos(L,NewSoFar),!.
+
+ listallfoos_cut([],_).
+
+What happens when you flip order of base case and recursion ?
+
+---------------------------- Puzzle Solving ----------------------------
+
+We now have a good feel for what Prolog programs look like. Lets finish, by
+seeing how succinctly and elegantly prolog allows us to write code to solve
+tricky logical puzzles.
+
+
+Towers of Hanoi:
+---------------
+ | | |
+ =|= | |
+ ===|=== | |
+ =====|===== | |
+ =======|======= | |
+ --------------------------------------------------
+ Peg 1 Peg 2 Peg 3
+
+Puzzle: There are three pegs. On the first one, there is a stack of rings
+of decreasing radius (that forms a tower). In each step, you are allowed
+to move the top ring from one peg to another, but only if the rings in
+the new peg form a conical tower -- i.e. as long as the sequences of
+radii from top to bottom is increasing (as shown in the figure).
+
+ - Goal: Find the sequence of moves (move top ring from from peg X to peg Y)
+ that moves the tower from peg 1 to peg 3.
+ - The basic action is to move 1 disk, with printing
+
+ move(A,B) :-
+ nl, write ('Move topdisk from '),
+ write(A), write(' to '), write(B).
+
+ - the main predicate is transfer(N,A,B,X):
+ represents "Move N disks from peg A to peg B by using peg X as a helper"
+ - base case:
+ transfer(1,A,B,X) :- move(A,B).
+ Better written as: transfer(1,A,B,_) :- move(A,B).
+
+ - inductive case:
+ transfer(N,A,B,X) :-
+ transfer the top N-1 disks to X
+ transfer the (bottom) disk from A to B
+ transfer the top N-1 disks from X to B
+
+ transfer(N,A,B,X) :-
+ M is N-1,
+ transfer(M,A,X,B),
+ move(A,B),
+ transfer(M,X,B,A).
+
+Lets see how these work -- lets name the pegs using atoms: peg1, peg2,
+peg3. Here's the sequence of moves to transfer a tower of size 3 across
+(you can try this at home!).
+
+
+ ?- transfer(3,peg1,peg3,peg2).
+ Move topdisk from peg1 to peg3
+ Move topdisk from peg1 to peg2
+ Move topdisk from peg3 to peg2
+ Move topdisk from peg1 to peg3
+ Move topdisk from peg2 to peg1
+ Move topdisk from peg2 to peg3
+ Move topdisk from peg1 to peg3
+
+
+
+
+Farmer/ Wolf / Goat / Cabbage:
+------------------------------
+
+ *West* *East*
+
+ Goat | | Goat eats cabbage if no farmer
+ Wolf | river | Wolf eats goat if no farmer
+ Cabbage | | Only one spot on the boat(farmer+1)
+
+Configure the "state" of the program as a list with the location of the
+four objects (farmer, wolf, goat, cabbage). There are two locations: West (w)
+and East (e).
+
+ initial state: [w,w,w,w]
+
+ desired state: [e,e,e,e]
+
+There are four kinds of moves:
+ with the cabbage, (move_cabbage)
+ with the goat, (move_goat)
+ with the wolf, (move_wolf)
+ with nothing. (move_nothing)
+
+Here is how the "state" changes with a given move:
+
+For instance, [w,w,w,w] ---"move wolf"--> [e,e,w,w]
+
+We encode this as:
+
+ move([w,w,w,w],move_wolf,[e,e,w,w]).
+
+ (this just says that the state transformation above is true)
+
+We could write all the possible moves as facts, but there would be a lot. However,
+it is clear that when the farmer and wolf move, the goat and the cabbage do not
+move, so a more general fact is:
+
+ move([w,w,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_wolf,[e,e,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]).
+ move([e,e,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_wolf,[w,w,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]).
+
+therefore, a more general goal is:
+
+ move([X,X,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_wolf,[Y,Y,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y)
+
+where we have:
+ change(e,w).
+ change(w,e).
+
+In addition to ensuring that X and Y are different, this predicate ensures
+that they cannot be any random atom -- they must be either "e" or "w".
+
+Now we can just write the whole program:
+
+ move([X,X,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_wolf,[Y,Y,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y).
+ move([X,P_Wolf,X,P_Cabbage],move_goat,[Y,P_Wolf,Y,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y).
+ move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,X],move_cabbage,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,Y]) :- change(X,Y).
+ move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_nothing,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y).
+
+At this point we have encoded all the possible moves. But there is nothing about
+moves being safe or unsafe. We need a safe predicate that takes a state as input and
+is true if the state is sage (nobody eats nobody).
+
+ "if at least one of the goat or the wolf is on the same bank as the farmer, AND
+ at least one of the goat or cabbage is on the same bank as the farmer,
+ then we're safe"
+
+We define the one_equal(X,Y,Z) predicate that returns true if at least one
+of Y or Z is equal to X:
+
+ one_equal(X,X,_).
+ one_equal(X,_,X).
+
+then we can have:
+
+ safe([P_Farmer,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :-
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Goat,P_Wolf),
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Goat,P_Cabbage).
+
+this encodes the logical statement we made above.
+
+A solution is defined as a sequence of moves such that we are either:
+-- in the target configuration, all on the east bank, or,
+-- in a state from which there is a single move, which takes us into
+a safe state, from which we can get to the target configuration.
+
+ solution([e,e,e,e],[]).
+ solution(State,[FirstMove|RemainingMoves]) :-
+ move(State,FirstMove,NextState),
+ safe(NextState),
+ solution(NextState,RemainingMoves).
+
+The program is complete.
+
+Example run:
+
+If you just type solution([w,w,w,w],X), we get into an infinite loop as there are
+infinitely solutions. So:
+
+ ?- length(X,7), solution([w,w,w,w],X).
+
+ X = [goat, nothing, wolf, goat, cabbage, nothing, goat]
+
+In fact, 7 steps is the shortest solution.
+
+ ?- length(X,12), solution([w,w,w,w],X). (needs an odd number of moves)
+ No
+
+ ?- length(X,13423), solution([w,w,w,w],X).
+ [goat, goat, goat, goat, goat, goat, goat, ....., +7 steps] is one of the solutions
+
+
+------------------- Cuts (Not Covered, Bonus Material, Not on Final) ---------------
+
+ - Ordering clauses and goals is a way to somewhat control the search and
+ backtracking process, but it is very limited.
+ - There is something called a "cut" that prevents Prolog from backtracking.
+ - Example: Let's say we're writing a program to compute the following step function:
+ X < 3 phi(X) = 0
+ 3 <= X < 6 phi(X) = 2
+ 6 <= X phi(X) = 4
+
+ In Prolog we can implement this with a binary predicate, f(X,Y), which
+ is true if Y is the function value at point X. For instance, f(0,0) is
+ true, f(4,2) is true, but f(2,4) is false. Here is the program:
+
+ f(X,0) :- X < 3. [rule 1]
+ f(X,2) :- 3 =< X, X < 6. [rule 2] note '=<'
+ f(X,4) :- 6 =< X. [rule 3]
+
+ There are two sources of inefficiency in this program, that we'll see
+ on one example:
+
+ ?- f(1,Y), 2 < Y. [find a Y such that Y = f(1) and 2 < Y]
+ [ we can see this is going to fail]
+
+ what does Prolog do?
+
+ f(1,Y)
+ 2 < Y ----------
+ rule 1 / \ \
+ Y = 0 / \ rule 2 \ rule 3
+ / | Y = 2 | Y = 4
+ | | |
+ 1 < 3 3 <= 1 6 <= 1
+ 2 < 0 1 < 6 2 < 4
+ | 2 < 2 NO
+ | NO
+ 2 < 0
+ NO
+
+ There is really no point in trying rule 2 and rule 3 because since X < 3, we
+ know that rule 2 and rule 3 will fail. Basically, the three rules are mututally
+ exclusive. We know that. Prolog doesn't.
+
+ So, we can "cut" the backtracking by using the '!' operator:
+
+ f(X,0) :- X < 3, !.
+ f(X,2) :- 3 <= X, X < 6, !.
+ f(X,4) :- 6 <= X.
+
+
+ The new execution looks like:
+
+ f(1,Y)
+ 2 < Y
+ rule 1 /
+ Y = 0 /
+ /
+ |
+ 1 < 3
+ 2 < 0
+ |
+ CUT
+ |
+ 2 < 0
+ NO
+
+ Lessons: cuts can be used to prevent Prolog from going into branches
+ of the search tree that we know, due to our understanding and
+ knowledge of the problem, will not succeed anyway.
+
+ - There are many more things possible with cuts and using them well is
+ an art. A program with no cuts at all will run orders of magnitude
+ slower than an equivalent program with a few '!' thrown in.
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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+ CS 130 Fall 07: Sample Questions for Final
+_________________________________________________________________________
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 1:
+---------
+
+For each ML function given below, if the function is well typed, then
+write down its type, otherwise explain in less than two lines why Ocaml
+rejects the function.
+
+(a)
+let rec rev l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) -> (rev t)::h
+
+(b)
+let rec f l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) -> (List.hd h)::t
+
+
+(c)
+let rec f (tup,l) =
+ match l with
+ [] -> 0
+ | (h::t) -> tup.h + f (tup,t)
+
+(d)
+let rec f (x,y) =
+ if x then (List.hd y) + 20
+ else if not x then 0 else y
+
+(e)
+let rec f l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | f (h::t) -> h @ (flatten t)
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+Problem 2:
+---------
+
+Which of the functions below are tail recursive ?
+Also, for each function, write down its type.
+For the ones that are not, write down tail
+recursive versions that achieve the same task.
+
+(a)
+let rec map f l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) -> (f h) :: (map f t)
+
+(b)
+let rec fold f b l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> b
+ | (h::t) -> fold f (f (h,b)) t
+
+(c)
+let rec len l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> 0
+ | (h::t) -> 1 + len t
+
+(d)
+let rec f (n,l) =
+ match l with
+ [] -> n
+ | (n,h::t) = if (h>n) then f (h,t) else f(n,t)
+
+
+
+Solution: run Ocaml to get types.
+--------
+
+(a) Not tail recursive.
+ let map f l =
+ let rec helper (acc,l') =
+ match l' with
+ [] -> acc
+ | (acc,h::t) = helper((f h)::acc,t)
+ in
+ List.rev(helper([],l))
+
+(b) Tail recursive.
+
+(c) Not tail recursive.
+ let len l =
+ let rec helper (n,l') =
+ match l' with
+ [] -> n
+ | helper (n,_::t) = helper(s+1,t)
+ in
+ helper(0,t)
+
+
+(d) Tail recursive.
+
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 3:
+---------
+
+The following datatype can be used to represent arbitrarily nested
+lists.
+
+type 'a nlist = Nil | Cons of 'a elt * 'a nlist
+and 'a elt = E of 'a | NL of 'a nlist
+
+The list [1,2] could be represented as Cons(E 1,Cons(E 2,Nil)),
+the list [[1],2] as Cons(NL(Cons((E 1),Nil)),Cons(E 2,Nil))
+and the list [[[],[1]],2] as Cons(NL(Cons(NL Nil,Cons (E 1,Nil))), Cons(E 2,Nil)).
+
+Using only pattern-matching (i.e. no if-then-else expressions):
+
+(a) Write a function: nlist_toString: ('a -> string) -> 'a nlist -> string
+ such that if nl is bound to Cons(NL(Cons(NL Nil,Cons (E 1,Nil))), Cons(E 2,Nil)),
+ then (nlist_toString Int.toString nl) evaluates to: "[[[],[1]],2]".
+
+(b) Write a function flatten: 'a nlist -> 'a list that returns
+ the list of elements appearing in the nested list in order.
+ Thus when applied to any of the lists shown above, flatten
+ returns the list [1,2].
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 4:
+---------
+
+We say that two expressions e1 and e2 are semantically equivalent
+if in every environment E, evaluating e1 and evaluating e2 produces
+the same result. For each of the following pairs of expressions,
+explain why they are semantically equivalent, or if not, then give
+an environment that distinguishes the two, i.e. in which evaluating
+the two expressions gives different results.
+
+(a)
+ (* e1 *) let x = 0 in x
+
+ (* e2 *) let x = (f 1) * 0 in x
+
+(b)
+ (* e1 *) (fun a -> fun b -> a + b) p q
+
+ (* e2 *) (fun b -> fun a -> b + a) p q
+
+(c)
+ (* e1 *)
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ let y = b + 2 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+
+ (* e2 *)
+ let y = b + 2 in
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+
+(d)
+ (* e1 *)
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ let y = x + 2 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+
+ (* e2 *)
+ let y = x + 2 in
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+Solution:
+--------
+
+(a) Not equivalent: as f may not terminate or throw an exception!
+ Distinguishing environment: where f is: fun f x = f x
+
+(b) Equivalent -- as the arguments or "formals" for the two functions
+ have just been renamed.
+
+(c) Equivalent -- as only difference is order but the same expressions
+ are evaluated in both cases giving same values.
+
+(d) Not Equivalent -- a distinguishing environment is where
+ x is bound to 0 and a is bound to 0,a are bound to 0,0. The "free"
+ occurrence of x gets its value 0 from the environment, and thus y
+ gets bound differently leading to different evaluations.
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 5:
+---------
+
+Does the following code work correctly ? If not, find and fix the bug.
+
+(a) For PA #2, Problem #1 (c):
+
+ let rec ffor (i,j,f) = if i=j then () else ((f i); ffor (i+1,j,f))
+
+(b) For PA #2, Problem #1 (b): Recall that isMember (x,l) returns true if the value x
+ appears in the list l, and listReverse l returns a list with the the
+ elements of l in reversed order.
+
+ let cleanList l =
+ let rec helper (seen,rest) =
+ match rest with
+ [] -> seen
+ | h::t ->
+ let seen' = if isMember (h,t) then seen else (h::seen) in
+ let rest' = t in
+ helper (seen',rest')
+ in
+ listReverse (helper ([],l))
+
+(c) Implementation of a function pow : 'a list -> 'a list list which takes a
+ list [x1,...,xn] and returns the list of all subsets of {x1,...,xn}. That
+ is: pow [1,2,3] should return [[],[1],[2],[3],[1,2],[1,3],[2,3],[1,2,3]],
+ though the actual "order" of the subsets doesnt matter (i.e. its ok to
+ also return [[1,2,3],[1,2],[1],[2,3],[2],[1,3],[3],[]] (or any other
+ permutation).
+
+ let pow l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) ->
+ let val sub = pow t in
+ (map (fun l -> h::l) sub)
+
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 6:
+---------
+
+Consider the following structure:
+
+module L : LSIG =
+ struct
+ type my int list = Empty | Cons of int * my int list
+ exception BadList
+ let makeOne i = Cons(i,Empty)
+ let makeCons (i,l) = Cons(i,l)
+ let my hd lst = ________________________
+ let my tl lst = ________________________
+ end
+
+(a) Write bodies for my_hd and my_tl such that each takes a value of type
+ my_int_list, raises BadList if the value is Empty, and evaluates to the
+ first (for my_hd) or second (for my_tl) element of the pair that Cons carries.
+
+(b) For each of the following LSIG definitions, determine if a client of
+ L can make BadList get raised. If so, give an example client for which
+ BadList is raised. If not, briefly explain why not.
+
+ (i)
+ module type LSIG =
+ sig
+ datatype my_int_list = Empty | Cons of int * my_int_list
+ val my_hd : my_int_list -> int
+ val makeOne : int -> my_int_list
+ end
+
+ (ii)
+ module type LSIG =
+ sig
+ type my_int_list
+ val makeCons : int * my_int_list -> my_int_list
+ val my_hd : my_int_list -> int
+ val makeOne : int -> my_int_list
+ end
+
+ (iii)
+ module type LSIG =
+ sig
+ type my_int_list;
+ val makeCons : int * my_int_list -> my_int_list
+ val my_tl : my_int_list -> my_int_list
+ val makeOne : int -> my_int_list
+ end
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 7:
+---------
+
+Below we list some Scala functions and two inputs for each function.
+Describe the result of running each function on the two inputs shown.
+Report what value is computed if the function finishes successfuly, or
+write "error" if an exception is thrown.
+
+
+(a)
+def rev[A](xs: List[A]) : List[A] =
+ xs match {
+ case Nil => List()
+ case h::t => rev(t) ++ List(h)
+ }
+
+Inputs:(i) List(1,2,3) (ii) List(List(), 1, List(2))
+
+
+(b)
+def f[A](xs: List[List[A]] : List[A] =
+ xs match {
+ case Nil => List()
+ case h::t => List(h(0)) ++ f(t)
+ }
+
+Inputs:(i) [1,2,3] (ii) [[0],[1,2],[2, 3, 4]]
+
+(d)
+def f(x: Boolean, y: List[Int]) =
+ if (x) { y(0) + 10 } else { 0 }
+
+Inputs:(i) (false, List(1,2,3)) (ii) (true, List(1,2,3))
+
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 10:
+----------
+
+Consider the following Scala code.
+
+class E1 extends Throwable
+
+class E2 extends E1
+
+class E3 extends E2
+
+def f(){
+ println("begin f")
+ try{ g() }
+ catch { case _:E1 => () }
+ println("end f")
+
+def g(){
+ println("begin g")
+ try { h() }
+ catch { case _:E3 => () }
+ println("end g")
+
+def h(){
+ println("begin h")
+ throw (new E2)
+ println("end h")
+
+What is the result of:
+
+scala> f()
+
+i.e. of calling the function f ?
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 11:
+----------
+
+Consider the following Scala code:
+
+trait A {
+ def m(y: A): Unit
+}
+
+trait C extends A {
+ def n(y: C): A
+}
+
+class B extends A {
+ val x : Int
+
+ def m(y: A){
+ return
+ }
+}
+
+class D extends B {
+ val y: Int = 0
+}
+
+class E extends B with C {
+ def n(z: C): A = {
+ return z;
+ }
+}
+
+(a) Name the types, classes and interfaces that have been created.
+
+
+(b) Which of the following is true ?
+ (i) A <: B
+ (ii) A <: C
+ (iii) B <: A
+ (iv) D <: C
+ (v) D <: B
+ (vi) E <: C
+ (vii) E <: B
+ (viii) E <: A
+
+(c) Which of the following is true ?
+ (i) A inherits from B
+ (ii) A inherits from C
+ (iii) B inherits from A
+ (iv) D inherits from C
+ (v) D inherits from B
+ (vi) E inherits from C
+ (vii) E inherits from B
+ (viii) E inherits from A
+
+(d) Consider the following methods. Which of them typecheck ?
+ (i) def fa(A x): Unit = { x.m(x); };
+
+ (ii) def fb(B x): Unit = { x.n(x); };
+
+ (iii) def fc(C x): Unit = { x.n(x); };
+
+(e) Suppose that there were methods:
+
+ def fa(x: A): Unit = { return }
+
+ def fb(x: B): Unit = { return }
+
+ def fc(x: C): Unit = { return }
+
+ Which of the following typecheck ? Explain.
+
+ (i) val a:A = new A
+ fa(a)
+
+ (ii) val b:B = new B
+ fa(b)
+
+ (iii) val b:B = new B
+ fc(b)
+
+ (iv) val d:D = new D
+ fa(d)
+
+ (v) val d:D = new D
+ fa(d)
+ fb(d)
+ fc(d)
+
+ (vi) val e:E = new E
+ fa(e)
+ fb(e)
+ fc(e)
+
+Solution:
+--------
+
+(a) Types: A,B,C,D,E.
+ Classes: B,D,E
+ Interfaces: A,C
+
+(b) True: (i),(iii),(v),(vi),(vii),(viii)
+
+(c) True: (v),(vii)
+
+(d) (i) and (iii) typecheck.
+
+(e) (i) No. Cannot instantiate an interface!
+ (ii) Yes. B <: A
+ (iii) No. B is not a subtype of C.
+ (iv) Yes. D <: A
+ (v) No. D is not a subtype of C.
+ (vi) Yes. E <: A,B,C.
+
+_______________________________________________________________________
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/docs/static/raw/sample-questions1.txt b/docs/static/raw/sample-questions1.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ec91ab9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/raw/sample-questions1.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,615 @@
+ CS 130 Fall 07: Sample Questions for Final
+_________________________________________________________________________
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 1:
+---------
+
+For each ML function given below, if the function is well typed, then
+write down its type, otherwise explain in less than two lines why Ocaml
+rejects the function.
+
+(a)
+let rec rev l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) -> (rev t)::h
+
+(b)
+let rec f l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) -> (List.hd h)::t
+
+
+(c)
+let rec f (tup,l) =
+ match l with
+ [] -> 0
+ | (h::t) -> tup.h + f (tup,t)
+
+(d)
+let rec f (x,y) =
+ if x then (List.hd y) + 20
+ else if not x then 0 else y
+
+(e)
+let rec f l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | f (h::t) -> h @ (flatten t)
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+Problem 2:
+---------
+
+Which of the functions below are tail recursive ?
+Also, for each function, write down its type.
+For the ones that are not, write down tail
+recursive versions that achieve the same task.
+
+(a)
+let rec map f l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) -> (f h) :: (map f t)
+
+(b)
+let rec fold f b l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> b
+ | (h::t) -> fold f (f (h,b)) t
+
+(c)
+let rec len l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> 0
+ | (h::t) -> 1 + len t
+
+(d)
+let rec f (n,l) =
+ match l with
+ [] -> n
+ | (n,h::t) = if (h>n) then f (h,t) else f(n,t)
+
+
+
+Solution: run Ocaml to get types.
+--------
+
+(a) Not tail recursive.
+ let map f l =
+ let rec helper (acc,l') =
+ match l' with
+ [] -> acc
+ | (acc,h::t) = helper((f h)::acc,t)
+ in
+ List.rev(helper([],l))
+
+(b) Tail recursive.
+
+(c) Not tail recursive.
+ let len l =
+ let rec helper (n,l') =
+ match l' with
+ [] -> n
+ | helper (n,_::t) = helper(s+1,t)
+ in
+ helper(0,t)
+
+
+(d) Tail recursive.
+
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 3:
+---------
+
+The following datatype can be used to represent arbitrarily nested
+lists.
+
+type 'a nlist = Nil | Cons of 'a elt * 'a nlist
+and 'a elt = E of 'a | NL of 'a nlist
+
+The list [1,2] could be represented as Cons(E 1,Cons(E 2,Nil)),
+the list [[1],2] as Cons(NL(Cons((E 1),Nil)),Cons(E 2,Nil))
+and the list [[[],[1]],2] as Cons(NL(Cons(NL Nil,Cons (E 1,Nil))), Cons(E 2,Nil)).
+
+Using only pattern-matching (i.e. no if-then-else expressions):
+
+(a) Write a function: nlist_toString: ('a -> string) -> 'a nlist -> string
+ such that if nl is bound to Cons(NL(Cons(NL Nil,Cons (E 1,Nil))), Cons(E 2,Nil)),
+ then (nlist_toString Int.toString nl) evaluates to: "[[[],[1]],2]".
+
+(b) Write a function flatten: 'a nlist -> 'a list that returns
+ the list of elements appearing in the nested list in order.
+ Thus when applied to any of the lists shown above, flatten
+ returns the list [1,2].
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 4:
+---------
+
+We say that two expressions e1 and e2 are semantically equivalent
+if in every environment E, evaluating e1 and evaluating e2 produces
+the same result. For each of the following pairs of expressions,
+explain why they are semantically equivalent, or if not, then give
+an environment that distinguishes the two, i.e. in which evaluating
+the two expressions gives different results.
+
+(a)
+ (* e1 *) let x = 0 in x
+
+ (* e2 *) let x = (f 1) * 0 in x
+
+(b)
+ (* e1 *) (fun a -> fun b -> a + b) p q
+
+ (* e2 *) (fun b -> fun a -> b + a) p q
+
+(c)
+ (* e1 *)
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ let y = b + 2 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+
+ (* e2 *)
+ let y = b + 2 in
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+
+(d)
+ (* e1 *)
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ let y = x + 2 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+
+ (* e2 *)
+ let y = x + 2 in
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+Solution:
+--------
+
+(a) Not equivalent: as f may not terminate or throw an exception!
+ Distinguishing environment: where f is: fun f x = f x
+
+(b) Equivalent -- as the arguments or "formals" for the two functions
+ have just been renamed.
+
+(c) Equivalent -- as only difference is order but the same expressions
+ are evaluated in both cases giving same values.
+
+(d) Not Equivalent -- a distinguishing environment is where
+ x is bound to 0 and a is bound to 0,a are bound to 0,0. The "free"
+ occurrence of x gets its value 0 from the environment, and thus y
+ gets bound differently leading to different evaluations.
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 5:
+---------
+
+Does the following code work correctly ? If not, find and fix the bug.
+
+(a) For PA #2, Problem #1 (c):
+
+ let rec ffor (i,j,f) = if i=j then () else ((f i); ffor (i+1,j,f))
+
+(b) For PA #2, Problem #1 (b): Recall that isMember (x,l) returns true if the value x
+ appears in the list l, and listReverse l returns a list with the the
+ elements of l in reversed order.
+
+ let cleanList l =
+ let rec helper (seen,rest) =
+ match rest with
+ [] -> seen
+ | h::t ->
+ let seen' = if isMember (h,t) then seen else (h::seen) in
+ let rest' = t in
+ helper (seen',rest')
+ in
+ listReverse (helper ([],l))
+
+(c) Implementation of a function pow : 'a list -> 'a list list which takes a
+ list [x1,...,xn] and returns the list of all subsets of {x1,...,xn}. That
+ is: pow [1,2,3] should return [[],[1],[2],[3],[1,2],[1,3],[2,3],[1,2,3]],
+ though the actual "order" of the subsets doesnt matter (i.e. its ok to
+ also return [[1,2,3],[1,2],[1],[2,3],[2],[1,3],[3],[]] (or any other
+ permutation).
+
+ let pow l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) ->
+ let val sub = pow t in
+ (map (fun l -> h::l) sub)
+
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 6:
+---------
+
+Consider the following structure:
+
+module L : LSIG =
+ struct
+ type my int list = Empty | Cons of int * my int list
+ exception BadList
+ let makeOne i = Cons(i,Empty)
+ let makeCons (i,l) = Cons(i,l)
+ let my hd lst = ________________________
+ let my tl lst = ________________________
+ end
+
+(a) Write bodies for my_hd and my_tl such that each takes a value of type
+ my_int_list, raises BadList if the value is Empty, and evaluates to the
+ first (for my_hd) or second (for my_tl) element of the pair that Cons carries.
+
+(b) For each of the following LSIG definitions, determine if a client of
+ L can make BadList get raised. If so, give an example client for which
+ BadList is raised. If not, briefly explain why not.
+
+ (i)
+ module type LSIG =
+ sig
+ datatype my_int_list = Empty | Cons of int * my_int_list
+ val my_hd : my_int_list -> int
+ val makeOne : int -> my_int_list
+ end
+
+ (ii)
+ module type LSIG =
+ sig
+ type my_int_list
+ val makeCons : int * my_int_list -> my_int_list
+ val my_hd : my_int_list -> int
+ val makeOne : int -> my_int_list
+ end
+
+ (iii)
+ module type LSIG =
+ sig
+ type my_int_list;
+ val makeCons : int * my_int_list -> my_int_list
+ val my_tl : my_int_list -> my_int_list
+ val makeOne : int -> my_int_list
+ end
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 7:
+---------
+
+Below we list some Python functions and two inputs for each function.
+Describe the result of running each function on the two inputs shown.
+Report what value is computed if the function finishes successfuly, or
+write "error" if an exception is thrown.
+
+
+(a)
+def rev(l):
+ if l==[]: return []
+ else:
+ h,t = l[0],l[1:]
+ return (rev(t).append(h))
+
+Inputs:(i) [1,2,3] (ii) [[],1,[2]]
+
+
+(b)
+def f(l):
+ if l==[]: return []
+ else:
+ h,t = l[0],l[1:]
+ return [h[0]] + f(t)
+Inputs:(i) [1,2,3] (ii) [[[]],[1],[[2],3]]
+
+
+(c)
+def f(tup,l):
+ if l==[]: return 0
+ else:
+ h,t = l[0],l[1:]
+ return tup[h] + f(tup,t)
+
+Inputs:(i) ([0,1,2],(0,1,2)) (ii) ([[1],[2],[3,4]],(0,2))
+
+(d)
+def f(x,y):
+ if x: return y[0] + 10
+ elif not x: return 0
+ else: return y
+
+Inputs:(i) (0,[1,2,3]) (ii) (1,[1,2,3])
+
+(e)
+def f(l):
+ if l==[]: return []
+ else:
+ h,t = l[0],l[1:]
+ return h + f(t)
+
+Inputs:(i) [1,2,3] (ii) [[1],[[2]],[]]
+
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+Problem 8:
+---------
+
+Which of the following does not terminate ? Explain.
+
+
+(a) l = [1,2,3]
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ l = l + x
+
+
+(b) l = [1,2,3]
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ l = l + [x]
+
+
+(c) l = [1,2,3]
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ l.append(x)
+
+
+(d) l = [1,2,3]
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ l = l + [x]
+ m = l
+ m.append(x)
+
+
+(e) l = [1,2,3]
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ m = l
+ m.append(x)
+
+
+(f) l = [1,2,3]
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ m = l
+ l = l + [x]
+ m.append(x)
+
+
+(g) l = [1,2,3]
+ m = l
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ l = l + [x]
+ l.append(x)
+
+
+(g) l = [1,2,3]
+ m = l
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ l = l + [x]
+ m.append(x)
+
+
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+Problem 9: subclassing/disp
+---------
+
+Consider the following Python code.
+
+def foo(C,go):
+ class D(C):
+ def g(self):
+ C.g(self)
+ return go(self)
+ return D
+
+
+class A:
+ def f(self):
+ print "A:f"
+ self.g()
+
+ def g(self):
+ print "A:g"
+
+
+def g(self): print "B:g"
+
+B = foo(A,g)
+
+a = A()
+b = B()
+
+What gets printed if you evaluate:
+
+(i) a.f()
+
+(ii) a.g()
+
+(iii) b.f()
+
+(iv) b.g()
+
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 10:
+----------
+
+Consider the following Python code.
+
+class E1(Exception): pass
+
+class E2(E1): pass
+
+class E3(E2): pass
+
+def f():
+ print "begin f"
+ try: g()
+ except E1: pass
+ print "end F"
+
+def g():
+ print "begin g"
+ try: h()
+ except E3: pass
+ print "end g"
+
+def h():
+ print "begin h"
+ raise E2
+ print "end h"
+
+
+What is the result of:
+
+>>> f()
+
+i.e. of calling the function f ?
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 11:
+----------
+
+Consider the following Java code:
+
+interface A {
+ void m(A y);
+}
+
+interface C extends A {
+ A n(C y);
+}
+
+class B implements A {
+ int x;
+ void m(A y){
+ return;
+ }
+}
+
+class D extends B {
+ int y;
+}
+
+class E extends B implements C {
+ A n(C z){
+ return z;
+ }
+}
+
+(a) Name the types, classes and interfaces that have been created.
+
+
+(b) Which of the following is true ?
+ (i) A <: B
+ (ii) A <: C
+ (iii) B <: A
+ (iv) D <: C
+ (v) D <: B
+ (vi) E <: C
+ (vii) E <: B
+ (viii) E <: A
+
+(c) Which of the following is true ?
+ (i) A inherits from B
+ (ii) A inherits from C
+ (iii) B inherits from A
+ (iv) D inherits from C
+ (v) D inherits from B
+ (vi) E inherits from C
+ (vii) E inherits from B
+ (viii) E inherits from A
+
+(d) Consider the following methods. Which of them typecheck ?
+ (i) void fa(A x){ x.m(x); };
+
+ (ii) void fb(B x){ x.n(x); };
+
+ (iii) void fc(C x){ x.n(x); };
+
+(e) Suppose that there were methods:
+ void fa(A x){ return; };
+
+ void fb(B x){ return; };
+
+ void fc(C x){ return; };
+
+ Which of the following typecheck ? Explain.
+
+ (i) A a = A();
+ fa(a);
+
+ (ii) B b = B();
+ fa(b);
+
+ (iii) B b = B();
+ fc(b);
+
+ (iv) D d = D();
+ fa(d);
+
+ (v) D d = D();
+ fa(d);
+ fb(d);
+ fc(d);
+
+ (vi) E e = E();
+ fa(e);
+ fb(e);
+ fc(e);
+
+Solution:
+--------
+
+(a) Types: A,B,C,D,E.
+ Classes: B,D,E
+ Interfaces: A,C
+
+(b) True: (i),(iii),(v),(vi),(vii),(viii)
+
+(c) True: (v),(vii)
+
+(d) (i) and (iii) typecheck.
+
+(e) (i) No. Cannot instantiate an interface!
+ (ii) Yes. B <: A
+ (iii) No. B is not a subtype of C.
+ (iv) Yes. D <: A
+ (v) No. D is not a subtype of C.
+ (vi) Yes. E <: A,B,C.
+
+_______________________________________________________________________
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/docs/static/raw/sample-questions2.html b/docs/static/raw/sample-questions2.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..be99297
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/raw/sample-questions2.html
@@ -0,0 +1,296 @@
+<HTML><head>
+ <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../styles.css">
+ <title>Practice Problems for Midterm</title></head>
+<TITLE> </TITLE>
+
+<BODY>
+<BODY BGCOLOR="WHITE">
+
+<br>
+<P>
+<H2> Practice Problems for Midterm </H2>
+
+<hr>
+<H3>Programming Assignments 1, 2 and 3</H3>
+
+<p>PA 1, 2, and 3 are all practice problems for the mideterm, and you
+will get questions similar in nature to those assignments.
+
+<p>In addition, here are some additional practice problems.
+
+<hr>
+<h3>Additional Practice Problem 1</h3>
+Suppose that the following list of bindings was entered into the OCaml
+interpreter.
+For each binding, the interpreter responds with either:
+(a) the name of the variable, its value, and its type, as shown for the
+first binding in <i> italics </i>, or (b) a type error.<br>
+Fill in the blanks ("<tt>...</tt>") with how the interpreter
+would respond if each of the bindings was entered in the sequence shown
+below. Recall that if a type error occurs, then the variable binding does not
+happen. Note that you could just enter this sequence into the interpreter
+and see what happens, but this is a luxury you will not have during the
+quiz.
+
+
+<tt>
+ <p>- let x = 2 ;; </p>
+ <p> <i>val x : int = 2 </i> </p>
+
+
+ <p>- let x = 2 + 3 - 4.0 ;; </p>
+
+ <p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let x = 2 + 3 ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let x = "a" ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let x = (x,3) ;; </p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let y = ((snd x)^"b" , 2) ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let y = ((fst x)^"c" , 4) ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let z = if (x = y) then (snd x) else (snd y) ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- type myrecord = {f1 : int; f2 : string ; f3 : int} ;;</p>
+
+<p>- let a = {f1 = x; f2 = (fst y); f3 = z} ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let b = z::(snd y)::[] ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let c = (x;y;z) ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let c = (x,y,z) ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let m = if (snd x) = (snd y) then b else [] ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let n = if (1 > 2) then ["a";"b"] else [] ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let o = if (m = n) then 2 else 3 ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+</tt>
+
+
+<P>
+
+<hr>
+<h3>Additional Practice Problem 2</h3>
+
+Suppose that the following list of bindings was entered into the OCaml
+interpreter in the sequence shown. For each binding, write down : <br>
+(a) If the expression is accepted, the value bound ("fn" for functions) and its type,<br>
+(b) If the expression is rejected due to a type error, "type error",<br>
+(c) If the expression is rejected due to an unbound variable,
+the name of the variable that is not bound.
+Recall that if a type error occurs, then the variable binding does not
+happen. Check your answers by entering this sequence into the interpreter.
+
+<code>
+ <pre>
+- let a =
+ let x = 20 in
+ let y =
+ let x = 5 in
+ x + x
+ in
+ x + y
+ ;;
+
+- let b =
+ let x = "ab" in
+ let y = (let x = "cd" in x) ^ x in
+ x ^ y
+ ;;
+
+- let c =
+ let x = 22 in
+ x::y
+ ;;
+
+</pre>
+</code>
+
+<hr>
+<h3>Additional Practice Problem 3</h3>
+In each part below you are required to complete the implementation of a
+function by filling in the appropriate expressions in the blanks (parts marked
+<code> ... </code>).
+
+<ul>
+<li>
+<b> (a) </b>
+<tt> everyOther : 'a list -> 'a list </tt>, a function that takes a list and
+returns every other element of the list, i.e. the application <tt>
+ everyOther [v1;v2;3;v4;v5;...] </tt> evaluates to <tt> [v1;v3;v5;...]
+</tt>. <br>
+<pre>
+<code>
+let everyOther l =
+ let rec helper (b,l) =
+ match l with
+ [] -> ...
+ | h::t -> if b then ... else ...
+ in
+ helper (true,l)
+;;
+</code>
+</pre>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+<b> (b) </b>
+<tt> zip : 'a list * 'b list -> ('a * 'b) list </tt>, a function that
+takes two lists (of equal length) and returns a list of pairs of
+corresponding elements, i.e. the application <tt>
+ zip ([x1;x2;x3;...;xn],[y1;y2;y3;...;yn]) </tt> evaluates to <tt>
+ ([(x1,y1);(x2,y2);(x3,y3);...;(xn,yn)]).
+</tt>.
+<br>
+<pre>
+<code>
+let rec zip (l1,l2) =
+ match (l1,l2) with
+ ([],_) -> ...
+ | (_,[]) -> ...
+ | (h1::t1,h2::t2) -> (...) :: (...)
+</code>
+</pre>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+<b> (c) </b>
+<tt> unzip : 'a * 'b list -> ('a list * 'b list ) </tt>, a function that
+takes a list of pairs and returns two lists (of equal length) of the first
+elements of the second elements of the pairs, respectively, i.e. the application <tt>
+ unzip [(x1,y1);(x2,y2);(x3,y3);...;(xn,yn)] </tt> evaluates to <tt>
+ ([x1;x2;x3;...;xn],[y1;y2;y3;...;yn]) </tt>.
+<br>
+<pre>
+<code>
+let rec unzip l =
+ match l with
+ (...) -> ([],[])
+ | (...) ->
+ let ... = ... in
+ ((...)::(...),(...)::(...))
+ ;;
+</code>
+</pre>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<P>
+<HR><P>
+
+<h3>Additional Practice Problem 4</h3>
+Suppose that the following list of bindings was entered into the OCaml
+interpreter in the sequence shown. For each binding, write down : <br>
+(a) If the expression is accepted, the value bound ("fn" for functions) and its type,<br>
+(b) If the expression is rejected due to a type error, "type error",<br>
+(c) If the expression is rejected due to an unbound variable,
+the name of the variable that is not bound.
+Recall that if a type error occurs, then the variable binding does not
+happen. Check your answers by entering this sequence into the interpreter.
+
+<code>
+ <pre>
+# type tree =
+ Leaf of int
+ | Node of tree * tree;;
+
+# let b = Leaf [3];;
+
+# let c = Node (Leaf 3,Leaf 5);;
+
+# let d = Node (Leaf 0,c);;
+
+# let b = Node (c,d);;
+
+# let f = fun a -> fun b -> a < b;;
+
+# let g = f 0;;
+
+# let z = g 4;;
+
+# let x = g (-3);;
+
+
+
+</pre>
+</code>
+
+<hr>
+<h3>Additional Practice Problem 5</h3>
+For each function below, determine if the function is tail recursive.
+
+<code>
+ <pre>
+# let rec fact1 x = x * (fact (x-1));;
+
+# let fact2 x =
+ let rec helper (n,r) =
+ match n with
+ 0 -> r
+ | _ -> helper ((n-1),(x*r))
+ in
+ helper (x,1)
+ ;;
+
+
+# let rec add1 (n,y) =
+ match n with
+ 0 -> y
+ | _ -> 1 + add1 (n-1,y)
+ ;;
+
+# let rec add2 (n,y) =
+ match n with
+ 0 -> y
+ | _ -> add2 (n-1,y+1);;
+
+</pre>
+</code>
+
+<hr>
+
+<h3>Additional Practice Problem 6</h3>
+Write the following functions on trees described using the datatype <tt> tree </tt>
+shown in Problem 4.
+<ul>
+ <li> <tt> depth : tree -> int </tt> where the depth of a leaf is 0 and
+ the depth of an internal node is 1 greater than the maximum depths of its
+ children.
+ </li>
+ <li> <tt> size : tree -> int </tt> which computes the number of leaf
+ nodes of a tree.</li>
+ <li> <tt> sum : tree -> int </tt> which adds up the values of all the
+ leaves of the tree </li>
+ <li> <tt> isLeaf : tree * int -> bool </tt> which given a tree and an
+ integer returns true if and only if the integer appears in a leaf of the
+ tree. </li>
+ <li> <tt> duplicate : tree -> bool </tt> which given a tree returns true
+ if and only if the tree has two distinct leaves with the same value.</li>
+</ul>
+<P>
+<HR><P>
+
+
+
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
+
diff --git a/docs/static/raw/seating.txt b/docs/static/raw/seating.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..52c0f14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/static/raw/seating.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,193 @@
+StudentID,Group
+A15600406,0
+A15939512,0
+A15585639,0
+A15430318,0
+A13641119,0
+A15883913,0
+A16076542,1
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+A15577451,31
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/grades.md b/grades.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..023e3ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/grades.md
@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+---
+title: Grading
+headerImg: beach.jpg
+---
+
+### Class Participation (5%)
+
+Involves responding to 75% of the questions during lectures
+with the **clicker**.
+
+### Homework Assignments (30%)
+
+There will be *six* [programming assignments](assignments.html),
+assigned every one or two weeks.
+
+### Midterms (35%)
+
+There will be **two** closed-book, pencil-and-paper midterm exams,
+each worth 17.5% of the grade -- to be held during lecture on
+on **Tu 1/30** and **Th 2/22**.
+
+### Final (35%)
+
+The closed-book, pencil-and-paper final exam will be held on
+**Tu 3/19** from 11:30--2:30pm.
+
+### Piazza (+5%)
+
+Extra credit for top-20 best participants in Piazza discussions,
+determined by the instruction team.
+
+**NOTE:** All the exams *must* be taken on the announced dates and times.
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/index.md b/index.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fe8a152
--- /dev/null
+++ b/index.md
@@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
+---
+title: <b>Programming Languages</b>
+headerImg: angles.jpg
+---
+
+## Overview
+
+Programming Languages are the duct tape, bricks, mortar
+and steel of the information age. Over the last thirty
+years, a variety of languages with diverse features have
+been developed, expressing radically different perspectives
+of the idea of computation. CSE 130 is an introduction to
+some of these perspectives, as well as the fundamental
+concepts of languages.
+
+We shall focus on two different paradigms -- functional
+and logic programming as embodied in Haskell and Prolog.
+Many students will be encountering these
+paradigms, languages and idioms for the first time.
+As with spoken languages, these are best absorbed
+by immersing yourself in the different environments
+and practicing your skills by experimentation.
+
+## Integrity of Scholarship
+
+University rules on integrity of scholarship will be strictly enforced. By
+taking this course, you implicitly agree to abide by the UCSD Policy on
+Integrity of Scholarship described [here](https://senate.ucsd.edu/Operating-Procedures/Senate-Manual/appendices/2).
+In particular,
+
+> all academic work will be done by the student to whom it is assigned,
+> without unauthorized aid of any kind.
+
+You are expected to do your own work on all assignments.
+You may, and are encouraged to, engage in **general**
+discussions with your classmates regarding the assignments,
+but specific details of a solution, including the solution
+itself, **must always be your own work**.
+
+You may use Copilot/ChatGPT etc. for your programming assignments,
+but do so at your own risk: the midterm(s) and final examinations
+will be *heavily* based on the assignments, and doing well in them
+will require a thorough understanding the solutions to the programming
+assignments. These exams will be entirely analog: no tools other than
+your brain and a writing instrument are to be used.
+
+Incidents which violate the University's rules on integrity of scholarship
+will be taken seriously. In addition to **receiving a zero (0)** on the
+assignment/exam in question, students may also face other penalties,
+up to and including, expulsion from the University. Should you have
+any doubts about the moral and/or ethical implications of an activity
+regarding the course, please see the instructor.
+
+## Research
+
+Your class work might be used for research purposes. For example, we may
+use anonymized student assignments to design algorithms or build tools to
+help programmers. Any student who wishes to opt out can contact the
+instructor or TA to do so after final grades have been issued.
+**This has no impact on your grade in any manner.**
diff --git a/jhala-course-page.cabal b/jhala-course-page.cabal
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e6a442
--- /dev/null
+++ b/jhala-course-page.cabal
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+name: jhala-course-page
+version: 0.1.0.0
+synopsis: Home page for classes taught by Ranjit Jhala at UC San Diego
+homepage: https://github.com/ucsd-progsys/cse130
+license: MIT
+license-file: LICENSE
+author: Ranjit Jhala
+maintainer: jhala@cs.ucsd.edu
+copyright: Ranjit Jhala
+category: Web
+build-type: Simple
+extra-source-files: README.md
+cabal-version: >=1.10
+
+executable homepage
+ main-is: site.hs
+ default-language: Haskell2010
+ ghc-options: -threaded
+ build-depends: base,
+ hakyll,
+ pandoc,
+ pandoc-types
diff --git a/lectures.md b/lectures.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..476c04b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures.md
@@ -0,0 +1,106 @@
+---
+title: Lecture Notes
+headerImg: books.jpg
+---
+
+The live-edited code for each lecture can be found [here][code].
+
+| **Date** | **Topic** | **Notes** |
+|:----------:|:---------------------------|:--------------------------|
+| 1/9 | Hello, World! | [html][lec0] |
+| 1/11 | The Lambda Calculus | [html][lec1] |
+| 1/13 | contd. | |
+| 1/15 | contd. | |
+| 1/30 | **Midterm I** | |
+| 2/22 | **Midterm II** | |
+| 3/19 | **Final** | |
+
+
+<!--
+| 1/13 | A crash course in Haskell | [html][lec2] [pdf][pdf2] |
+| 1/18 | contd. | |
+| 1/20 | contd. | |
+| 1/27 | Datatypes & Recursion | [html][lec3] [pdf][pdf3] |
+| 2/1 | contd. | contd. |
+| 2/3 | contd. | contd. |
+| 2/8 | Higher Order Functions | [html][lec4] [pdf][pdf4] |
+| 2/10 | **midterm** | |
+| 2/15 | contd. | contd. |
+| 2/17 | Environments & Closures | [html][lec5] [pdf][pdf5] |
+| 2/22 | contd. | contd. |
+| 2/24 | Lexing and Parsing | [html][lec6] [pdf][pdf6] |
+| 3/1 | Overloading & Type Classes | [html][lec7] [pdf] |
+| 3/3 | contd. | |
+| 3/8 | Functors & Monads | [html][lec8] |
+| 3/10 | Hello, world! (IO Monad) | [html][lec9] |
+| 3/15 | **final** | |
+
+## Discussions
+| Date | Topic | Slides |
+|:----------:|:-------------------------|:--------------------:|
+| 1/6 | Lambda Calculus & Elsa | [blank][disc1-blank], [annotated][disc1-annotated] |
+| 1/14 | Lambda Calculus | [pdf][disc1] |
+| 3/17 | Final Review | [html][final-review] |
+| 2/25 | Nano: Parsing and Eval | [pdf][disc5] |
+| 3/4 | Type checking tips | [pdf][disc6] |
+| 3/11 | Final Review | [pdf][discFinal] |
+-->
+
+[lec0]: lectures/00-hello.html
+[lec1]: lectures/01-lambda.html
+[lec2]: lectures/02-haskell.html
+[lec3]: lectures/03-datatypes.html
+[lec4]: lectures/04-hof.html
+[lec5]: lectures/05-environments.html
+[lec5-clos]: lectures/05-closure.html
+[lec6]: lectures/06-parsing.html
+[lec7]: lectures/07-classes.html
+[lec8]: lectures/08-monads.html
+[lec9]: lectures/09-io.html
+
+[rhoc]: https://reactjs.org/docs/higher-order-components.html
+[mapRed]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MapReduce
+
+[pdf1]: /static/raw/01-lambda.pdf
+[pdf2]: /static/raw/02-haskell.pdf
+[pdf3]: /static/raw/03-data.pdf
+[pdf4]: /static/raw/04-hof.pdf
+[pdf5]: /static/raw/05-environments.pdf
+[pdf6]: /static/raw/06-parsing.pdf
+[pdf8]: /static/raw/08-monads.pdf
+
+[code]: https://github.com/ucsd-cse130/wi21/tree/master/static/code/src
+[arith]: https://github.com/ucsd-cse130/wi21/tree/master/static/arith
+
+[lc-1-12]: /static/raw/lec_1_12_21.lc
+
+
+
+[pdf-data]: /static/raw/03-datatypes.pdf
+[pdf-data-b]: /static/raw/03-datatypes-B.pdf
+[pdf-parse]: /static/raw/06-parsing.pdf
+[lc4]: /static/raw/lec_4_10_2019.lc
+
+[pdf-hof]: /static/raw/04-hof.pdf
+[pdf-env]: /static/raw/05-environments.pdf
+
+[disc1-blank]: /static/raw/disc1-lambda_calc.pdf
+[disc1-annotated]: /static/raw/disc1-lambda_calc-20210106.pdf
+[disc5]: /static/raw/disc5-parsing.pdf
+[disc6]: /static/raw/disc-pa5tips.pdf
+[discFinal]: /static/raw/final-disc.pdf
+
+[parsing]: https://github.com/cse130-sp18/arith
+
+[elsa]: https://github.com/ucsd-progsys/elsa
+[intro]: /static/raw/Intro.hs
+[datatypes]: /static/raw/Datatypes.hs
+[tail]: /static/raw/Tail.hs
+
+[midterm]: /static/raw/130-midterm-wi19.pdf
+[midterm-sol]: /static/raw/130-midterm-wi19-solution.pdf
+[final-prep]: /static/raw/appendix.pdf
+[final]: /static/raw/130-final-wi19.pdf
+[final-sol]: /static/raw/130-final-wi19-solution.pdf
+
+[final-review]: discussions/final-review.html
diff --git a/lectures/00-hello.md b/lectures/00-hello.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..28d236d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/00-hello.md
@@ -0,0 +1,610 @@
+---
+title: Hello, world!
+headerImg: sea.jpg
+date: 2024-01-05
+---
+
+
+## A Programming Language
+
+### Two Variables
+
+- `x`, `y`
+
+### Three Operations
+
+- `x++`
+- `x--`
+- `x = 0 ? L1 : L2`
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Example Program
+
+(What _does_ it do?)
+
+```
+L1: x++
+ y--
+ y = 0 ? L2 : L1
+L2: ...
+```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The above language is "equivalent to" every PL!
+
+But good luck writing
+
+- ... QuickSort
+
+- ... Fortnite
+
+- ... Spotify!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## So Why Study Programming Languages?
+
+{#fig:fellini .align-center width=25%}
+
+> A different language
+> is
+> a different vision
+> of life.
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## So Why Study Programming Languages?
+
+> The principle of **linguistic relativity**
+> holds that the structure of a language
+> affects its speakers world view or cognition.
+
+Or more simply:
+
+> Programming Language
+> shapes
+> Programming Thought.
+
+Language affects how ideas and computation are expressed
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## Course Goals
+
+{#fig:galaxy .align-center width=65%}
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+### New languages come (and go ...)
+
+There was no
+
+- Java 30 years ago
+- C# 25 years ago
+- Rust 15 years ago
+- WebAssembly 5 years ago
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## What is CSE 130 about?
+
+- Concepts in programming languages
+- Programming paradigms
+- Language design and implementation
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Goal: Learn the Anatomy of PL
+
+{#fig:anatomy .align-center width=20%}
+
+- What makes a programming language?
+- Which features are **fundamental** and which are **syntactic sugar**?
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Goal: Learn New Languages / Constructs
+
+{#fig:music .align-center width=30%}
+
+New ways to **describe** and **organize** computation,
+to create programs that are:
+
+- **Correct**
+- **Readable**
+- **Extendable**
+- **Reusable**
+
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+## Goal: How to Design new Languages
+
+New languages being designed in industry as we speak:
+
+- Flow, React @ Facebook
+- Rust @ Mozilla
+- TypeScript @ Microsoft
+- Swift @ Apple
+- WebAssembly @ Google + Mozilla + Microsoft
+
+Buried in every large system is a (domain-specific) language
+
+- DB: SQL
+- Word, Excel: Formulas, Macros, VBScript
+- Emacs: LISP
+- Latex, shell scripts, makefiles, ...
+
+If you work on a large system, you **will** design a new PL!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Goal: Enable You To Choose Right PL
+
+But isn't that decided by
+
+- Libraries
+- Standards
+- Hiring
+- Your Boss?!
+
+Yes.
+
+**My goal:** Educate tomorrow's leaders so you'll make **informed** choices.
+
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## What is CSE 130 **not** about?
+
+Learning...
+
+- JavaScript in January
+- Haskell in February
+- C++ in March
+
+etc.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The Crew
+
+### Profs
+
+[Ranjit Jhala](https://ranjitjhala.github.io/)
+
+- Professor at CSE since 2005
+
+- Research: Tools and Techniques to make programs better
+
+**Many thanks to for taking over in weeks 1-2!**
+
+**[Prof. Nadia Polikarpova](https://cseweb.ucsd.edu/~npolikarpova)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The Crew
+
+### Teaching Assistants
+
+- [Matt Kolosick](mailto:mkolosick@ucsd.edu)
+- [Cole Kurashige](mailto:ckurashige@ucsd.edu)
+- [George Sakkas](mailto:gsakkas@ucsd.edu)
+
+### Tutors
+
+- [Rana Lulla](mailto:rlulla@ucsd.edu)
+- [Matthew Peng](mailto:mapeng@ucsd.edu)
+- [Melody Ruth](mailto:maruth@ucsd.edu)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Course Syllabus
+
+**Functional Programming**
+
+- Lambda calculus (2 weeks)
+- Haskell (6 weeks)
+
+**Logic Programming**
+
+- Prolog (2 weeks, maybe)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## **QuickSort** in C
+
+```c
+void sort(int arr[], int beg, int end){
+ if (end > beg + 1){
+ int piv = arr[beg];
+ int l = beg + 1;
+ int r = end;
+ while (l != r-1)
+ if(arr[l] <= piv) l++;
+ else swap(&arr[l], &arr[r--]);
+ if(arr[l]<=piv && arr[r]<=piv)
+ l=r+1;
+ else if(arr[l]<=piv && arr[r]>piv)
+ {l++; r--;}
+ else if (arr[l]>piv && arr[r]<=piv)
+ swap(&arr[l++], &arr[r--]);
+ else r=l-1;
+ swap(&arr[r--], &arr[beg]);
+ sort(arr, beg, r);
+ sort(arr, l, end);
+ }
+}
+```
+
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## **QuickSort** in Haskell
+
+```Haskell
+sort [] = []
+sort (x:xs) = sort ls ++ [x] ++ sort rs
+ where
+ ls = [ l | l <- xs, l <= x ]
+ rs = [ r | r <- xs, x < r ]
+```
+
+(**Note:** not a wholly [fair comparison...](http://stackoverflow.com/questions/7717691/why-is-the-minimalist-example-haskell-quicksort-not-a-true-quicksort))
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Course Logistics
+
+[webpage](https://ucsd-cse130.github.io/wi24)
+
+- Calendar
+- Lecture notes
+- Programming assignments
+
+[piazza](https://piazza.com/class/lr1zj9yl963y9)
+
+- Go-to place if you have a question or need help
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Grading
+
+- 5% Class participation (clicker questions)
+- 25% Programming Assignments
+- 35% Two Midterm **Tu 1/30** and **Thu 2/22**
+- 35% Final **Tu 3/19**
+- 05% Piazza Extra Credit
+ - To **top 20** best participants
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Assignments
+
+**6 programming assignments**
+
+- Released [online](assignments.html)
+- At least a week before due date
+- Via github classroom
+
+**Six late days**
+
+- used as **whole unit**
+- 5 mins late = 1 late day
+- at most 4 per assignment
+
+**No Groups**
+
+- Assignments must be submitted individually via github
+- Ok to discuss with classmates, but solution must be your own
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Exams
+
+- Must be done at allotted time and location
+
+- 2-sided ``cheat sheet''
+
+- The final is cumulative
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Clickers
+
+<!--
+Assigned Seating
+
+- From next lecture
+- See your [group](/static/raw/seating.txt) and [seat](https://ucsd-cse130.github.io/wi20/static/raw/Center_113_groups.pdf
+-->
+
+Make class interactive
+
+- Help **you** and **me** understand what's tricky
+
+Not Optional
+
+- **Cheap** ones are fine
+- **Respond** to 75% questions
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Clicker Protocol
+
+1. **Solo Vote**
+ - Think for yourself, select answer
+
+2. **Discuss**
+ - Analyze problem in groups
+ - Reach consensus
+ - Have questions, raise your hand!
+
+3. **Group Vote**
+ - Everyone in group votes
+ - Hopefully the same way but not enforced
+ - You *don't have to answer correctly* to get points!
+
+4. **Class Discuss**
+ - What was easy or tricky?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<b>
+
+
+## Your Resources
+
+### Discussion section
+
+- Friday 3:00-3:50pm (PCYNH 109)
+
+### Office hours
+
+- Every day, check **CANVAS calendar**
+
+### Piazza
+
+- We answer during work hours and office hours (M-F)
+
+### No text
+
+- Online lecture notes and links
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+## Academic Integrity
+
+Programming assignments: do not copy from classmates or from previous years
+
+Exams done **alone**
+
+- Zero Tolerance
+- Offenders punished ruthlessly
+- Please see academic integrity statement
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Students with Disabilites
+
+Students requesting accommodations for this course due to
+a disability or current functional limitation must provide
+a current **Authorization for Accommodation (AFA)** letter
+issued by the Office for Students with Disabilities (OSD)
+which is located in University Center 202 behind Center Hall.
+
+Students are required to present their AFA letters to Faculty
+(please make arrangements to contact me privately) and to the
+CSE OSD Liaison [Christina Rontell](https://cse.ucsd.edu/people/administrative-staff/christina-rontell)
+in advance so that accommodations may be arranged.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Diversity and Inclusion
+
+### Goal
+
+- Create a diverse and inclusive learning environment
+- Where all students feel comfortable and can thrive.
+- *Please let us know* if there is a way to make you feel more included
+- In person, via email/discussion boar
+
+### Expectations
+
+- Students will honor and respect your classmates!
+- Abide by the UCSD [Principles of Community](https://ucsd.edu/about/principles.html)
+- Understand that others’ backgrounds, perspectives and experiences will be different
+- Help build an environment where everyone is respected and comfortable.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
diff --git a/lectures/01-lambda.md b/lectures/01-lambda.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..16cf494
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/01-lambda.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2587 @@
+---
+title: Lambda Calculus
+headerImg: sea.jpg
+---
+
+## Your Favorite Language
+
+Probably has lots of features:
+
+* Assignment (`x = x + 1`)
+* Booleans, integers, characters, strings, ...
+* Conditionals
+* Loops
+* `return`, `break`, `continue`
+* Functions
+* Recursion
+* References / pointers
+* Objects and classes
+* Inheritance
+* ...
+
+Which ones can we do without?
+
+What is the **smallest universal language**?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## What is computable?
+
+### Before 1930s
+
+Informal notion of an **effectively calculable** function:
+
+{#fig:pen-and-paper .align-center width=40%}
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### 1936: Formalization
+
+What is the **smallest universal language**?
+
+{#fig:turing .align-center width=40%}
+
+(I) final
+
+ The [**Turing Machine**](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_machine)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+{#fig:church .align-center width=40%}
+
+(I) final
+
+ The **Lambda Calculus**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The Next 700 Languages
+
+{#fig:landin .align-center width=40%}
+
+> Whatever the next 700 languages
+> turn out to be,
+> they will surely be
+> variants of lambda calculus.
+
+Peter Landin, 1966
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The Lambda Calculus
+
+Has one feature:
+
+* Functions
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+No, *really*
+
+* ~~Assignment (`x = x + 1`)~~
+* ~~Booleans, integers, characters, strings, ...~~
+* ~~Conditionals~~
+* ~~Loops~~
+* ~~`return`, `break`, `continue`~~
+* Functions
+* ~~Recursion~~
+* ~~References / pointers~~
+* ~~Objects and classes~~
+* ~~Inheritance~~
+* ~~Reflection~~
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+More precisely, *only thing* you can do is:
+
+* **Define** a function
+* **Call** a function
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Describing a Programming Language
+
+* _Syntax:_ what do programs look like?
+* _Semantics:_ what do programs mean?
+ * _Operational semantics_: how do programs execute step-by-step?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Syntax: What Programs _Look Like_
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+e ::= x -- variable 'x'
+ | (\x -> e) -- function that takes a parameter 'x' and returns 'e'
+ | (e1 e2) -- call (function) 'e1' with argument 'e2'
+```
+
+<br>
+
+Programs are **expressions** `e` (also called **$\lambda$-terms**)
+of one of three kinds:
+
+- **Variable**
+ - `x`, `y`, `z`
+- **Abstraction** (aka _nameless_ function definition)
+ - `(\x -> e)`
+ - `x` is the _formal_ parameter, `e` is the _body_
+ - "for any `x` compute `e`"
+- **Application** (aka function call)
+ - `(e1 e2)`
+ - `e1` is the _function_, `e2` is the _argument_
+ - in your favorite language: `e1(e2)`
+
+(Here each of `e`, `e1`, `e2` can itself be a variable, abstraction, or application)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Examples
+
+```haskell
+(\x -> x) -- The identity function (id) that returns its input
+
+(\x -> (\y -> y)) -- A function that returns (id)
+
+(\f -> (f (\x -> x))) -- A function that applies its argument to id
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Which of the following terms are syntactically **incorrect**?
+
+**A.** `(\(\x -> x) -> y)`
+
+**B.** `(\x -> (x x))`
+
+**C.** `(\x -> (x (y x)))`
+
+**D.** A and C
+
+**E.** all of the above
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ _Correct answer:_ **A**
+
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Examples
+
+```haskell
+(\x -> x) -- The identity function (id) that returns its input
+
+(\x -> (\y -> y)) -- A function that returns (id)
+
+(\f -> (f (\x -> x))) -- A function that applies its argument to id
+```
+
+<br>
+
+How do I define a function with two arguments?
+
+* e.g. a function that takes `x` and `y` and returns `y`?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+(\x -> (\y -> y)) -- A function that returns the identity function
+ -- OR: a function that takes two arguments
+ -- and returns the second one!
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+How do I apply a function to two arguments?
+
+* e.g. apply `(\x -> (\y -> y))` to `apple` and `banana`?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+(((\x -> (\y -> y)) apple) banana) -- first apply to apple,
+ -- then apply the result to banana
+```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+
+## Syntactic Sugar
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+instead of | we write
+:-------------------------|:-------------------------
+`\x -> (\y -> (\z -> e))` | `\x -> \y -> \z -> e`
+`\x -> \y -> \z -> e` | `\x y z -> e`
+`(((e1 e2) e3) e4)` | `e1 e2 e3 e4`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+\x y -> y -- A function that that takes two arguments
+ -- and returns the second one...
+
+(\x y -> y) apple banana -- ... applied to two arguments
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Semantics : What Programs _Mean_
+
+<br>
+
+How do I "run" / "execute" a $\lambda$-term?
+
+<br>
+
+Think of middle-school algebra:
+
+```haskell
+ (1 + 2) * ((3 * 8) - 2)
+ ==
+ 3 * ((3 * 8) - 2)
+ ==
+ 3 * ( 24 - 2)
+ ==
+ 3 * 22
+ ==
+ 66
+```
+
+<br>
+
+**Execute** = rewrite step-by-step
+
+- Following simple *rules*
+- until no more rules *apply*
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Rewrite Rules of Lambda Calculus
+
+<br>
+
+1. $\beta$-step (aka _function call_)
+2. $\alpha$-step (aka _renaming formals_)
+
+<br>
+
+But first we have to talk about **scope**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Semantics: Scope of a Variable
+
+The part of a program where a **variable is visible**
+
+In the expression `(\x -> e)`
+
+- `x` is the newly introduced variable
+
+- `e` is **the scope** of `x`
+
+- any occurrence of `x` in `(\x -> e)` is **bound** (by the **binder** `\x`)
+
+<br>
+
+For example, `x` is bound in:
+
+```haskell
+ (\x -> x)
+
+ (\x -> (\y -> x))
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+An occurrence of `x` in `e` is **free** if it's _not bound_ by an enclosing abstraction
+
+<br>
+For example, `x` is free in:
+
+```haskell
+ (x y) -- no binders at all!
+
+ (\y -> (x y)) -- no \x binder
+
+ ((\x -> (\y -> y)) x) -- x is outside the scope of the \x binder;
+ -- intuition: it's not "the same" x
+```
+
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Is `x` _bound_ or _free_ in the expression `((\x -> x) x)`?
+
+**A.** first occurrence is bound, second is bound
+
+**B.** first occurrence is bound, second is free
+
+**C.** first occurrence is free, second is bound
+
+**D.** first occurrence is free, second is free
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ _Correct answer:_ **B**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## EXERCISE: Free Variables
+
+An variable `x` is **free** in `e` if *there exists* a free occurrence of `x` in `e`
+
+<br>
+
+
+We can formally define the set of _all free variables_ in a term like so:
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ FV(x) = ???
+ FV(\x -> e) = ???
+ FV(e1 e2) = ???
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ FV(x) = {x}
+ FV(\x -> e) = FV(e) - {x}
+ FV(e1 e2) = FV(e1) + FV(e2)
+ ```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Closed Expressions
+
+If `e` has _no free variables_ it is said to be **closed**
+
+- Closed expressions are also called **combinators**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+What is the shortest closed expression?
+
+(I) final
+
+ _Answer:_ `(\x -> x)`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Rewrite Rules of Lambda Calculus
+
+<br>
+
+1. $\beta$-step (aka _function call_)
+2. $\alpha$-step (aka _renaming formals_)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Semantics: Redex
+
+A **redex** is a term of the form
+
+<br>
+
+```
+ ((\x -> e1) e2)
+```
+
+A *function* `(\x -> e1)`
+
+
+- `x` is the *parameter*
+- `e1` is the *returned* expression
+
+*Applied to* an argument `e2`
+
+- `e2` is the *argument*
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Semantics: $\beta$-Reduction
+
+<br>
+
+A **redex** b-steps to another term ...
+
+```
+ (\x -> e1) e2 =b> e1[x := e2]
+```
+
+<br>
+
+where `e1[x := e2]` means
+
+"`e1` with all _free_ occurrences of `x` replaced with `e2`"
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Computation by _search-and-replace_:
+
+If you see an _abstraction_ applied to an _argument_,
+
+- In the _body_ of the abstraction
+- Replace all _free occurrences_ of the _formal_ by that _argument_
+
+We say that `(\x -> e1) e2` $\beta$-steps to `e1[x := e2]`
+
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Redex Examples
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+((\x -> x) apple)
+
+=b> apple
+```
+
+Is this right? Ask [Elsa](https://goto.ucsd.edu/elsa/index.html)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+((\x -> (\y -> y)) apple)
+
+=b> ???
+```
+
+**A.** `apple`
+
+**B.** `\y -> apple`
+
+**C.** `\x -> apple`
+
+**D.** `\y -> y`
+
+**E.** `\x -> y`
+
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ _Correct answer:_ **D.**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+(\x -> (((y x) y) x)) apple
+=b> ???
+```
+
+**A.** `(((apple apple) apple) apple)`
+
+**B.** `(((y apple) y) apple)`
+
+**C.** `(((y y) y) y)`
+
+**D.** `apple`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## QUIZ
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+((\x -> (x (\x -> x))) apple)
+
+=b> ???
+```
+
+**A.** `(apple (\x -> x))`
+
+**B.** `(apple (\apple -> apple))`
+
+**C.** `(apple (\x -> apple))`
+
+**D.** `apple`
+
+**E.** `(\x -> x)`
+
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ _Correct answer:_ **A.**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## EXERCISE
+
+What is a $\lambda$-term `fill_this_in` such that
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+fill_this_in apple
+=b> banana
+```
+
+ELSA: https://goto.ucsd.edu/elsa/index.html
+
+[Click here to try this exercise](https://goto.ucsd.edu/elsa/index.html#?demo=permalink%2F1585434473_24432.lc)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## A Tricky One
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+((\x -> (\y -> x)) y)
+
+=b> \y -> y
+```
+
+Is this right?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Something is Fishy
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+(\x -> (\y -> x)) y
+
+=b> (\y -> y)
+```
+
+Is this right?
+
+**Problem**: The *free* `y` in the argument has been **captured** by `\y` in *body*!
+
+<br>
+
+**Solution**: Ensure that *formals* in the body are **different from** *free-variables* of argument!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Capture-Avoiding Substitution
+
+We have to fix our definition of $\beta$-reduction:
+
+```
+ (\x -> e1) e2 =b> e1[x := e2]
+```
+<br>
+where `e1[x := e2]` means ~~"`e1` with all _free_ occurrences of `x` replaced with `e2`"~~
+
+ - `e1` with all _free_ occurrences of `x` replaced with `e2`
+ - **as long as** no free variables of `e2` get captured
+
+<br>
+
+Formally:
+
+```haskell
+x[x := e] = e
+
+y[x := e] = y -- as x /= y
+
+(e1 e2)[x := e] = (e1[x := e]) (e2[x := e])
+
+(\x -> e1)[x := e] = (\x -> e1) -- Q: Why leave `e1` unchanged?
+
+(\y -> e1)[x := e]
+ | not (y in FV(e)) = \y -> e1[x := e]
+```
+
+**Oops, but what to do if** `y` is in the *free-variables* of `e`?
+
+ - i.e. if `\y -> ...` may *capture* those free variables?
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer*: We leave `e1` above alone even though it might contain `x`,
+ because in `\x -> e1` every occurrence of `x` is bound by `\x`
+ (hence, there are *no free occurrences* of `x`)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## Rewrite Rules of Lambda Calculus
+
+<br>
+
+1. $\beta$-step (aka _function call_)
+2. $\alpha$-step (aka _renaming formals_)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Semantics: $\alpha$-Renaming
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+ \x -> e =a> \y -> e[x := y]
+ where not (y in FV(e))
+```
+<br>
+
+- We rename a formal parameter `x` to `y`
+
+- By replace all occurrences of `x` in the body with `y`
+
+- We say that `\x -> e` $\alpha$-steps to `\y -> e[x := y]`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Example:
+
+```haskell
+(\x -> x) =a> (\y -> y) =a> (\z -> z)
+```
+
+All these expressions are **$\alpha$-equivalent**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+What's wrong with these?
+
+```haskell
+-- (A)
+(\f -> (f x)) =a> (\x -> (x x))
+```
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* it violates the side-condition for $\alpha$-renaming
+ that the new formal (`x`) must not occur freely in the body
+
+```haskell
+-- (B)
+((\x -> (\y -> y)) y) =a> ((\x -> (\z -> z)) z)
+```
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* we should only rename within the body of the abstraction;
+ the second `y` is a free variable, and hence must remain unchanged
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Tricky Example Revisited
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+ ((\x -> (\y -> x)) y)
+ -- rename 'y' to 'z' to avoid capture
+ =a> ((\x -> (\z -> x)) y)
+ -- now do b-step without capture!
+ =b> (\z -> y)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+To avoid getting confused,
+
+- you can **always rename** formals,
+
+- so different **variables** have different **names**!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## Normal Forms
+
+Recall **redex** is a $\lambda$-term of the form
+
+`((\x -> e1) e2)`
+
+A $\lambda$-term is in **normal form** if it *contains no redexes*.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Which of the following term are **not** in _normal form_ ?
+
+**A.** `x`
+
+**B.** `(x y)`
+
+**C.** `((\x -> x) y)`
+
+**D.** `(x (\y -> y))`
+
+**E.** C and D
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* C
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## Semantics: Evaluation
+
+A $\lambda$-term `e` **evaluates to** `e'` if
+
+1. There is a sequence of steps
+```haskell
+e =?> e_1 =?> ... =?> e_N =?> e'
+```
+
+ where each `=?>` is either `=a>` or `=b>`
+ and `N >= 0`
+
+2. `e'` is in _normal form_
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Examples of Evaluation
+
+```haskell
+((\x -> x) apple)
+
+ =b> apple
+```
+
+<br>
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ (\f -> f (\x -> x)) (\x -> x)
+
+ =?> ???
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ (\f -> f (\x -> x)) (\x -> x)
+ =b> (\x -> x) (\x -> x)
+ =b> \x -> x
+ ```
+
+<br>
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ (\x -> x x) (\x -> x)
+ =?> ???
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ (\x -> x x) (\x -> x)
+ =b> (\x -> x) (\x -> x)
+ =b> \x -> x
+ ```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Elsa shortcuts
+
+Named $\lambda$-terms:
+
+```
+let ID = (\x -> x) -- abbreviation for (\x -> x)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+To substitute name with its definition, use a `=d>` step:
+
+```haskell
+(ID apple)
+ =d> ((\x -> x) apple) -- expand definition
+ =b> apple -- beta-reduce
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Evaluation:
+
+- `e1 =*> e2`: `e1` reduces to `e2` in 0 or more steps
+ - where each step is `=a>`, `=b>`, or `=d>`
+- `e1 =~> e2`: `e1` evaluates to `e2` and `e2` is **in normal form**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## EXERCISE
+
+Fill in the definitions of `FIRST`, `SECOND` and `THIRD`
+such that you get the following behavior in `elsa`
+
+```haskell
+let FIRST = fill_this_in
+let SECOND = fill_this_in
+let THIRD = fill_this_in
+
+eval ex1 :
+ FIRST apple banana orange
+ =*> apple
+
+eval ex2 :
+ SECOND apple banana orange
+ =*> banana
+
+eval ex3 :
+ THIRD apple banana orange
+ =*> orange
+```
+
+ELSA: https://goto.ucsd.edu/elsa/index.html
+
+[Click here to try this exercise](https://goto.ucsd.edu/elsa/index.html#?demo=permalink%2F1585434130_24421.lc)
+
+
+## Non-Terminating Evaluation
+
+```haskell
+((\x -> (x x)) (\x -> (x x)))
+
+ =b> ((\x -> (x x)) (\x -> (x x)))
+```
+
+Some programs loop back to themselves ... *never* reduce to a normal form!
+
+This combinator is called $\Omega$
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+What if we pass $\Omega$ as an argument to another function?
+
+```
+let OMEGA = ((\x -> (x x)) (\x -> (x x)))
+
+((\x -> (\y -> y)) OMEGA)
+```
+
+Does this reduce to a normal form? Try it at home!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Programming in $\lambda$-calculus
+
+*Real languages have lots of features*
+
+- Booleans
+- Records (structs, tuples)
+- Numbers
+- Lists
+- **Functions** \[we got those\]
+- Recursion
+
+Lets see how to _encode_ all of these features
+with the $\lambda$-calculus.
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Syntactic Sugar
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+instead of | we write
+:-------------------------|:-------------------------
+`\x -> (\y -> (\z -> e))` | `\x -> \y -> \z -> e`
+`\x -> \y -> \z -> e` | `\x y z -> e`
+`(((e1 e2) e3) e4)` | `e1 e2 e3 e4`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+\x y -> y -- A function that that takes two arguments
+ -- and returns the second one...
+
+(\x y -> y) apple banana -- ... applied to two arguments
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+## $\lambda$-calculus: Booleans
+
+<br>
+
+How can we encode Boolean values (`TRUE` and `FALSE`) as functions?
+
+<br>
+
+Well, what do we **do** with a Boolean `b`?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+Make a *binary choice*
+
+ - `if b then e1 else e2`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Booleans: API
+
+We need to define three functions
+
+```haskell
+let TRUE = ???
+let FALSE = ???
+let ITE = \b x y -> ??? -- if b then x else y
+```
+
+such that
+
+```haskell
+ITE TRUE apple banana =~> apple
+ITE FALSE apple banana =~> banana
+```
+
+(Here, `let NAME = e` means `NAME` is an _abbreviation_ for `e`)
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Booleans: Implementation
+
+```haskell
+let TRUE = \x y -> x -- Returns its first argument
+let FALSE = \x y -> y -- Returns its second argument
+let ITE = \b x y -> b x y -- Applies condition to branches
+ -- (redundant, but improves readability)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## Example: Branches step-by-step
+
+
+```haskell
+eval ite_true:
+ ITE TRUE e1 e2
+ =d> (\b x y -> b x y) TRUE e1 e2 -- expand def ITE
+ =b> (\x y -> TRUE x y) e1 e2 -- beta-step
+ =b> (\y -> TRUE e1 y) e2 -- beta-step
+ =b> TRUE e1 e2 -- expand def TRUE
+ =d> (\x y -> x) e1 e2 -- beta-step
+ =b> (\y -> e1) e2 -- beta-step
+ =b> e1
+```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Example: Branches step-by-step
+
+Now you try it!
+
+Can you [fill in the blanks to make it happen?][elsa-ite]
+
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ eval ite_false:
+ ITE FALSE e1 e2
+
+ -- fill the steps in!
+
+ =b> e2
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ eval ite_false:
+ ITE FALSE e1 e2
+ =d> (\b x y -> b x y) FALSE e1 e2 -- expand def ITE
+ =b> (\x y -> FALSE x y) e1 e2 -- beta-step
+ =b> (\y -> FALSE e1 y) e2 -- beta-step
+ =b> FALSE e1 e2 -- expand def FALSE
+ =d> (\x y -> y) e1 e2 -- beta-step
+ =b> (\y -> y) e2 -- beta-step
+ =b> e2
+ ```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+
+## EXERCISE: Boolean Operators
+
+ELSA: https://goto.ucsd.edu/elsa/index.html
+[Click here to try this exercise](https://goto.ucsd.edu/elsa/index.html#?demo=permalink%2F1585435168_24442.lc)
+
+Now that we have `ITE` it's easy to define other Boolean operators:
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ let NOT = \b -> ???
+ let OR = \b1 b2 -> ???
+ let AND = \b1 b2 -> ???
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ let NOT = \b -> ITE b FALSE TRUE
+
+ let AND = \b1 b2 -> ITE b1 b2 FALSE
+
+ let OR = \b1 b2 -> ITE b1 TRUE b2
+ ```
+
+When you are done, you should get the following behavior:
+
+```haskell
+eval ex_not_t:
+ NOT TRUE =*> FALSE
+
+eval ex_not_f:
+ NOT FALSE =*> TRUE
+
+eval ex_or_ff:
+ OR FALSE FALSE =*> FALSE
+
+eval ex_or_ft:
+ OR FALSE TRUE =*> TRUE
+
+eval ex_or_ft:
+ OR TRUE FALSE =*> TRUE
+
+eval ex_or_tt:
+ OR TRUE TRUE =*> TRUE
+
+eval ex_and_ff:
+ AND FALSE FALSE =*> FALSE
+
+eval ex_and_ft:
+ AND FALSE TRUE =*> FALSE
+
+eval ex_and_ft:
+ AND TRUE FALSE =*> FALSE
+
+eval ex_and_tt:
+ AND TRUE TRUE =*> TRUE
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Programming in $\lambda$-calculus
+
+- **Booleans** \[done\]
+- Records (structs, tuples)
+- Numbers
+- Lists
+- **Functions** \[we got those\]
+- Recursion
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## $\lambda$-calculus: Records
+
+Let's start with records with _two_ fields (aka **pairs**)
+
+What do we *do* with a pair?
+
+1. **Pack two** items into a pair, then
+2. **Get first** item, or
+3. **Get second** item.
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Pairs : API
+
+We need to define three functions
+
+```haskell
+let PAIR = \x y -> ??? -- Make a pair with elements x and y
+ -- { fst : x, snd : y }
+let FST = \p -> ??? -- Return first element
+ -- p.fst
+let SND = \p -> ??? -- Return second element
+ -- p.snd
+```
+
+such that
+
+```haskell
+eval ex_fst:
+ FST (PAIR apple banana) =*> apple
+
+eval ex_snd:
+ SND (PAIR apple banana) =*> banana
+```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Pairs: Implementation
+
+A pair of `x` and `y` is just something that lets you pick between `x` and `y`!
+
+```haskell
+let PAIR = \x y -> (\b -> ITE b x y)
+```
+
+i.e. `PAIR x y` is a function that
+
+* takes a boolean and returns either `x` or `y`
+
+We can now implement `FST` and `SND` by "calling" the pair with `TRUE` or `FALSE`
+
+```haskell
+let FST = \p -> p TRUE -- call w/ TRUE, get first value
+let SND = \p -> p FALSE -- call w/ FALSE, get second value
+```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## EXERCISE: Triples
+
+How can we implement a record that contains **three** values?
+
+ELSA: https://goto.ucsd.edu/elsa/index.html
+
+[Click here to try this exercise](https://goto.ucsd.edu/elsa/index.html#?demo=permalink%2F1585434814_24436.lc)
+
+(I) lecture
+
+```haskell
+let TRIPLE = \x y z -> ???
+let FST3 = \t -> ???
+let SND3 = \t -> ???
+let THD3 = \t -> ???
+
+eval ex1:
+ FST3 (TRIPLE apple banana orange)
+ =*> apple
+
+eval ex2:
+ SND3 (TRIPLE apple banana orange)
+ =*> banana
+
+eval ex3:
+ THD3 (TRIPLE apple banana orange)
+ =*> orange
+```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ let TRIPLE = \x y z -> PAIR x (PAIR y z)
+ let FST3 = \t -> FST t
+ let SND3 = \t -> FST (SND t)
+ let THD3 = \t -> SND (SND t)
+ ```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Programming in $\lambda$-calculus
+
+- **Booleans** \[done\]
+- **Records** (structs, tuples) \[done\]
+- Numbers
+- Lists
+- **Functions** \[we got those\]
+- Recursion
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## $\lambda$-calculus: Numbers
+
+Let's start with **natural numbers** (0, 1, 2, ...)
+
+What do we *do* with natural numbers?
+
+- Count: `0`, `inc`
+- Arithmetic: `dec`, `+`, `-`, `*`
+- Comparisons: `==`, `<=`, etc
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Natural Numbers: API
+
+We need to define:
+
+- A family of **numerals**: `ZERO`, `ONE`, `TWO`, `THREE`, ...
+- Arithmetic functions: `INC`, `DEC`, `ADD`, `SUB`, `MULT`
+- Comparisons: `IS_ZERO`, `EQ`
+
+Such that they respect all regular laws of arithmetic, e.g.
+
+```haskell
+IS_ZERO ZERO =~> TRUE
+IS_ZERO (INC ZERO) =~> FALSE
+INC ONE =~> TWO
+...
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Natural Numbers: Implementation
+
+**Church numerals**: _a number `N`_
+is encoded as a combinator that
+_calls a function on an argument `N` times_
+
+```haskell
+let ONE = \f x -> f x
+let TWO = \f x -> f (f x)
+let THREE = \f x -> f (f (f x))
+let FOUR = \f x -> f (f (f (f x)))
+let FIVE = \f x -> f (f (f (f (f x))))
+let SIX = \f x -> f (f (f (f (f (f x)))))
+...
+```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ: Church Numerals
+
+Which of these is a valid encoding of `ZERO` ?
+
+- **A**: `let ZERO = \f x -> x`
+
+- **B**: `let ZERO = \f x -> f`
+
+- **C**: `let ZERO = \f x -> f x`
+
+- **D**: `let ZERO = \x -> x`
+
+- **E**: None of the above
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* A
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Does this function look familiar?
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* It's the same as `FALSE`!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## $\lambda$-calculus: Increment
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ -- Call `f` on `x` one more time than `n` does
+ let INC = \n -> (\f x -> ???)
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ -- Call `f` on `x` one more time than `n` does
+ let INC = \n -> (\f x -> f (n f x))
+ ```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Example:**
+
+```haskell
+eval inc_zero :
+ INC ZERO
+ =d> (\n f x -> f (n f x)) ZERO
+ =b> \f x -> f (ZERO f x)
+ =*> \f x -> f x
+ =d> ONE
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## EXERCISE
+
+Fill in the implementation of `ADD` so that you get the following behavior
+
+
+[Click here to try this exercise](https://goto.ucsd.edu/elsa/index.html#?demo=permalink%2F1585436042_24449.lc)
+
+```haskell
+let ZERO = \f x -> x
+let ONE = \f x -> f x
+let TWO = \f x -> f (f x)
+let INC = \n f x -> f (n f x)
+
+let ADD = fill_this_in
+
+eval add_zero_zero:
+ ADD ZERO ZERO =~> ZERO
+
+eval add_zero_one:
+ ADD ZERO ONE =~> ONE
+
+eval add_zero_two:
+ ADD ZERO TWO =~> TWO
+
+eval add_one_zero:
+ ADD ONE ZERO =~> ONE
+
+eval add_one_zero:
+ ADD ONE ONE =~> TWO
+
+eval add_two_zero:
+ ADD TWO ZERO =~> TWO
+```
+
+
+## QUIZ
+
+How shall we implement `ADD`?
+
+
+**A.** `let ADD = \n m -> n INC m`
+
+**B.** `let ADD = \n m -> INC n m`
+
+**C.** `let ADD = \n m -> n m INC`
+
+**D.** `let ADD = \n m -> n (m INC)`
+
+**E.** `let ADD = \n m -> n (INC m)`
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* A
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+$\lambda$-calculus: Addition
+
+
+```haskell
+-- Call `f` on `x` exactly `n + m` times
+let ADD = \n m -> n INC m
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Example:**
+
+```haskell
+eval add_one_zero :
+ ADD ONE ZERO
+ =~> ONE
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## QUIZ
+
+How shall we implement `MULT`?
+
+**A.** `let MULT = \n m -> n ADD m`
+
+**B.** `let MULT = \n m -> n (ADD m) ZERO`
+
+**C.** `let MULT = \n m -> m (ADD n) ZERO`
+
+**D.** `let MULT = \n m -> n (ADD m ZERO)`
+
+**E.** `let MULT = \n m -> (n ADD m) ZERO`
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* B or C
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## $\lambda$-calculus: Multiplication
+
+```haskell
+-- Call `f` on `x` exactly `n * m` times
+let MULT = \n m -> n (ADD m) ZERO
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Example:**
+
+```haskell
+eval two_times_three :
+ MULT TWO ONE
+ =~> TWO
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Programming in $\lambda$-calculus
+
+- **Booleans** \[done\]
+- **Records** (structs, tuples) \[done\]
+- **Numbers** \[done\]
+- **Lists**
+- **Functions** \[we got those\]
+- Recursion
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## $\lambda$-calculus: Lists
+
+Lets define an API to build lists in the $\lambda$-calculus.
+
+**An Empty List**
+
+```
+NIL
+```
+
+**Constructing a list**
+
+A list with 4 elements
+
+```
+CONS apple (CONS banana (CONS cantaloupe (CONS dragon NIL)))
+```
+
+intuitively `CONS h t` creates a *new* list with
+
+- *head* `h`
+- *tail* `t`
+
+**Destructing a list**
+
+- `HEAD l` returns the _first_ element of the list
+- `TAIL l` returns the _rest_ of the list
+
+```haskell
+HEAD (CONS apple (CONS banana (CONS cantaloupe (CONS dragon NIL))))
+=~> apple
+
+TAIL (CONS apple (CONS banana (CONS cantaloupe (CONS dragon NIL))))
+=~> CONS banana (CONS cantaloupe (CONS dragon NIL)))
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## $\lambda$-calculus: Lists
+
+```haskell
+let NIL = ???
+let CONS = ???
+let HEAD = ???
+let TAIL = ???
+
+eval exHd:
+ HEAD (CONS apple (CONS banana (CONS cantaloupe (CONS dragon NIL))))
+ =~> apple
+
+eval exTl
+ TAIL (CONS apple (CONS banana (CONS cantaloupe (CONS dragon NIL))))
+ =~> CONS banana (CONS cantaloupe (CONS dragon NIL)))
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## EXERCISE: Nth
+
+Write an implementation of `GetNth` such that
+
+- `GetNth n l` returns the n-th element of the list `l`
+
+*Assume that `l` has n or more elements*
+
+```haskell
+let GetNth = ???
+
+eval nth1 :
+ GetNth ZERO (CONS apple (CONS banana (CONS cantaloupe NIL)))
+ =~> apple
+
+eval nth1 :
+ GetNth ONE (CONS apple (CONS banana (CONS cantaloupe NIL)))
+ =~> banana
+
+eval nth2 :
+ GetNth TWO (CONS apple (CONS banana (CONS cantaloupe NIL)))
+ =~> cantaloupe
+```
+
+[Click here to try this in elsa](https://goto.ucsd.edu/elsa/index.html#?demo=permalink%2F1586466816_52273.lc)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## $\lambda$-calculus: Recursion
+
+<br>
+
+I want to write a function that sums up natural numbers up to `n`:
+
+```haskell
+let SUM = \n -> ... -- 0 + 1 + 2 + ... + n
+```
+
+such that we get the following behavior
+
+```haskell
+eval exSum0: SUM ZERO =~> ZERO
+eval exSum1: SUM ONE =~> ONE
+eval exSum2: SUM TWO =~> THREE
+eval exSum3: SUM THREE =~> SIX
+```
+
+Can we write sum **using Church Numerals**?
+
+[Click here to try this in Elsa](https://goto.ucsd.edu/elsa/index.html#?demo=permalink%2F1586465192_52175.lc)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+You *can* write `SUM` using numerals but its *tedious*.
+
+Is this a correct implementation of `SUM`?
+
+```haskell
+let SUM = \n -> ITE (ISZ n)
+ ZERO
+ (ADD n (SUM (DEC n)))
+```
+
+**A.** Yes
+
+**B.** No
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+No!
+
+ * Named terms in Elsa are just syntactic sugar
+ * To translate an Elsa term to $\lambda$-calculus: replace each name with its definition
+
+```haskell
+\n -> ITE (ISZ n)
+ ZERO
+ (ADD n (SUM (DEC n))) -- But SUM is not yet defined!
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Recursion:**
+
+- Inside *this* function
+- Want to call the *same* function on `DEC n`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Looks like we can't do recursion!
+
+- Requires being able to refer to functions *by name*,
+- But $\lambda$-calculus functions are *anonymous*.
+
+Right?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## $\lambda$-calculus: Recursion
+
+Think again!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Recursion:**
+
+Instead of
+
+- ~~Inside *this* function I want to call the *same* function on `DEC n`~~
+
+Lets try
+
+- Inside *this* function I want to call *some* function `rec` on `DEC n`
+- And BTW, I want `rec` to be the *same* function
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Step 1:** Pass in the function to call "recursively"
+
+```haskell
+let STEP =
+ \rec -> \n -> ITE (ISZ n)
+ ZERO
+ (ADD n (rec (DEC n))) -- Call some rec
+```
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Step 2:** Do some magic to `STEP`, so `rec` is itself
+
+```haskell
+\n -> ITE (ISZ n) ZERO (ADD n (rec (DEC n)))
+```
+
+That is, obtain a term `MAGIC` such that
+
+```haskell
+MAGIC =*> STEP MAGIC
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## $\lambda$-calculus: Fixpoint Combinator
+
+
+**Wanted:** a $\lambda$-term `FIX` such that
+
+- `FIX STEP` calls `STEP` with `FIX STEP` as the first argument:
+
+```
+(FIX STEP) =*> STEP (FIX STEP)
+```
+
+<br>
+
+(In math: a *fixpoint* of a function $f(x)$ is a point $x$, such that $f(x) = x$)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Once we have it, we can define:
+
+```
+let SUM = FIX STEP
+```
+
+Then by property of `FIX` we have:
+
+```haskell
+SUM =*> FIX STEP =*> STEP (FIX STEP) =*> STEP SUM
+```
+
+and so now we compute:
+
+```
+eval sum_two:
+ SUM TWO
+ =*> STEP SUM TWO
+ =*> ITE (ISZ TWO) ZERO (ADD TWO (SUM (DEC TWO)))
+ =*> ADD TWO (SUM (DEC TWO))
+ =*> ADD TWO (SUM ONE)
+ =*> ADD TWO (STEP SUM ONE)
+ =*> ADD TWO (ITE (ISZ ONE) ZERO (ADD ONE (SUM (DEC ONE))))
+ =*> ADD TWO (ADD ONE (SUM (DEC ONE)))
+ =*> ADD TWO (ADD ONE (SUM ZERO))
+ =*> ADD TWO (ADD ONE (ITE (ISZ ZERO) ZERO (ADD ZERO (SUM DEC ZERO)))
+ =*> ADD TWO (ADD ONE (ZERO))
+ =*> THREE
+```
+
+How should we define `FIX`???
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The Y combinator
+
+Remember $\Omega$?
+
+```haskell
+(\x -> x x) (\x -> x x)
+=b> (\x -> x x) (\x -> x x)
+```
+
+This is *self-replcating code*! We need something like this but a bit more involved...
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+The Y combinator discovered by Haskell Curry:
+
+```haskell
+let FIX = \stp -> (\x -> stp (x x)) (\x -> stp (x x))
+```
+<br>
+<br>
+
+How does it work?
+
+```haskell
+eval fix_step:
+ FIX STEP
+ =d> (\stp -> (\x -> stp (x x)) (\x -> stp (x x))) STEP
+ =b> (\x -> STEP (x x)) (\x -> STEP (x x))
+ =b> STEP ((\x -> STEP (x x)) (\x -> STEP (x x)))
+ -- ^^^^^^^^^^ this is FIX STEP ^^^^^^^^^^^
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+That's all folks, Haskell Curry was very clever.
+
+**Next week:** We'll look at the language named after him (`Haskell`)
+
+[elsa-ite]: http://goto.ucsd.edu:8095/index.html#?demo=ite.lc
+
+[elsa-not]: http://goto.ucsd.edu:8095/index.html#?demo=permalink%2F1491005489_149.lc
diff --git a/lectures/02-haskell-old.md b/lectures/02-haskell-old.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..87b5502
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/02-haskell-old.md
@@ -0,0 +1,1483 @@
+---
+title: A crash course in Haskell
+date: 2019-04-15
+headerImg: books.jpg
+---
+
+## Functions and Programming
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+{#fig:landin .align-center width=60%}
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## What is Haskell?
+
+<br>
+
+A **typed**, **lazy**, **purely functional** programming language
+
+<br>
+
+Haskell = $\lambda$-calculus ++
+
+ + better syntax
+ + types
+ + built-in features
+ - booleans, numbers, characters
+ - records (tuples)
+ - lists
+ - recursion
+ - ...
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Why Haskell?
+
+Haskell programs tend to be *simple* and *correct*
+
+### QuickSort in Haskell
+
+```haskell
+sort :: (Ord a) => [a] -> [a]
+sort [] = []
+sort (x:xs) = sort ls ++ [x] ++ sort rs
+ where
+ ls = [ l | l <- xs, l <= x ]
+ rs = [ r | r <- xs, x < r ]
+```
+
+
+### Goals for this week
+
+1. Understand the code above
+2. Understand what **typed**, **lazy**, and **purely functional** means (and why it's cool)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Haskell vs $\lambda$-calculus: similarities
+
+### (1) Programs
+
+A program is an **expression** (*not* a sequence of statements)
+
+It **evaluates** to a value (it *does not* perform actions)
+
+ * **$\lambda$**:
+
+ ```
+ (\x -> x) apple -- =~> apple
+ ```
+
+ * **Haskell**:
+
+ ```
+ (\x -> x) "apple" -- =~> "apple"
+ ```
+
+### (2) Functions
+
+Functions are *first-class values*:
+
+* can be *passed as arguments* to other functions
+* can be *returned as results* from other functions
+* can be *partially applied* (arguments passed *one at a time*)
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ (\x -> (\y -> x (x y))) (\z -> z + 1) 0 -- =~> ???
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ (\x -> (\y -> x (x y))) (\z -> z + 1) 0 -- =~> 2
+ ```
+
+
+*But:* unlike $\lambda$-calculus, not everything is a function!
+
+
+### (3) Top-level bindings
+
+Like in Elsa, we can *name* terms to use them later
+
+**Elsa**:
+
+```haskell
+let T = \x y -> x
+let F = \x y -> y
+
+let PAIR = \x y -> \b -> ITE b x y
+let FST = \p -> p T
+let SND = \p -> p F
+
+eval fst:
+ FST (PAIR apple orange)
+ =~> apple
+```
+
+**Haskell**:
+
+```haskell
+haskellIsAwesome = True
+
+pair = \x y -> \b -> if b then x else y
+fst = \p -> p haskellIsAwesome
+snd = \p -> p False
+
+-- In GHCi:
+> fst (pair "apple" "orange") -- "apple"
+```
+
+The names are called **top-level variables**
+
+Their definitions are called **top-level bindings**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Better Syntax: Equations and Patterns
+
+You can define function bindings using **equations**:
+
+```haskell
+pair x y b = if b then x else y -- same as: pair = \x y b -> ...
+fst p = p True -- same as: fst = \p -> ...
+snd p = p False -- same as: snd = \p -> ...
+```
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+A *single* function binding can have *multiple* equations with different **patterns** of parameters:
+
+```haskell
+pair x y True = x -- If 3rd arg matches True,
+ -- use this equation;
+pair x y False = y -- Otherwise, if 3rd arg matches False,
+ -- use this equation.
+```
+
+At run time, the first equation whose pattern matches the actual arguments is chosen
+
+For now, a **pattern** is:
+
+ * a *variable* (matches any value)
+
+ * or a *value* (matches only that value)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Same as:
+
+```haskell
+pair x y True = x -- If 3rd arg matches True,
+ -- use this equation;
+pair x y b = y -- Otherwise, use this equation.
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Same as:
+
+```haskell
+pair x y True = x
+pair x y _ = y
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Which of the following definitions of `pair` is **incorrect**?
+
+**A.** `pair x y = \b -> if b then x else y`
+
+**B.** `pair x = \y b -> if b then x else y`
+
+**C.**
+```haskell
+pair x _ True = x
+pair _ y _ = y
+```
+
+**D.**
+```haskell
+pair x y b = x
+pair x y False = y
+```
+
+**E.** all of the above
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ _Answer:_ **D**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Equations with guards
+
+An equation can have multiple guards (Boolean expressions):
+
+```haskell
+cmpSquare x y | x > y*y = "bigger :)"
+ | x == y*y = "same :|"
+ | x < y*y = "smaller :("
+```
+
+Same as:
+
+```haskell
+cmpSquare x y | x > y*y = "bigger :)"
+ | x == y*y = "same :|"
+ | otherwise = "smaller :("
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Recusion
+
+Recursion is built-in, so you can write:
+
+```haskell
+sum n = if n == 0
+ then 0
+ else n + sum (n - 1)
+```
+
+or you can write:
+
+```haskell
+sum 0 = 0
+sum n = n + sum (n - 1)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The scope of variables
+
+Top-level variable have **global** scope,
+so you can write:
+
+```haskell
+message = if haskellIsAwesome -- this var defined below
+ then "I love CSE 130"
+ else "I'm dropping CSE 130"
+
+haskellIsAwesome = True
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Or you can write:
+
+```haskell
+-- What does f compute?
+f 0 = True
+f n = g (n - 1) -- mutual recursion!
+
+g 0 = False
+g n = f (n - 1) -- mutual recursion!
+```
+
+(I) final
+
+ Answer: `f` is `isEven`, `g` is `isOdd`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Is this allowed?
+
+```haskell
+haskellIsAwesome = True
+
+haskellIsAwesome = False -- changed my mind
+```
+
+(I) final
+
+ Answer: no, a variable can be defined once per scope; no mutation!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Local variables
+
+You can introduce a *new* (local) scope using a `let`-expression:
+
+```haskell
+sum 0 = 0
+sum n = let n' = n - 1
+ in n + sum n' -- the scope of n' is the term after in
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Syntactic sugar for nested `let`-expressions:
+
+```haskell
+sum 0 = 0
+sum n = let
+ n' = n - 1
+ sum' = sum n'
+ in n + sum'
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+If you need a variable whose scope is an equation, use the `where` clause instead:
+
+```haskell
+cmpSquare x y | x > z = "bigger :)"
+ | x == z = "same :|"
+ | x < z = "smaller :("
+ where z = y*y
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Types
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+What would *Elsa* say?
+
+```haskell
+let WEIRDO = ONE ZERO
+```
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ Answer: Nothing. When evaluated will crunch to something nonsensical.
+ $lambda$-calculus is **untyped**.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+What would *Python* say?
+
+```python
+def weirdo():
+ return 0(1)
+```
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ Answer: Nothing. When evaluated will cause a run-time error.
+ Python is **dynamically typed**.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+What would *Java* say?
+
+```java
+void weirdo() {
+ int zero;
+ zero(1);
+}
+```
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ Answer: Java compiler will reject this.
+ Java is **statically typed**.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+
+## Types
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+In *Haskell* every expression either
+
+- **ill-typed** and _rejected at compile time_ or
+- **has a type** and can be _evaluated_ to obtain
+_ **a value** of the same type.
+
+Ill-typed* expressions are rejected statically at *compile-time*, before execution starts
+
+* **like** in Java
+* **unlike** $\lambda$-calculus or Python ...
+
+```haskell
+weirdo = 1 0 -- rejected by GHC
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+### Why are types good?
+
+* Helps with program *design*
+* Types are *contracts* (ignore ill-typed inputs!)
+* Catches errors *early*
+* Allows compiler *to generate code*
+* Enables compiler *optimizations*
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## Type annotations
+
+You can annotate your bindings with their types using `::`, like so:
+
+```haskell
+-- | This is a Boolean:
+haskellIsAwesome :: Bool
+haskellIsAwesome = True
+
+-- | This is a string
+message :: String
+message = if haskellIsAwesome
+ then "I love CSE 130"
+ else "I'm dropping CSE 130"
+
+-- | This is a word-size integer
+rating :: Int
+rating = if haskellIsAwesome then 10 else 0
+
+-- | This is an arbitrary precision integer
+bigNumber :: Integer
+bigNumber = factorial 100
+```
+
+If you omit annotations, GHC will infer them for you
+
+ * Inspect types in GHCi using `:t`
+ * You should annotate all top-level bindings anyway! (Why?)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Function Types
+
+Functions have **arrow types**:
+
+* `\x -> e` has type `A -> B`
+* if `e` has type `B` assuming `x` has type `A`
+
+For example:
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ > :t (\x -> if x then `a` else `b`) -- ???
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ > :t (\x -> if x then `a` else `b`)
+ (\x -> if x then `a` else `b`) :: Bool -> Char
+ ```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Always annotate your function bindings
+
+First understand *what the function does*
+
+- Before you think about *how to do it*
+
+```haskell
+sum :: Int -> Int
+sum 0 = 0
+sum n = n + sum (n - 1)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## When you have *multiple arguments
+
+For example
+
+```haskell
+add3 :: Int -> (Int -> (Int -> Int))
+add3 x y z = x + y + z
+```
+
+why? because the above is the same as:
+
+```haskell
+add3 :: Int -> (Int -> (Int -> Int))
+add3 = \x -> (\y -> (\z -> x + y + z))
+```
+
+however, as with the lambdas, the `->` **associates to the right** so we will just write:
+
+```haskell
+add3 :: Int -> Int -> Int -> Int
+add3 x y z = x + y + z
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<!--
+## QUIZ
+
+Suppose `pair :: String -> String -> Bool -> String`, what is the type of:
+
+```haskell
+(pair "apple" "orange")
+```
+
+**A.** Syntax error
+
+**B.** The term is ill-typed
+
+**C.** `String`
+
+**D.** `Bool -> String`
+
+**E.** `String -> String -> Bool -> String`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ _Answer:_ **D**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+-->
+
+## Lists
+
+A list is
+
+ * either an *empty list*
+
+ `[] -- pronounced "nil"`
+
+ * or a *head element* attached to a *tail list*
+
+ `h : t -- pronounced "h cons t"`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Examples:
+
+```haskell
+[] -- A list with zero elements
+
+1 : [] -- A list with one element: 1
+
+(:) 1 [] -- As above: for any infix op, `x op y` is same as `(op) x y`
+
+1:(2:(3:(4:[]))) -- A list with four elements: 1, 2, 3, 4
+
+1:2:3:4:[] -- Same thing (: is right associative)
+
+[1,2,3,4] -- Same thing (syntactic sugar)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Terminology: constructors and values
+
+`[]` and `(:)` are called the *list* **constructors**
+
+We've seen constructors before:
+
+* `True` and `False` are `Bool` constructors
+* `0`, `1`, `2` are ... well, you can think of them as `Int` constructors
+ - The `Int` constructors don't take any parameters, we just called them *values*
+
+In general, a **value** is a constructor applied to **other values**
+
+* examples above are *list* values
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The Type of a List
+
+A list has type `[Thing]` if each of its elements has type `Thing`
+
+Examples:
+
+```haskell
+intList :: [Int]
+intList = [1,2,3,4]
+
+boolList :: [Bool]
+boolList = [True, False, True]
+
+strList :: [String]
+strList = ["nom", "nom", "burp"]
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+<!--
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ -- myList' :: ??
+ myList' = ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ myList' :: [Char] -- or :: String
+ myList' = ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o'] -- or = "hello"
+ ```
+
+<br>
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ -- myList'' :: ???
+ myList'' = [1, 'h']
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ -- myList'' :: Type error: elements have different types!
+ myList'' = [1, 'h']
+ ```
+
+<br>
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ -- myList''' :: ???
+ myList''' = []
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ myList''' :: [t] -- Generic: works for any type t!
+ myList''' = []
+ ```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+-->
+
+## Lets write some Functions
+
+
+[A Recipe](https://www.htdp.org/)
+
+**Step 1: Write some tests**
+
+**Step 2: Write the type**
+
+**Step 3: Write the code**
+
+
+
+## Functions on lists: range
+
+**1. Tests**
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> ???
+```
+
+**2. Type**
+
+```haskell
+range :: ???
+```
+
+**3. Code**
+
+```haskell
+range = ???
+```
+
+<!--
+(I) lecture
+ ```haskell
+ -- | List of integers from n upto m
+ upto :: Int -> Int -> [Int]
+ upto n m = ???
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ -- | List of integers from n upto m
+ upto :: Int -> Int -> [Int]
+ upto n m
+ | n > m = []
+ | otherwise = n : (upto (n + 1) m)
+ ```
+-->
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Syntactic Sugar for Ranges
+
+There's also syntactic sugar for this!
+
+```haskell
+[1..7] -- [1,2,3,4,5,6,7]
+[1,3..7] -- [1,3,5,7]
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Functions on lists: length
+
+**1. Tests**
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> ???
+```
+
+**2. Type**
+
+```haskell
+len :: ???
+```
+
+**3. Code**
+
+```haskell
+len = ???
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Pattern matching on lists
+
+```haskell
+-- | Length of the list
+len :: [Int] -> Int
+len [] = 0
+len (_:xs) = 1 + len xs
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+~~A pattern is either a *variable* (incl. `_`) or a *value*~~
+
+A pattern is
+
+ * either a *variable* (incl. `_`)
+ * or a *constructor* applied to other *patterns*
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Pattern matching** attempts to match *values* against *patterns* and,
+if desired, *bind* variables to successful matches.
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Functions on lists: `take`
+
+Let's write a function to `take` first `n` elements of a list `xs`.
+
+**1. Tests**
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> ???
+```
+
+**2. Type**
+
+```haskell
+take :: ???
+```
+
+**3. Code**
+
+```haskell
+take = ???
+```
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Which of the following is **not** a pattern?
+
+**A.** `(1:xs)`
+
+**B.** `(_:_:_)`
+
+**C.** `[x]`
+
+**D.** `[1+2,x,y]`
+
+**E.** all of the above
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ _Answer:_ **D** (`1+2` is a function application, not a constructor application)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Strings are Lists-of-Chars
+
+For example
+
+```haskell
+λ> let x = ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o']
+λ> x
+"hello"
+
+λ> let y = "hello"
+
+λ> x == y
+True
+
+λ> :t x
+x :: [Char]
+
+λ> :t y
+y :: [Char]
+```
+
+## shout Shout SHOUT
+
+How can we convert a string to upper-case, e.g.
+
+```haskell
+ghci> shout "like this"
+"LIKE THIS"
+```
+
+```haskell
+shout :: String -> String
+shout s = ???
+```
+<br>
+
+## Some useful library functions
+
+```haskell
+-- | Length of the list
+length :: [t] -> Int
+
+-- | Append two lists
+(++) :: [t] -> [t] -> [t]
+
+-- | Are two lists equal?
+(==) :: [t] -> [t] -> Bool
+```
+
+<br>
+
+You can search for library functions on [Hoogle](https://www.haskell.org/hoogle/)!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Tuples
+
+```haskell
+myPair :: (String, Int) -- pair of String and Int
+myPair = ("apple", 3)
+```
+
+<br>
+
+`(,)` is the *pair constructor*
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Field access
+
+Using `fst` and `snd`
+
+```haskell
+ghci> fst ("apple", 22)
+"apple"
+
+ghci> snd ("apple", 22)
+22
+```
+
+## Tuples to pass parameters
+
+```haskell
+add2 :: (Int, Int) -> Int
+add2 p = fst p + snd p
+```
+
+but watch out, `add2` expects a tuple.
+
+```haskell
+exAdd2_BAD = add2 10 20 -- type error
+
+exAdd2_OK = add2 (10, 20) -- OK!
+```
+
+## Tuples and Pattern Matching
+
+It is often clearer to use *patterns* for tuples, e.g.
+
+```haskell
+add2 :: (Int, Int) -> Int
+add2 p = let (x, y) = p in
+ x + y
+```
+
+or equivalently,
+
+```haskell
+add2 :: (Int, Int) -> Int
+add2 p = x + y
+ where
+ (x, y) = p
+```
+
+or, best, use the pattern in the parameter,
+
+```haskell
+add2 :: (Int, Int) -> Int
+add2 (x, y) = x + y
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+You can use pattern matching not only in equations,
+but also in $\lambda$-bindings and `let`-bindings!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### QUIZ: Pattern matching with pairs
+
+Is this pattern matching correct? What does this function do?
+
+```haskell
+quiz :: String -> [(String, Int)] -> Int
+quiz _ [] = 0
+quiz x ((k,v) : ps)
+ | x == k = v
+ | otherwise = quiz x ps
+```
+
+What is `quiz "dog" [ ("cat", 10), ("dog", 20), ("cat", 30)]` ?
+
+**A.** Type error!
+
+**B.** `0`
+
+**C.** `10`
+
+**D.** `20`
+
+**D.** `30`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ _Answer:_ a list of pairs represents key-value pairs in a dictionary;
+ `quiz` performs lookup by key, result is `10`.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Generalized Tuples
+
+Can we implement triples like in $\lambda$-calculus?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Sure! but Haskell has native support for $n$-tuples:
+
+```haskell
+myPair :: (String, Int)
+myPair = ("apple", 3)
+
+myTriple :: (Bool, Int, [Int])
+myTriple = (True, 1, [1,2,3])
+
+my4tuple :: (Float, Float, Float, Float)
+my4tuple = (pi, sin pi, cos pi, sqrt 2)
+```
+
+## The "Empty" Tuple
+
+It also makes sense to have an 0-ary tuple:
+
+```haskell
+myUnit :: ()
+myUnit = ()
+```
+
+often used like `void` in other languages.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## List comprehensions
+
+A convenient way to construct lists!
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the result of evaluating:
+
+```haskell
+quiz = [ 10 * i | i <- [0,1,2,3,4,5]]
+```
+
+**A.** Infinite loop
+**B.** `[]`
+**C.** `[0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50]`
+**D.** `150`
+**E.** Type error
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Comprehensions and Ranges
+
+Recall you can *enumerate* ranges as
+
+```haskell
+ghci> [0..5]
+[0,1,2,3,4,5]
+```
+
+So, we can write the above more simply
+
+```haskell
+quiz = [ 10 * i | i <- [0..5] ]
+```
+
+## QUIZ: Composing Comprehensions
+
+What is the result of evaluating
+
+```haskell
+quiz = [(i,j) | i <- [0, 1] -- a first selection
+ , j <- [0, 1] ] -- a second selection
+```
+
+**A.** Type error
+**B.** `[]`
+**C.** `[0,1]`
+**D.** `[(0,0), (1,1)]`
+**E.** `[(0,0), (0,1, (1,0), (1,1)]`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ: Composing Comprehensions
+
+What is the result of evaluating
+
+```haskell
+quiz = [(i,j) | i <- [0, 1]
+ , j <- [0, 1]
+ , i == j ] -- condition!
+```
+
+**A.** Type error
+**B.** `[]`
+**C.** `[0,1]`
+**D.** `[(0,0), (1,1)]`
+**E.** `[(0,0), (0,1, (1,0), (1,1)]`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## shout revisited
+
+How can we convert a string to upper-case, e.g.
+
+```haskell
+ghci> shout "like this"
+"LIKE THIS"
+```
+
+Use comprehensions to write a *non-recursive" `shout`?
+
+```haskell
+shout :: String -> String
+shout s = ???
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QuickSort in Haskell
+
+
+**Step 1: Write some tests**
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> sort []
+-- ???
+
+-- >>> sort [10]
+-- ???
+
+-- >>> sort [12, 1, 10]
+-- ???
+```
+
+**Step 2: Write the type**
+
+
+```haskell
+sort :: ???
+```
+
+**Step 3: Write the code**
+
+
+```haskell
+sort [] = ???
+sort (x:xs) = ???
+```
+
+
+(I) final
+
+```haskell
+sort :: [Int] -> [Int]
+sort [] = []
+sort (x:xs) = sort ls ++ [x] ++ sort rs
+ where
+ ls = [ l | l <- xs, l <= x ]
+ rs = [ r | r <- xs, x < r ]
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Haskell is purely functional
+
+**Functional** = functions are *first-class values*
+
+**Pure** = a program is an expression that evaluates to a value
+
+ * no side effects!
+
+ * unlike in Python, Java, etc:
+
+ ```java
+ public int f(int x) {
+ calls++; // side effect: global variable update!
+ System.out.println("calling f"); // side effect: writing to screen!
+ launchMissile(); // side effect: can't bring back home!
+ return x * 2;
+ }
+ ```
+
+ * in Haskell, a function of type `Int -> Int`
+ Computes a *single integer output* from a *single integer input*
+ Does **nothing else**
+
+**Referential transparency:** The same expression always evaluates to the same value
+
+<!--
+ * More precisely: In a scope where `x1, ..., xn` are defined,
+ all occurrences of `e` with `FV(e) = {x1, ..., xn}` have the same value
+ -->
+
+<br>
+
+**Why is this good?**
+
+ * easier to reason about (remember `x++` vs `++x` in C++?)
+ * enables compiler optimizations
+ * especially great for parallelization (`e1 + e2`: we can always compute `e1` and `e2` in parallel!)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+The function `head` returns the first element of a list.
+
+What is the result of:
+
+```haskell
+goBabyGo :: Int -> [Int]
+goBabyGo n = n : goBabyGo (n + 1)
+
+quiz :: Int
+quiz = head (goBabyGo 0)
+```
+
+**A.** Loops forever
+**B.** Type error
+**C.** `0`
+**D.** `1`
+
+## Haskell is Lazy
+
+An expression is evaluated only when its result is needed!
+
+```haskell
+ghci> take 2 (goBabyGo 1)
+[1,2]
+```
+
+Why?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+ take 2 (goBabyGo 1)
+=> take 2 (1 : goBabyGo 2)
+=> take 2 (1 : 2 : goBabyGo 3)
+=> 1: take 1 ( 2 : goBabyGo 3)
+=> 1:2: take 0 ( goBabyGo 3)
+=> 1:2: []
+```
+
+<br>
+
+**Why is this good?**
+
+ * can implement cool stuff like infinite lists: `[1..]`
+
+ ```haskell
+ -- first n pairs of co-primes:
+ take n [(i,j) | i <- [1..],
+ j <- [1..i],
+ gcd i j == 1]
+ ```
+
+
+ * encourages simple, general solutions
+ * but has its problems too :(
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+That's all folks!
diff --git a/lectures/02-haskell-rec.md b/lectures/02-haskell-rec.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1ba21c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/02-haskell-rec.md
@@ -0,0 +1,1125 @@
+---
+title: Haskell Crash Course Part I
+headerImg: sea.jpg
+---
+
+## From the Lambda Calculus to Haskell
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## What is Haskell?
+
+<br>
+
+A **typed**, **lazy**, **purely functional** programming language
+
+<br>
+
+Haskell = $\lambda$-calculus ++
+
+ + better syntax
+ + types
+ + built-in features
+ - booleans, numbers, characters
+ - records (tuples)
+ - lists
+ - recursion
+ - ...
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Programming in Haskell
+
+**Computation by Calculation**
+
+<br>
+
+*Substituting equals by equals*
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Computation via Substituting Equals by Equals
+
+```haskell
+
+ (1 + 3) * (4 + 5)
+ -- subst 1 + 3 = 4
+==> 4 * (4 + 5)
+ -- subst 4 + 5 = 9
+==> 4 * 9
+ -- subst 4 * 9 = 36
+==> 36
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Computation via Substituting Equals by Equals
+
+**Equality-Substitution** enables **Abstraction** via **Pattern Recognition**
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Abstraction via Pattern Recognition
+
+**Repeated Expressions**
+
+```
+ 31 * (42 + 56)
+ 70 * (12 + 95)
+ 90 * (68 + 12)
+```
+
+**Recognize Pattern as $\lambda$-function**
+
+```
+pat = \x y z -> x * ( y + z )
+```
+
+**Equivalent Haskell Definition**
+
+```
+pat x y z = x * ( y + z )
+```
+
+**Function Call is Pattern Instance**
+
+```
+pat 31 42 56 =*> 31 * (42 + 56) =*> 31 * 98 =*> 3038
+pat 70 12 95 =*> 70 * (12 + 95) =*> 70 * 107 =*> 7490
+pat 90 68 12 =*> 90 * (68 + 12) =*> 90 * 80 =*> 7200
+```
+
+**Key Idea:** Computation is _substitute_ equals by equals.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Programming in Haskell
+
+_Substitute Equals by Equals_
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Thats it! (*Do not* think of registers, stacks, frames etc.)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Elements of Haskell
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+- Core program element is an **expression**
+- Every _valid_ expression has a **type** (determined at compile-time)
+- Every _valid_ expression reduces to a _value_ (computed at run-time)
+
+Ill-typed* expressions are rejected at *compile-time* before execution
+
+- *like* in Java
+- *not like* $\lambda$-calculus or Python ...
+
+
+```haskell
+weirdo = 1 0 -- rejected by GHC
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Why are types good?
+
+* Helps with program *design*
+* Types are *contracts* (ignore ill-typed inputs!)
+* Catches errors *early*
+* Allows compiler *to generate code*
+* Enables compiler *optimizations*
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The Haskell Eco-System
+
+- **Batch compiler:** `ghc` Compile and run large programs
+
+- **Interactive Shell** `ghci` Shell to interactively run small programs [online](https://repl.it/languages/haskell)
+
+- **Build Tool** `stack` Build tool to manage libraries etc.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Interactive Shell: `ghci`
+
+```haskell
+$ stack ghci
+
+:load file.hs
+:type expression
+:info variable
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## A Haskell Source File
+
+A sequence of **top-level definitions** `x1`, `x2`, ...
+
+- Each has *type* `type_1`, `type_2`, ...
+
+- Each defined by *expression* `expr_1`, `expr_2`, ...
+
+```haskell
+x_1 :: type_1
+x_1 = expr_1
+
+x_2 :: type_2
+x_2 = expr_2
+
+.
+.
+.
+
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Basic Types
+
+
+```haskell
+ex1 :: Int
+ex1 = 31 * (42 + 56) -- this is a comment
+
+ex2 :: Double
+ex2 = 3 * (4.2 + 5.6) -- arithmetic operators "overloaded"
+
+ex3 :: Char
+ex3 = 'a' -- 'a', 'b', 'c', etc. built-in `Char` values
+
+ex4 :: Bool
+ex4 = True -- True, False are builtin Bool values
+
+ex5 :: Bool
+ex5 = False
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ: Basic Operations
+
+```haskell
+ex6 :: Int
+ex6 = 4 + 5
+
+ex7 :: Int
+ex7 = 4 * 5
+
+ex8 :: Bool
+ex8 = 5 > 4
+
+quiz :: ???
+quiz = if ex8 then ex6 else ex7
+```
+
+What is the *type* of `quiz`?
+
+**A.** `Int`
+
+**B.** `Bool`
+
+**C.** Error!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ: Basic Operations
+
+```haskell
+ex6 :: Int
+ex6 = 4 + 5
+
+ex7 :: Int
+ex7 = 4 * 5
+
+ex8 :: Bool
+ex8 = 5 > 4
+
+quiz :: ???
+quiz = if ex8 then ex6 else ex7
+```
+
+What is the *value* of `quiz`?
+
+**A.** `9`
+
+**B.** `20`
+
+**C.** Other!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Function Types
+
+In Haskell, a **function is a value** that has a type
+
+```
+A -> B
+```
+
+A function that
+
+- takes *input* of type `A`
+- returns *output* of type `B`
+
+For example
+
+```haskell
+isPos :: Int -> Bool
+isPos = \n -> (x > 0)
+```
+
+Define **function-expressions** using `\` like in $\lambda$-calculus!
+
+But Haskell also allows us to put the parameter on the _left_
+
+```haskell
+isPos :: Int -> Bool
+isPos n = (x > 0)
+```
+
+(Meaning is **identical** to above definition with `\n -> ...`)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Multiple Argument Functions
+
+A function that
+
+- takes three _inputs_ `A1`, `A2` and `A3`
+- returns one _output_ `B` has the type
+
+```haskell
+A1 -> A2 -> A3 -> B
+```
+
+For example
+
+```haskell
+pat :: Int -> Int -> Int -> Int
+pat = \x y z -> x * (y + z)
+```
+
+which we can write with the params on the _left_ as
+
+```haskell
+pat :: Int -> Int -> Int -> Int
+pat x y z = x * (y + z)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the type of `quiz` ?
+
+```haskell
+quiz :: ???
+quiz x y = (x + y) > 0
+```
+
+**A.** `Int -> Int`
+
+**B.** `Int -> Bool`
+
+**C.** `Int -> Int -> Int`
+
+**D.** `Int -> Int -> Bool`
+
+**E.** `(Int, Int) -> Bool`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Function Calls
+
+A function call is _exactly_ like in the $\lambda$-calculus
+
+```
+e1 e2
+```
+
+where `e1` is a function and `e2` is the argument. For example
+
+```haskell
+>>> isPos 12
+True
+
+>>> isPos (0 - 5)
+False
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Multiple Argument Calls
+
+With multiple arguments, just pass them in one by one, e.g.
+
+```
+(((e e1) e2) e3)
+```
+
+For example
+
+```haskell
+>>> pat 31 42 56
+3038
+```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## EXERCISE
+
+Write a function `myMax` that returns the *maximum* of two inputs
+
+```haskell
+myMax :: Int -> Int -> Int
+myMax = ???
+```
+
+When you are done you should see the following behavior:
+
+```haskell
+>>> myMax 10 20
+20
+
+>>> myMax 100 5
+100
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## EXERCISE
+
+Write a function `sumTo` such that `sumTo n` evaluates to `0 + 1 + 2 + ... + n`
+
+```haskell
+sumTo :: Int -> Int
+sumTo n = ???
+```
+
+When you are done you should see the following behavior:
+
+```haskell
+>>> sumTo 3
+6
+>>> sumTo 4
+10
+>>> sumTo 5
+15
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## How to Return Multiple Outputs?
+
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Tuples
+
+A type for packing `n` different kinds of values into a single "struct"
+
+```haskell
+(T1,..., Tn)
+```
+
+For example
+
+```haskell
+tup1 :: ???
+tup1 = ('a', 5)
+
+tup2 :: (Char, Double, Int)
+tup2 = ('a', 5.2, 7)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the type `???` of `tup3`?
+
+```haskell
+tup3 :: ???
+tup3 = ((7, 5.2), True)
+```
+
+
+**A.** `(Int, Bool)`
+
+**B.** `(Int, Double, Bool)`
+
+**C.** `(Int, (Double, Bool))`
+
+**D.** `((Int, Double), Bool)`
+
+**E.** `(Tuple, Bool)`
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Extracting Values from Tuples
+
+We can **create** a tuple of three values `e1`, `e2`, and `e3` ...
+
+```haskell
+tup = (e1, e2, e3)
+```
+
+... but how to **extract** the values from this tuple?
+
+**Pattern Matching** via `case-of` expressions
+
+```haskell
+fst3 :: (t1, t2, t3) -> t1
+fst3 t = case t of
+ (x1, x2, x3) -> x1
+
+snd3 :: (t1, t2, t3) -> t2
+snd3 t = case t of
+ (x1, x2, x3) -> x2
+
+thd3 :: (t1, t2, t3) -> t3
+thd3 t = case t of
+ (x1, x2, x3) -> x3
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the value of `quiz` defined as
+
+```haskell
+tup2 :: (Char, Double, Int)
+tup2 = ('a', 5.2, 7)
+
+snd3 :: (t1, t2, t3) -> t2
+snd3 t = case t of
+ (x1, x2, x3) -> x2
+
+quiz = snd3 tup2
+```
+
+**A.** `'a'`
+
+**B.** `5.2`
+
+**C.** `7`
+
+**D.** `('a', 5.2)`
+
+**E.** `(5.2, 7)`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Lists
+
+Unbounded Sequence of values of type `T`
+
+```haskell
+[T]
+```
+
+For example
+
+```haskell
+chars :: [Char]
+chars = ['a', 'b', 'c']
+
+ints :: [Int]
+ints = [1, 3, 5, 7]
+
+pairs :: [(Int, Bool)]
+pairs = [(1,True), (2,False)]
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the type of `things` defined as
+
+```haskell
+things :: ???
+things = [ [1], [2, 3], [4, 5, 6] ]
+```
+
+**A.** `[Int]`
+
+**B.** `([Int], [Int], [Int])`
+
+**C.** `[(Int, Int, Int)]`
+
+**D.** `[[Int]]`
+
+**E.** `List`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## List's Values Must Have The SAME Type!
+
+The type `[T]` denotes an unbounded sequence of values of type `T`
+
+Suppose you have a list
+
+```
+oops = [1, 2, 'c']
+```
+
+There is no `T` that we can use
+
+- As last element is not `Int`
+- First two elements are not `Char`!
+
+**Result: Mysterious Type Error!**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Constructing Lists
+
+There are two ways to construct lists
+
+```haskell
+ [] -- creates an empty list
+ h:t -- creates a list with "head" 'h' and "tail" t
+```
+
+For example
+
+```haskell
+>>> 3 : []
+[3]
+
+>>> 2 : (3 : [])
+[2, 3]
+
+>>> 1 : (2 : (3 : []))
+[1, 2, 3]
+```
+
+**Cons Operator** `:` **is Right Associative**
+
+`x1 : x2 : x3 : x4 : t` means `x1 : (x2 : (x3 : (x4 : t)))`
+
+So we can just avoid the parentheses.
+
+**Syntactic Sugar**
+
+Haskell lets you write `[x1, x2, x3, x4]` instead of `x1 : x2 : x3 : x4 : []`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Functions Producing Lists
+
+Lets write a function `copy3` that
+
+- takes an input `x` and
+- returns a list with _three_ copies of `x`
+
+```haskell
+copy3 :: ???
+copy3 x = ???
+```
+
+When you are done, you should see the following
+
+```haskell
+>>> copy3 5
+[5, 5, 5]
+
+>>> copy3 "cat"
+["cat", "cat", "cat"]
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## PRACTICE: Clone
+
+Write a function `clone` such that
+`clone n x` returns a list with `n` copies of `x`.
+
+```haskell
+clone :: ???
+clone n x = ???
+```
+
+When you are done you should see the following behavior
+
+```haskell
+>>> clone 0 "cat"
+[]
+
+>>> clone 1 "cat"
+["cat"]
+
+>>> clone 2 "cat"
+["cat", "cat"]
+
+>>> clone 3 "cat"
+["cat", "cat", "cat"]
+
+>>> clone 3 100
+[100, 100, 100]
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## How does `clone` execute?
+
+(Substituting equals-by-equals!)
+
+```haskell
+clone 3 100
+ =*> ???
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## EXERCISE: Range
+
+Write a function `range` such that `range i j`
+returns the list of values `[i, i+1, ..., j]`
+
+```haskell
+range :: ???
+range i j = ???
+```
+
+When we are done you should get the behavior
+
+```haskell
+>>> range 4 3
+[]
+
+>>> range 3 3
+[3]
+
+>>> range 2 3
+[2, 3]
+
+>>> range 1 3
+[1, 2, 3]
+
+>>> range 0 3
+[0, 1, 2, 3]
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Functions Consuming Lists
+
+So far: how to *produce* lists.
+
+**Next** how to *consume* lists!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## EXERCISE
+
+Lets write a function `firstElem` such that
+`firstElem xs` returns the _first_ element
+`xs` if it is a non-empty list, and `0` otherwise.
+
+```haskell
+firstElem :: [Int] -> Int
+firstElem xs = ???
+```
+
+**HINT:** How to _extract_ values from a list?
+
+When you are done you should see the following behavior:
+
+```haskell
+>>> firstElem []
+0
+
+>>> firstElem [10, 20, 30]
+10
+
+>>> firstElem [5, 6, 7, 8]
+5
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Suppose we have the following `mystery` function
+
+```haskell
+mystery :: [a] -> Int
+mystery l = case l of
+ [] -> 0
+ (x:xs) -> 1 + mystery xs
+```
+
+What does `mystery [10, 20, 30]` evaluate to?
+
+**A.** `10`
+
+**B.** `20`
+
+**C.** `30`
+
+**D.** `3`
+
+**E.** `0`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## EXERCISE: Summing a List
+
+Write a function `sumList` such that `sumList [x1, ..., xn]` returns `x1 + ... + xn`
+
+```haskell
+sumList :: [Int] -> Int
+sumList = ???
+```
+
+When you are done you should get the following behavior:
+
+```haskell
+>>> sumList []
+0
+
+>>> sumlist [3]
+3
+
+>>> sumlist [2, 3]
+5
+
+>>> sumlist [1, 2, 3]
+6
+```
+
+## Recap
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+- Core program element is an **expression**
+- Every _valid_ expression has a **type** (determined at compile-time)
+- Every _valid_ expression reduces to a _value_ (computed at run-time)
+
+
+**Execution**
+
+- Basic values & operators
+
+- Execution / Function Calls just *substitute equals by equals*
+
+- Pack data into *tuples* & *lists*
+
+- Unpack data via *pattern-matching*
+
diff --git a/lectures/02-haskell.md b/lectures/02-haskell.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f156fc9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/02-haskell.md
@@ -0,0 +1,1260 @@
+---
+title: Haskell Crash Course Part I
+headerImg: sea.jpg
+---
+
+## From the Lambda Calculus to Haskell
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## What is Haskell?
+
+<br>
+
+A **typed**, **lazy**, **purely functional** programming language
+
+<br>
+
+Haskell = $\lambda$-calculus ++
+
+ + better syntax
+ + types
+ + built-in features
+ - booleans, numbers, characters
+ - records (tuples)
+ - lists
+ - recursion
+ - ...
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Programming in Haskell
+
+**Computation by Calculation**
+
+<br>
+
+*Substituting equals by equals*
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Computation via Substituting Equals by Equals
+
+```haskell
+
+ (1 + 3) * (4 + 5)
+ -- subst 1 + 3 = 4
+==> 4 * (4 + 5)
+ -- subst 4 + 5 = 9
+==> 4 * 9
+ -- subst 4 * 9 = 36
+==> 36
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Computation via Substituting Equals by Equals
+
+**Equality-Substitution** enables **Abstraction** via **Pattern Recognition**
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Abstraction via Pattern Recognition
+
+**Repeated Expressions**
+
+```
+ 31 * (42 + 56)
+ 70 * (12 + 95)
+ 90 * (68 + 12)
+```
+
+**Recognize Pattern as $\lambda$-function**
+
+```
+pat = \x y z -> x * ( y + z )
+```
+
+**Equivalent Haskell Definition**
+
+```
+pat x y z = x * ( y + z )
+```
+
+**Function Call is Pattern Instance**
+
+```
+pat 31 42 56 =*> 31 * (42 + 56) =*> 31 * 98 =*> 3038
+pat 70 12 95 =*> 70 * (12 + 95) =*> 70 * 107 =*> 7490
+pat 90 68 12 =*> 90 * (68 + 12) =*> 90 * 80 =*> 7200
+```
+
+**Key Idea:** Computation is _substitute_ equals by equals.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Programming in Haskell
+
+_Substitute Equals by Equals_
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Thats it! (*Do not* think of registers, stacks, frames etc.)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Elements of Haskell
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+- Core program element is an **expression**
+- Every _valid_ expression has a **type** (determined at compile-time)
+- Every _valid_ expression reduces to a _value_ (computed at run-time)
+
+Ill-typed* expressions are rejected at *compile-time* before execution
+
+- *like* in Java
+- *not like* $\lambda$-calculus or Python ...
+
+
+```haskell
+weirdo = 1 0 -- rejected by GHC
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Why are types good?
+
+* Helps with program *design*
+* Types are *contracts* (ignore ill-typed inputs!)
+* Catches errors *early*
+* Allows compiler *to generate code*
+* Enables compiler *optimizations*
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The Haskell Eco-System
+
+- **Batch compiler:** `ghc` Compile and run large programs
+
+- **Interactive Shell** `ghci` Shell to interactively run small programs [online](https://repl.it/languages/haskell)
+
+- **Build Tool** `stack` Build tool to manage libraries etc.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Interactive Shell: `ghci`
+
+```haskell
+$ stack ghci
+
+:load file.hs
+:type expression
+:info variable
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## A Haskell Source File
+
+A sequence of **top-level definitions** `x1`, `x2`, ...
+
+- Each has *type* `type_1`, `type_2`, ...
+
+- Each defined by *expression* `expr_1`, `expr_2`, ...
+
+```haskell
+x_1 :: type_1
+x_1 = expr_1
+
+x_2 :: type_2
+x_2 = expr_2
+
+.
+.
+.
+
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Basic Types
+
+
+```haskell
+ex1 :: Int
+ex1 = 31 * (42 + 56) -- this is a comment
+
+ex2 :: Double
+ex2 = 3 * (4.2 + 5.6) -- arithmetic operators "overloaded"
+
+ex3 :: Char
+ex3 = 'a' -- 'a', 'b', 'c', etc. built-in `Char` values
+
+ex4 :: Bool
+ex4 = True -- True, False are builtin Bool values
+
+ex5 :: Bool
+ex5 = False
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ: Basic Operations
+
+```haskell
+ex6 :: Int
+ex6 = 4 + 5
+
+ex7 :: Int
+ex7 = 4 * 5
+
+ex8 :: Bool
+ex8 = 5 > 4
+
+quiz :: ???
+quiz = if ex8 then ex6 else ex7
+```
+
+What is the *type* of `quiz`?
+
+**A.** `Int`
+
+**B.** `Bool`
+
+**C.** Error!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ: Basic Operations
+
+```haskell
+ex6 :: Int
+ex6 = 4 + 5
+
+ex7 :: Int
+ex7 = 4 * 5
+
+ex8 :: Bool
+ex8 = 5 > 4
+
+quiz :: ???
+quiz = if ex8 then ex6 else ex7
+```
+
+What is the *value* of `quiz`?
+
+**A.** `9`
+
+**B.** `20`
+
+**C.** Other!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Function Types
+
+In Haskell, a **function is a value** that has a type
+
+```
+A -> B
+```
+
+A function that
+
+- takes *input* of type `A`
+- returns *output* of type `B`
+
+For example
+
+```haskell
+isPos :: Int -> Bool
+isPos = \n -> (x > 0)
+```
+
+Define **function-expressions** using `\` like in $\lambda$-calculus!
+
+But Haskell also allows us to put the parameter on the _left_
+
+```haskell
+isPos :: Int -> Bool
+isPos n = (x > 0)
+```
+
+(Meaning is **identical** to above definition with `\n -> ...`)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Multiple Argument Functions
+
+A function that
+
+- takes three _inputs_ `A1`, `A2` and `A3`
+- returns one _output_ `B` has the type
+
+```haskell
+A1 -> A2 -> A3 -> B
+```
+
+For example
+
+```haskell
+pat :: Int -> Int -> Int -> Int
+pat = \x y z -> x * (y + z)
+```
+
+which we can write with the params on the _left_ as
+
+```haskell
+pat :: Int -> Int -> Int -> Int
+pat x y z = x * (y + z)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the type of `quiz` ?
+
+```haskell
+quiz :: ???
+quiz x y = (x + y) > 0
+```
+
+**A.** `Int -> Int`
+
+**B.** `Int -> Bool`
+
+**C.** `Int -> Int -> Int`
+
+**D.** `Int -> Int -> Bool`
+
+**E.** `(Int, Int) -> Bool`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Function Calls
+
+A function call is _exactly_ like in the $\lambda$-calculus
+
+```
+e1 e2
+```
+
+where `e1` is a function and `e2` is the argument. For example
+
+```haskell
+>>> isPos 12
+True
+
+>>> isPos (0 - 5)
+False
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Multiple Argument Calls
+
+With multiple arguments, just pass them in one by one, e.g.
+
+```
+(((e e1) e2) e3)
+```
+
+For example
+
+```haskell
+>>> pat 31 42 56
+3038
+```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## EXERCISE
+
+Write a function `myMax` that returns the *maximum* of two inputs
+
+```haskell
+myMax :: Int -> Int -> Int
+myMax = ???
+```
+
+When you are done you should see the following behavior:
+
+```haskell
+>>> myMax 10 20
+20
+
+>>> myMax 100 5
+100
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## EXERCISE
+
+Write a function `sumTo` such that `sumTo n` evaluates to `0 + 1 + 2 + ... + n`
+
+```haskell
+sumTo :: Int -> Int
+sumTo n = ???
+```
+
+When you are done you should see the following behavior:
+
+```haskell
+>>> sumTo 3
+6
+>>> sumTo 4
+10
+>>> sumTo 5
+15
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## How to Return Multiple Outputs?
+
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Tuples
+
+A type for packing `n` different kinds of values into a single "struct"
+
+```haskell
+(T1,..., Tn)
+```
+
+For example
+
+```haskell
+tup1 :: ???
+tup1 = ('a', 5)
+
+tup2 :: (Char, Double, Int)
+tup2 = ('a', 5.2, 7)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the type `???` of `tup3`?
+
+```haskell
+tup3 :: ???
+tup3 = ((7, 5.2), True)
+```
+
+
+**A.** `(Int, Bool)`
+
+**B.** `(Int, Double, Bool)`
+
+**C.** `(Int, (Double, Bool))`
+
+**D.** `((Int, Double), Bool)`
+
+**E.** `(Tuple, Bool)`
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Extracting Values from Tuples
+
+We can **create** a tuple of three values `e1`, `e2`, and `e3` ...
+
+```haskell
+tup = (e1, e2, e3)
+```
+
+... but how to **extract** the values from this tuple?
+
+**Pattern Matching** via `case-of` expressions
+
+```haskell
+fst3 :: (t1, t2, t3) -> t1
+fst3 t = case t of
+ (x1, x2, x3) -> x1
+
+snd3 :: (t1, t2, t3) -> t2
+snd3 t = case t of
+ (x1, x2, x3) -> x2
+
+thd3 :: (t1, t2, t3) -> t3
+thd3 t = case t of
+ (x1, x2, x3) -> x3
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the value of `quiz` defined as
+
+```haskell
+tup2 :: (Char, Double, Int)
+tup2 = ('a', 5.2, 7)
+
+snd3 :: (t1, t2, t3) -> t2
+snd3 t = case t of
+ (x1, x2, x3) -> x2
+
+quiz = snd3 tup2
+```
+
+**A.** `'a'`
+
+**B.** `5.2`
+
+**C.** `7`
+
+**D.** `('a', 5.2)`
+
+**E.** `(5.2, 7)`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Lists
+
+Unbounded Sequence of values of type `T`
+
+```haskell
+[T]
+```
+
+For example
+
+```haskell
+chars :: [Char]
+chars = ['a', 'b', 'c']
+
+ints :: [Int]
+ints = [1, 3, 5, 7]
+
+pairs :: [(Int, Bool)]
+pairs = [(1,True), (2,False)]
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the type of `things` defined as
+
+```haskell
+things :: ???
+things = [ [1], [2, 3], [4, 5, 6] ]
+```
+
+**A.** `[Int]`
+
+**B.** `([Int], [Int], [Int])`
+
+**C.** `[(Int, Int, Int)]`
+
+**D.** `[[Int]]`
+
+**E.** `List`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## List's Values Must Have The SAME Type!
+
+The type `[T]` denotes an unbounded sequence of values of type `T`
+
+Suppose you have a list
+
+```
+oops = [1, 2, 'c']
+```
+
+There is no `T` that we can use
+
+- As last element is not `Int`
+- First two elements are not `Char`!
+
+**Result: Mysterious Type Error!**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Constructing Lists
+
+There are two ways to construct lists
+
+```haskell
+ [] -- creates an empty list
+ h:t -- creates a list with "head" 'h' and "tail" t
+```
+
+For example
+
+```haskell
+>>> 3 : []
+[3]
+
+>>> 2 : (3 : [])
+[2, 3]
+
+>>> 1 : (2 : (3 : []))
+[1, 2, 3]
+```
+
+**Cons Operator** `:` **is Right Associative**
+
+`x1 : x2 : x3 : x4 : t` means `x1 : (x2 : (x3 : (x4 : t)))`
+
+So we can just avoid the parentheses.
+
+**Syntactic Sugar**
+
+Haskell lets you write `[x1, x2, x3, x4]` instead of `x1 : x2 : x3 : x4 : []`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Functions Producing Lists
+
+Lets write a function `copy3` that
+
+- takes an input `x` and
+- returns a list with _three_ copies of `x`
+
+```haskell
+copy3 :: ???
+copy3 x = ???
+```
+
+When you are done, you should see the following
+
+```haskell
+>>> copy3 5
+[5, 5, 5]
+
+>>> copy3 "cat"
+["cat", "cat", "cat"]
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Lets write some Functions
+
+
+[A Recipe](https://www.htdp.org/)
+
+**Step 1: Write some tests**
+
+**Step 2: Write the type**
+
+**Step 3: Write the code**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## PRACTICE: Clone
+
+Write a function `clone` such that
+`clone n x` returns a list with `n` copies of `x`.
+
+
+
+**1. Tests**
+
+When you are done you should see the following behavior
+
+```haskell
+>>> clone 0 "cat"
+[]
+
+>>> clone 1 "cat"
+["cat"]
+
+>>> clone 2 "cat"
+["cat", "cat"]
+
+>>> clone 3 "cat"
+["cat", "cat", "cat"]
+
+>>> clone 3 100
+[100, 100, 100]
+```
+
+**2. Types**
+
+```haskell
+clone :: ???
+```
+
+**3. Code**
+
+```haskell
+clone n x = ???
+```
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## How does `clone` execute?
+
+(Substituting equals-by-equals!)
+
+```haskell
+clone 3 100
+ =*> ???
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## EXERCISE: Range
+
+Write a function `range` such that `range i j`
+returns the list of values `[i, i+1, ..., j]`
+
+```haskell
+range :: ???
+range i j = ???
+```
+
+**1. Tests**
+
+```haskell
+>>> range 4 3
+[]
+
+>>> range 3 3
+[3]
+
+>>> range 2 3
+[2, 3]
+
+>>> range 1 3
+[1, 2, 3]
+
+>>> range 0 3
+[0, 1, 2, 3]
+```
+
+**2. Type**
+
+```haskell
+range :: ???
+```
+
+**3. Code**
+
+```haskell
+range = ???
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Functions Consuming Lists
+
+So far: how to *produce* lists.
+
+**Next** how to *consume* lists!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## EXERCISE
+
+Lets write a function `firstElem` such that
+`firstElem xs` returns the _first_ element
+`xs` if it is a non-empty list, and `0` otherwise.
+
+**HINT:** How to _extract_ values from a list?
+
+
+**1. Tests**
+
+When you are done you should see the following behavior:
+
+```haskell
+>>> firstElem []
+0
+
+>>> firstElem [10, 20, 30]
+10
+
+>>> firstElem [5, 6, 7, 8]
+5
+```
+
+**2. Type**
+```haskell
+firstElem :: ???
+```
+
+**3. Code**
+```haskell
+firstElem = ???
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Suppose we have the following `mystery` function
+
+```haskell
+mystery :: [a] -> Int
+mystery l = case l of
+ [] -> 0
+ (x:xs) -> 1 + mystery xs
+```
+
+What does `mystery [10, 20, 30]` evaluate to?
+
+**A.** `10`
+
+**B.** `20`
+
+**C.** `30`
+
+**D.** `3`
+
+**E.** `0`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## EXERCISE: Summing a List
+
+Write a function `sumList` such that `sumList [x1, ..., xn]` returns `x1 + ... + xn`
+
+**1. Tests**
+
+When you are done you should get the following behavior:
+
+```haskell
+>>> sumList []
+0
+
+>>> sumlist [3]
+3
+
+>>> sumlist [2, 3]
+5
+
+>>> sumlist [1, 2, 3]
+6
+```
+
+**2. Type**
+
+```haskell
+sumList :: [Int] -> Int
+```
+
+**3. Code**
+
+```haskell
+sumList = ???
+```
+
+## Functions on lists: `take`
+
+Let's write a function to `take` first `n` elements of a list `xs`.
+
+**1. Tests**
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> ???
+```
+
+**2. Type**
+
+```haskell
+take :: ???
+```
+
+## Some useful library functions
+
+```haskell
+-- | Length of the list
+length :: [t] -> Int
+
+-- | Append two lists
+(++) :: [t] -> [t] -> [t]
+
+-- | Are two lists equal?
+(==) :: [t] -> [t] -> Bool
+```
+
+<br>
+
+You can search for library functions on [Hoogle](https://www.haskell.org/hoogle/)!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+```
+
+**3. Code**
+
+```haskell
+take = ???
+```
+
+## Some useful library functions
+
+```haskell
+-- | Length of the list
+length :: [t] -> Int
+
+-- | Append two lists
+(++) :: [t] -> [t] -> [t]
+
+-- | Are two lists equal?
+(==) :: [t] -> [t] -> Bool
+```
+
+<br>
+
+You can search for library functions on [Hoogle](https://www.haskell.org/hoogle/)!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Recap
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+- Core program element is an **expression**
+- Every _valid_ expression has a **type** (determined at compile-time)
+- Every _valid_ expression reduces to a _value_ (computed at run-time)
+
+
+**Execution**
+
+- Basic values & operators
+
+- Execution / Function Calls just *substitute equals by equals*
+
+- Pack data into *tuples* & *lists*
+
+- Unpack data via *pattern-matching*
+
diff --git a/lectures/03-datatypes.md b/lectures/03-datatypes.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..29c79ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/03-datatypes.md
@@ -0,0 +1,1639 @@
+---
+title: Datatypes and Recursion
+date: 2018-04-22
+headerImg: books.jpg
+---
+
+## Plan for this week
+
+**Last week:**
+
+ * built-in *data types*
+ - base types, tuples, lists (and strings)
+ * writing functions using *pattern matching* and *recursion*
+
+**This week:**
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+ * user-defined *data types*
+ - and how to manipulate them using *pattern matching* and *recursion*
+ * more details about *recursion*
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Representing complex data
+
+**Previously, we've seen:**
+
+* *base* types: `Bool`, `Int`, `Integer`, `Float`
+
+* some ways to *build up* types: given types `T1, T2`
+
+ - functions: `T1 -> T2`
+ - tuples: `(T1, T2)`
+ - lists: `[T1]`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Next: Algebraic Data Types:**
+
+A single, powerful way to type complex data
+
+* Lets you define *your own* data types
+
+* Tuples and lists are *special* cases
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Building data types
+
+<br>
+
+Three key ways to build complex types/values:
+
+1. **Product types** (**each-of**): a value of `T` contains a value of `T1` *and* a value of `T2`
+
+2. **Sum types** (**one-of**): a value of `T` contains a value of `T1` *or* a value of `T2`
+
+3. **Recursive types**: a value of `T` contains a *sub-value* of the same type `T`
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Product types
+
+Tuples can do the job but there are two problems...
+
+```haskell
+deadlineDate :: (Int, Int, Int)
+deadlineDate = (1, 28, 2022)
+
+deadlineTime :: (Int, Int, Int)
+deadlineTime = (11, 59, 59)
+
+-- | Deadline date extended by one day
+extendDate :: (Int, Int, Int) -> (Int, Int, Int)
+extendDate = ...
+```
+
+Can you spot them?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### 1. Verbose and unreadable
+
+A **type synonym** for `T`: a name that can be used interchangeably with `T`
+
+```haskell
+type Date = (Int, Int, Int)
+type Time = (Int, Int, Int)
+
+deadlineDate :: Date
+deadlineDate = (1, 28, 2021)
+
+deadlineTime :: Time
+deadlineTime = (11, 59, 59)
+
+-- | Deadline date extended by one day
+extendDate :: Date -> Date
+extendDate = ...
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+### 2. Unsafe
+
+We want to catch this error at compile time!!!
+
+```haskell
+extension deadlineTime
+```
+
+<br>
+
+*Solution:* construct two different **datatypes**
+
+```haskell
+data Date = Date Int Int Int
+data Time = Time Int Int Int
+ ^ ^---^---^---- parameter types
+ `---------------- constructor name
+
+deadlineDate :: Date
+deadlineDate = Date 2 7 2020
+
+deadlineTime :: Time
+deadlineTime = Time 11 59 59
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Record syntax
+
+Haskell's **record syntax** allows you to *name* the constructor parameters:
+
+ * Instead of
+
+ ```haskell
+ data Date = Date Int Int Int
+ ```
+
+ * you can write:
+
+ ```haskell
+ data Date = Date
+ { month :: Int
+ , day :: Int
+ , year :: Int
+ }
+ ```
+
+ * then you can do:
+
+ ```haskell
+ deadlineDate = Date 2 4 2019
+
+ deadlineMonth = month deadlineDate -- use field name as a function
+ ```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Building data types
+
+<br>
+
+Three key ways to build complex types/values:
+
+1. **Product types** (**each-of**): a value of `T` contains a value of `T1` *and* a value of `T2` **[done]**
+
+2. **Sum types** (**one-of**): a value of `T` contains a value of `T1` *or* a value of `T2`
+
+3. **Recursive types**: a value of `T` contains a *sub-value* of the same type `T`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Example: NanoMarkdown
+
+Suppose I want to represent a *text document* with simple markup
+
+Each paragraph is either:
+
+ * plain text (`String`)
+ * heading: level *and* text (`Int` *and* `String`)
+ * list: ordered? *and* items (`Bool` *and* `[String]`)
+
+I want to store all paragraphs in a *list*
+
+```haskell
+doc = [ (1, "Notes from 130") -- Level 1 heading
+ , "There are two types of languages:" -- Plain text
+ , (True, [ "those people complain about" -- Ordered list
+ , "those no one uses"])
+ ]
+```
+
+But this *does not type check*!!!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Sum Types
+
+Solution: construct a new type for paragraphs
+that is a *sum* (*one-of*) the three options!
+
+Each paragraph is either:
+
+* plain text (`String`)
+* heading: level and text (`Int` and `String`)
+* list: ordered? and items (`Bool` and `[String]`)
+
+```haskell
+data Paragraph -- ^ THREE constructors, w/ different parameters
+ = PText String -- ^ text: plain string
+ | PHeading Int String -- ^ head: level and text (Int & String)
+ | PList Bool [String] -- ^ list: ordered? & items (Bool & [String])
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+```haskell
+data Paragraph
+ = PText String
+ | PHeading Int String
+ | PList Bool [String]
+```
+
+What is the type of `Text "Hey there!"`? i.e. How would GHCi reply to:
+
+```haskell
+>:t (PText "Hey there!")
+```
+
+**A.** Syntax error
+
+**B.** Type error
+
+**C.** `PText`
+
+**D.** `String`
+
+**E.** `Paragraph`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* E
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Constructing datatypes
+
+```haskell
+data T
+ = C1 T11 ... T1k
+ | C2 T21 ... T2l
+ | ...
+ | Cn Tn1 ... Tnm
+```
+
+- `T` is the **new datatype**
+
+- `C1 .. Cn` are the **constructors** of `T`
+
+<br>
+
+A **value** of type `T` is
+
+ * *either* `C1 v1 .. vk` with `vi :: T1i`
+ * *or* `C2 v1 .. vl` with `vi :: T2i`
+ * *or* ...
+ * *or* `Cn v1 .. vm` with `vi :: Tni`
+
+<br>
+
+You can think of a `T` value as a **box**:
+
+ * *either* a box labeled `C1` with values of types `T11 .. T1k` inside
+ * *or* a box labeled `C2` with values of types `T21 .. T2l` inside
+ * *or* ...
+ * *or* a box labeled `Cn` with values of types `Tn1 .. Tnm` inside
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=90%}
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Constructing datatypes: `Paragraph`
+
+```haskell
+data Paragraph
+ = PText String
+ | PHeading Int String
+ | PList Bool [String]
+```
+
+Apply a constructor = pack some values into a box (and label it)
+
+ * `PText "Hey there!"`
+ * put `"Hey there!"` in a box labeled `PText`
+ * `PHeading 1 "Introduction"`
+ * put `1` and `"Introduction"` in a box labeled `PHeading`
+ * Boxes have different labels but same type (`Paragraph`)
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=90%}
+
+with example values:
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=90%}
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+```haskell
+data Paragraph
+ = PText String
+ | PHeading Int String
+ | PList Bool [String]
+```
+
+What would GHCi say to
+
+```haskell
+>:t [PHeading 1 "Introduction", PText "Hey there!"]
+```
+
+**A.** Syntax error
+
+**B.** Type error
+
+**C.** `Paragraph`
+
+**D.** `[Paragraph]`
+
+**E.** `[String]`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* D
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Example: NanoMD
+
+```haskell
+data Paragraph
+ = PText String
+ | PHeading Int String
+ | PList Bool [String]
+```
+
+Now I can create a document like so:
+
+```haskell
+doc :: [Paragraph]
+doc = [ PHeading 1 "Notes from 130"
+ , PText "There are two types of languages:"
+ , PList True [ "those people complain about"
+ , "those no one uses"
+ ])
+ ]
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Problem: How to *Convert* Documents to HTML?
+
+How to write a function
+
+```haskell
+html :: Paragraph -> String
+html p = ??? -- ^ depends on the kind of paragraph!
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+How to tell what's in the box?
+
+ * Look at the label!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Pattern matching
+
+**Pattern matching** = looking at the label and extracting values from the box
+
+ * we've seen it before
+ * but now for arbitrary datatypes
+
+```haskell
+html :: Paragraph -> String
+html p = case p of
+ PText str -> ... -- It's a plain text; str :: String
+ PHeading lvl str -> ... -- It's a heading; lvl :: Int, str :: String
+ PList ord items -> ... -- It's a list; ord :: Bool, items :: [String]
+```
+
+<br>
+
+or, we can pull the `case-of` to the "top" as
+
+```haskell
+html :: Paragraph -> String
+html (PText str) = ... -- It's a plain text; str :: String
+html (PHeading lvl str) = ... -- It's a heading; lvl :: Int, str :: String
+html (PList ord items) = ... -- It's a list; ord :: Bool, items :: [String]
+```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+```haskell
+html :: Paragraph -> String
+html (PText str) -- It's a plain text! Get string
+ = unlines [open "p", str, close "p"]
+
+html (PHeading lvl str) -- It's a heading! Get level and string
+ = let htag = "h" ++ show lvl
+ in unwords [open htag, str, close htag]
+
+html (PList ord items) -- It's a list! Get ordered and items
+ = let ltag = if ord then "ol" else "ul"
+ litems = [unwords [open "li", i, close "li"] | i <- items]
+ in unlines ([open ltag] ++ litems ++ [close ltag])
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Dangers of pattern matching (1)
+
+```haskell
+html :: Paragraph -> String
+html (PText str) = ...
+html (PList ord items) = ...
+```
+
+What would GHCi say to:
+
+```haskell
+html (PHeading 1 "Introduction")
+```
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* Runtime error (no matching pattern)
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Dangers of pattern matching (2)
+
+```haskell
+html :: Paragraph -> String
+html (PText str) = unlines [open "p", str, close "p"]
+html (PHeading lvl str) = ...
+html (PHeading 0 str) = html (PHeading 1 str)
+html (PList ord items) = ...
+```
+
+What would GHCi say to:
+
+```haskell
+html (PHeading 0 "Introduction")
+```
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* `PHeading 0 "Introduction"` will be matched by `PHeading lvl str`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Dangers of pattern matching
+
+Beware of **missing** and **overlapped** patterns
+
+ * GHC warns you about *overlapped* patterns
+ * GHC warns you about *missing* patterns when called with `-W` (use `:set -W` in GHCi)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Pattern-Match Expression
+
+*Everything is an expression?*
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+We've seen: pattern matching in *equations*
+
+Actually, pattern-match is *also an expression*
+
+```haskell
+html :: Paragraph -> String
+html p = case p of
+ PText str -> unlines [open "p", str, close "p"]
+ PHeading lvl str -> ...
+ PList ord items -> ...
+```
+
+The code we saw earlier was *syntactic sugar*
+
+```haskell
+html (C1 x1 ...) = e1
+html (C2 x2 ...) = e2
+html (C3 x3 ...) = e3
+```
+
+is just for *humans*, internally represented as a `case-of` expression
+
+```haskell
+html p = case p of
+ (C1 x1 ...) -> e1
+ (C2 x2 ...) -> e2
+ (C3 x3 ...) -> e3
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the **type of**
+
+```haskell
+let p = Text "Hey there!"
+in case p of
+ PText str -> str
+ PHeading lvl _ -> lvl
+ PList ord _ -> ord
+```
+
+**A.** Syntax error
+
+**B.** Type error
+
+**C.** `String`
+
+**D.** `Paragraph`
+
+**E.** `Paragraph -> String`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* B (cases have different types)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Pattern matching expression: typing
+
+The `case` expression
+
+```haskell
+case e of
+ pattern1 -> e1
+ pattern2 -> e2
+ ...
+ patternN -> eN
+```
+
+has type `T` if
+
+ * each `e1`...`eN` has type `T`
+ * `e` has some type `D`
+ * each `pattern1`...`patternN` is a *valid pattern* for `D`
+ * i.e. a variable or a constructor of `D` applied to other patterns
+
+The expression `e` is called the **match scrutinee**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the type of
+
+```haskell
+let p = Text "Hey there!"
+in case p of
+ PText _ -> 1
+ PHeading _ _ -> 2
+ PList _ _ -> 3
+```
+
+**A.** Syntax error
+
+**B.** Type error
+
+**C.** `Paragraph`
+
+**D.** `Int`
+
+**E.** `Paragraph -> Int`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* D
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Building data types
+
+
+<br>
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+<br>
+
+Three key ways to build complex types/values:
+
+1. **Product types** (**each-of**): a value of `T` contains a value of `T1` *and* a value of `T2` **[done]**
+
+ * Cartesian *product* of two sets: $v(T) = v(T1) \times v(T2)$
+
+2. **Sum types** (**one-of**): a value of `T` contains a value of `T1` *or* a value of `T2` **[done]**
+
+ * Union (*sum*) of two sets: $v(T) = v(T1) \cup v(T2)$
+
+3. **Recursive types**: a value of `T` contains a *sub-value* of the same type `T`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Recursive types
+
+Let's define **natural numbers** from scratch:
+
+```haskell
+data Nat = ???
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+data Nat = Zero | Succ Nat
+```
+
+A `Nat` value is:
+
+ * either an *empty* box labeled `Zero`
+ * or a box labeled `Succ` with another `Nat` in it!
+
+Some `Nat` values:
+
+```haskell
+Zero -- 0
+Succ Zero -- 1
+Succ (Succ Zero) -- 2
+Succ (Succ (Succ Zero)) -- 3
+...
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Functions on recursive types
+
+**Recursive code mirrors recursive data**
+
+
+### 1. Recursive type as a parameter
+
+```haskell
+data Nat = Zero -- base constructor
+ | Succ Nat -- inductive constructor
+```
+
+**Step 1:** add a pattern per constructor
+
+```
+toInt :: Nat -> Int
+toInt Zero = ... -- base case
+toInt (Succ n) = ... -- inductive case
+ -- (recursive call goes here)
+```
+
+**Step 2:** fill in base case:
+
+```
+toInt :: Nat -> Int
+toInt Zero = 0 -- base case
+toInt (Succ n) = ... -- inductive case
+ -- (recursive call goes here)
+```
+
+**Step 2:** fill in inductive case using a recursive call:
+
+```
+toInt :: Nat -> Int
+toInt Zero = 0 -- base case
+toInt (Succ n) = 1 + toInt n -- inductive case
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What does this evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+let foo i = if i <= 0 then Zero else Succ (foo (i - 1))
+in foo 2
+```
+
+**A.** Syntax error
+
+**B.** Type error
+
+**C.** `2`
+
+**D.** `Succ Zero`
+
+**E.** `Succ (Succ Zero)`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* E
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+### 2. Recursive type as a result
+
+```haskell
+data Nat = Zero -- base constructor
+ | Succ Nat -- inductive constructor
+
+
+fromInt :: Int -> Nat
+fromInt n
+ | n <= 0 = Zero -- base case
+ | otherwise = Succ (fromInt (n - 1)) -- inductive case
+ -- (recursive call goes here)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## EXERCISE: Putting the two together
+
+```haskell
+data Nat = Zero -- base constructor
+ | Succ Nat -- inductive constructor
+
+
+add :: Nat -> Nat -> Nat
+add n m = ???
+
+sub :: Nat -> Nat -> Nat
+sub n m = ???
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## EXERCISE: Putting the two together
+
+```haskell
+data Nat = Zero -- base constructor
+ | Succ Nat -- inductive constructor
+
+
+add :: Nat -> Nat -> Nat
+add n m = ???
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+data Nat = Zero -- base constructor
+ | Succ Nat -- inductive constructor
+
+
+add :: Nat -> Nat -> Nat
+add Zero m = ??? -- base case
+add (Succ n) m = ??? -- inductive case
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## EXERCISE: Putting the two together
+
+```haskell
+data Nat = Zero -- base constructor
+ | Succ Nat -- inductive constructor
+
+sub :: Nat -> Nat -> Nat
+sub n m = ???
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+sub :: Nat -> Nat -> Nat
+sub n Zero = ??? -- base case 1
+sub Zero _ = ??? -- base case 2
+sub (Succ n) (Succ m) = ??? -- inductive case
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Lesson: Recursive code mirrors recursive data
+
+* Which of **multiple** arguments should you recurse on?
+
+* Key: Pick the right **inductive strategy**!
+
+<br>
+
+(easiest if there is a _single_ argument of course...)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Example: Calculator
+
+I want to implement an arithmetic calculator
+to evaluate expressions like:
+
+* `4.0 + 2.9`
+* `3.78 – 5.92`
+* `(4.0 + 2.9) * (3.78 - 5.92)`
+
+What is a Haskell datatype to *represent* these expressions?
+
+```haskell
+data Expr = ???
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+data Expr = Num Float
+ | Add Expr Expr
+ | Sub Expr Expr
+ | Mul Expr Expr
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+We can represent expressions as
+
+```haskell
+e0, e1, e2 :: Expr
+e0 = Add (Num 4.0) (Num 2.9)
+e1 = Sub (Num 3.78) (Num 5.92)
+e2 = Mul e0 e1
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## EXERCISE: Expression Evaluator
+
+Write a function to *evaluate* an expression.
+
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> eval (Add (Num 4.0) (Num 2.9))
+-- 6.9
+
+eval :: Expr -> Float
+eval e = ???
+```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ eval :: Expr -> Float
+ eval (Num f) = f
+ eval (Add e1 e2) = eval e1 + eval e2
+ eval (Sub e1 e2) = eval e1 - eval e2
+ eval (Mul e1 e2) = eval e1 * eval e2
+ ```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Recursion is...
+
+Building solutions for *big problems*
+from solutions for *sub-problems*
+
+ - **Base case:** what is the *simplest version* of this problem and how do I solve it?
+ - **Inductive strategy:** how do I *break down* this problem into sub-problems?
+ - **Inductive case:** how do I solve the problem *given* the solutions for subproblems?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Lists
+
+Lists aren't built-in! They are an *algebraic data type* like any other:
+
+```haskell
+data List
+ = Nil -- ^ base constructor
+ | Cons Int List -- ^ inductive constructor
+```
+
+* List `[1, 2, 3]` is *represented* as `Cons 1 (Cons 2 (Cons 3 Nil))`
+
+* Built-in list constructors `[]` and `(:)`
+ are just fancy syntax for `Nil` and `Cons`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Functions on lists follow the same general strategy:
+
+```haskell
+length :: List -> Int
+length Nil = 0 -- base case
+length (Cons _ xs) = 1 + length xs -- inductive case
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## EXERCISE: Appending Lists
+
+What is the right *inductive strategy* for appending two lists?
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> append (Cons 1 (Cons 2 (Cons 3 Nil))) (Cons 4 (Cons 5 (Cons 6 Nil)))
+-- (Cons 1 (Cons 2 (Cons 3 (Cons 4 (Cons 5 (Cons 6 Nil))))))
+```
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ append :: List -> List -> List
+ append xs ys = ??
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ append :: List -> List -> List
+ append Nil ys = ys
+ append (Cons x xs) ys = Cons x (append xs ys)
+ ```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Trees
+
+Lists are *unary trees* with elements stored in the nodes:
+
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=90%}
+
+
+```haskell
+data List = Nil | Cons Int List
+```
+
+How do we represent *binary trees* with elements stored in the nodes?
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=90%}
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ: Binary trees I
+
+What is a Haskell datatype for *binary trees* with elements stored in the nodes?
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=90%}
+
+**(A)** `data Tree = Leaf | Node Int Tree`
+
+**(B)** `data Tree = Leaf | Node Tree Tree`
+
+**(C)** `data Tree = Leaf | Node Int Tree Tree`
+
+**(D)** `data Tree = Leaf Int | Node Tree Tree`
+
+**(E)** `data Tree = Leaf Int | Node Int Tree Tree`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* C
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=90%}
+
+```haskell
+data Tree = Leaf | Node Int Tree Tree
+
+t1234 = Node 1
+ (Node 2 (Node 3 Leaf Leaf) Leaf)
+ (Node 4 Leaf Leaf)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Functions on trees
+
+```haskell
+depth :: Tree -> Int
+depth t = ??
+```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ depth :: Tree -> Int
+ depth Leaf = 0
+ depth (Node _ l r) = 1 + max (depth l) (depth r)
+ ```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ: Binary trees II
+
+What is a Haskell datatype for *binary trees* with elements stored in the leaves?
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=90%}
+
+
+**(A)** `data Tree = Leaf | Node Int Tree`
+
+**(B)** `data Tree = Leaf | Node Tree Tree`
+
+**(C)** `data Tree = Leaf | Node Int Tree Tree`
+
+**(D)** `data Tree = Leaf Int | Node Tree Tree`
+
+**(E)** `data Tree = Leaf Int | Node Int Tree Tree`
+
+<br>
+
+I) final
+
+ *Answer:* D
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+data Tree = Leaf Int | Node Tree Tree
+
+t12345 = Node
+ (Node (Node (Leaf 1) (Leaf 2)) (Leaf 3))
+ (Node (Leaf 4) (Leaf 5))
+```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+
+## Why use Recursion?
+
+1. Often far simpler and cleaner than loops
+
+ - But not always...
+
+2. Structure often forced by recursive data
+
+2. Forces you to factor code into reusable units (recursive functions)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Why **not** use Recursion?
+
+1. Slow
+
+2. Can cause stack overflow
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Example: factorial
+
+```haskell
+fac :: Int -> Int
+fac n
+ | n <= 1 = 1
+ | otherwise = n * fac (n - 1)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Lets see how `fac 4` is evaluated:
+
+```haskell
+<fac 4>
+ ==> <4 * <fac 3>> -- recursively call `fact 3`
+ ==> <4 * <3 * <fac 2>>> -- recursively call `fact 2`
+ ==> <4 * <3 * <2 * <fac 1>>>> -- recursively call `fact 1`
+ ==> <4 * <3 * <2 * 1>>> -- multiply 2 to result
+ ==> <4 * <3 * 2>> -- multiply 3 to result
+ ==> <4 * 6> -- multiply 4 to result
+ ==> 24
+```
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Each *function call* `<>` allocates a frame on the *call stack*
+
+ - expensive
+ - the stack has a finite size
+
+Can we do recursion without allocating stack frames?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Tail Recursion
+
+Recursive call is the *top-most* sub-expression in the function body
+
+ - i.e. no computations allowed on recursively returned value
+
+ - i.e. value returned by the recursive call == value returned by function
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### QUIZ: Is this function tail recursive?
+
+```haskell
+fac :: Int -> Int
+fac n
+ | n <= 1 = 1
+ | otherwise = n * fac (n - 1)
+```
+
+**A.** Yes
+
+**B.** No
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* B
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Tail recursive factorial
+
+Let's write a tail-recursive factorial!
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ facTR :: Int -> Int
+ facTR n = ...
+ ```
+
+**HINT:** Lets first write it with a `loop`
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ facTR :: Int -> Int
+ facTR n = loop 1 n
+ where
+ loop :: Int -> Int -> Int
+ loop acc n
+ | n <= 1 = acc
+ | otherwise = loop (acc * n) (n - 1)
+ ```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Lets see how `facTR` is evaluated:
+
+
+```haskell
+<facTR 4>
+ ==> <<loop 1 4>> -- call loop 1 4
+ ==> <<<loop 4 3>>> -- rec call loop 4 3
+ ==> <<<<loop 12 2>>>> -- rec call loop 12 2
+ ==> <<<<<loop 24 1>>>>> -- rec call loop 24 1
+ ==> 24 -- return result 24!
+```
+
+Each recursive call **directly** returns the result
+
+ - without further computation
+
+ - no need to remember what to do next!
+
+ - no need to store the "empty" stack frames!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Why care about Tail Recursion?
+
+Because the _compiler_ can transform it into a _fast loop_
+
+```haskell
+facTR n = loop 1 n
+ where
+ loop acc n
+ | n <= 1 = acc
+ | otherwise = loop (acc * n) (n - 1)
+```
+
+<br>
+
+```javascript
+function facTR(n){
+ var acc = 1;
+ while (true) {
+ if (n <= 1) { return acc ; }
+ else { acc = acc * n; n = n - 1; }
+ }
+}
+```
+
+- Tail recursive calls can be optimized as a **loop**
+
+ - no stack frames needed!
+
+- Part of the language specification of most functional languages
+
+ - compiler **guarantees** to optimize tail calls
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+That's all folks!
+
diff --git a/lectures/04-hof.md b/lectures/04-hof.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bcff7b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/04-hof.md
@@ -0,0 +1,1242 @@
+---
+title: Higher-Order Functions
+date: 2018-04-23
+headerImg: books.jpg
+---
+
+## Plan for this week
+
+**Last week:**
+
+ * user-defined *data types*
+
+ * manipulating data-types with *pattern matching* and *recursion*
+
+ * how to make recursive functions more efficient with *tail recursion*
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The long arc of history
+
+Pattern matching is a *very* old PL idea ...
+
+- Variants of LISP from 1970 by [Fred McBride](https://personal.cis.strath.ac.uk/conor.mcbride/FVMcB-PhD.pdf)
+
+... but will finally be added to Python 3.10
+
+- https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0622/
+
+```python
+def make_point_3d(pt):
+ match pt:
+ case (x, y):
+ return Point3d(x, y, 0)
+ case (x, y, z):
+ return Point3d(x, y, z)
+ case Point2d(x, y):
+ return Point3d(x, y, 0)
+ case Point3d(_, _, _):
+ return pt
+ case _:
+ raise TypeError("not a point we support")
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Plan for this week
+
+**Last week:**
+
+ * user-defined *data types*
+
+ * manipulating data-types with *pattern matching* and *recursion*
+
+ * how to make recursive functions more efficient with *tail recursion*
+
+**This week:**
+
+ * code reuse with *higher-order functions* (HOFs)
+
+ * some useful HOFs: `map`, `filter`, and `fold`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Recursion is good...
+
+- Recursive code mirrors recursive data
+
+ - Base constructor -> Base case
+ - Inductive constructor -> Inductive case (with recursive call)
+
+- But it can get kinda repetitive!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Example: evens
+
+Let's write a function `evens`:
+
+```haskell
+-- evens [] ==> []
+-- evens [1,2,3,4] ==> [2,4]
+```
+
+```haskell
+evens :: [Int] -> [Int]
+evens [] = ...
+evens (x:xs) = ...
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Example: four-letter words
+
+Let's write a function `fourChars`:
+
+```haskell
+-- fourChars [] ==> []
+-- fourChars ["i","must","do","work"] ==> ["must","work"]
+```
+
+```haskell
+fourChars :: [String] -> [String]
+fourChars [] = ...
+fourChars (x:xs) = ...
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Yikes! Most Code is the Same!
+
+Lets rename the functions to `foo`:
+
+```haskell
+foo [] = []
+foo (x:xs)
+ | x mod 2 == 0 = x : foo xs
+ | otherwise = foo xs
+
+foo [] = []
+foo (x:xs)
+ | length x == 4 = x : foo xs
+ | otherwise = foo xs
+```
+
+Only difference is **condition**
+
+- `x mod 2 == 0` vs `length x == 4`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Moral of the day
+
+<br>
+
+**D.R.Y.** Don't Repeat Yourself!
+
+<br>
+
+Can we
+
+* *reuse* the general pattern and
+
+* *plug-in* the custom condition?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Higher-Order Functions
+
+General **Pattern**
+
+ - expressed as a *higher-order function*
+ - takes plugin operations as *arguments*
+
+Specific **Operation**
+
+ - passed in as an argument to the HOF
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The "filter" pattern
+
+
+
+General Pattern
+
+- HOF `filter`
+- Recursively traverse list and pick out elements that satisfy a predicate
+
+Specific Operations
+
+- Predicates `isEven` and `isFour`
+
+
+
+**Avoid duplicating code!**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ: What is the type of `filter`?
+
+```haskell
+-- evens [1,2,3,4] ==> [2,4]
+evens :: [Int] -> [Int]
+evens xs = filter isEven xs
+ where
+ isEven :: Int -> Bool
+ isEven x = x `mod` 2 == 0
+
+-- fourChars ["i","must","do","work"] ==> ["must","work"]
+fourChars :: [String] -> [String]
+fourChars xs = filter isFour xs
+ where
+ isFour :: String -> Bool
+ isFour x = length x == 4
+```
+
+So what's the type of `filter`?
+
+```haskell
+{- A -} filter :: (Int -> Bool) -> [Int] -> [Int]
+
+{- B -} filter :: (String -> Bool) -> [String] -> [String]
+
+{- C -} filter :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]
+
+{- D -} filter :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [Bool]
+
+{- E -} filter :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Type of `filter`
+
+```haskell
+-- evens [1,2,3,4] ==> [2,4]
+evens :: [Int] -> [Int]
+evens xs = filter isEven xs
+ where
+ isEven :: Int -> Bool
+ isEven x = x `mod` 2 == 0
+
+-- fourChars ["i","must","do","work"] ==> ["must","work"]
+fourChars :: [String] -> [String]
+fourChars xs = filter isFour xs
+ where
+ isFour :: String -> Bool
+ isFour x = length x == 4
+```
+
+For *any* type `a`
+
+- **Input** a _predicate_ `a -> Bool` and _collection_ `[a]`
+- **Output** a (smaller) _collection_ `[a]`
+
+
+```haskell
+filter :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]
+```
+
+`filter` *does not care* what the list elements are
+
+* as long as the predicate can handle them
+
+`filter` is **polymorphic** (generic) in the type of list elements
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+
+
+## Example: ALL CAPS!
+
+Lets write a function `shout`:
+
+```haskell
+-- shout [] ==> []
+-- shout ['h','e','l','l','o'] ==> ['H','E','L','L','O']
+```
+
+```haskell
+shout :: [Char] -> [Char]
+shout [] = ...
+shout (x:xs) = ...
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Example: squares
+
+Lets write a function `squares`:
+
+```haskell
+-- squares [] ==> []
+-- squares [1,2,3,4] ==> [1,4,9,16]
+```
+
+```haskell
+squares :: [Int] -> [Int]
+squares [] = ...
+squares (x:xs) = ...
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Yikes, Most Code is the Same
+
+Lets rename the functions to `foo`:
+
+```haskell
+-- shout
+foo [] = []
+foo (x:xs) = toUpper x : foo xs
+
+-- squares
+foo [] = []
+foo (x:xs) = (x * x) : foo xs
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Lets **refactor** into the **common pattern**
+
+```haskell
+pattern = ...
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The "map" pattern
+
+
+
+General Pattern
+
+- HOF `map`
+- Apply a transformation `f` to each element of a list
+
+Specific Operations
+
+- Transformations `toUpper` and `\x -> x * x`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+map f [] = []
+map f (x:xs) = f x : map f xs
+```
+
+Lets refactor `shout` and `squares`
+
+```haskell
+shout = map ...
+
+squares = map ...
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the type of `map`?
+
+```haskell
+map f [] = []
+map f (x:xs) = f x : map f xs
+```
+
+**(A)** `(Char -> Char) -> [Char] -> [Char]`
+
+**(B)** `(Int -> Int) -> [Int] -> [Int]`
+
+**(C)** `(a -> a) -> [a] -> [a]`
+
+**(D)** `(a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]`
+
+**(E)** `(a -> b) -> [c] -> [d]`
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+-- For any types `a` and `b`
+-- if you give me a transformation from `a` to `b`
+-- and a list of `a`s,
+-- I'll give you back a list of `b`s
+map :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]
+```
+
+<br>
+
+**Type says it all!**
+
+* The only meaningful thing a function of this type can do is apply its first argument to elements of the list
+
+* Hoogle it!
+
+<br>
+
+Things to try at home:
+
+ * can you write a function `map' :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]` whose behavior is different from `map`?
+
+ * can you write a function `map' :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]`
+ such that `map' f xs` returns a list whose elements are not in `map f xs`?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the value of `quiz`?
+
+```haskell
+map :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]
+
+quiz = map (\(x, y) -> x + y) [1, 2, 3]
+```
+
+**(A)** `[2, 4, 6]`
+
+**(B)** `[3, 5]`
+
+**(C)** Syntax Error
+
+**(D)** Type Error
+
+**(E)** None of the above
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Don't Repeat Yourself
+
+Benefits of **factoring** code with HOFs:
+
+- Reuse iteration pattern
+
+ - think in terms of standard patterns
+
+ - less to write
+
+ - easier to communicate
+
+- Avoid bugs due to repetition
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Recall: length of a list
+
+```haskell
+-- len [] ==> 0
+-- len ["carne","asada"] ==> 2
+len :: [a] -> Int
+len [] = 0
+len (x:xs) = 1 + len xs
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## Recall: summing a list
+
+```haskell
+-- sum [] ==> 0
+-- sum [1,2,3] ==> 6
+sum :: [Int] -> Int
+sum [] = 0
+sum (x:xs) = x + sum xs
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Example: string concatenation
+
+Let's write a function `cat`:
+
+```haskell
+-- cat [] ==> ""
+-- cat ["carne","asada","torta"] ==> "carneasadatorta"
+cat :: [String] -> String
+cat [] = ...
+cat (x:xs) = ...
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Can you spot the pattern?
+
+```haskell
+-- len
+foo [] = 0
+foo (x:xs) = 1 + foo xs
+
+-- sum
+foo [] = 0
+foo (x:xs) = x + foo xs
+
+-- cat
+foo [] = ""
+foo (x:xs) = x ++ foo xs
+```
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+pattern = ...
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The "fold-right" pattern
+
+
+
+General Pattern
+
+- Recurse on tail
+- Combine result with the head using some binary operation
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+foldr f b [] = b
+foldr f b (x:xs) = f x (foldr f b xs)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Let's refactor `sum`, `len` and `cat`:
+
+```haskell
+sum = foldr ... ...
+
+cat = foldr ... ...
+
+len = foldr ... ...
+```
+
+Factor the recursion out!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+
+You can write it more clearly as
+
+```haskell
+sum = foldr (+) 0
+
+cat = foldr (++) ""
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## The "fold-right" pattern
+
+```haskell
+foldr f b [a1, a2, a3, a4]
+ ==> f a1 (foldr f b [a2, a3, a4])
+ ==> f a1 (f a2 (foldr f b [a3, a4]))
+ ==> f a1 (f a2 (f a3 (foldr f b [a4])))
+ ==> f a1 (f a2 (f a3 (f a4 (foldr f b []))))
+ ==> f a1 (f a2 (f a3 (f a4 b)))
+```
+
+Accumulate the values from the **right**
+
+For example:
+
+```haskell
+foldr (+) 0 [1, 2, 3, 4]
+ ==> 1 + (foldr (+) 0 [2, 3, 4])
+ ==> 1 + (2 + (foldr (+) 0 [3, 4]))
+ ==> 1 + (2 + (3 + (foldr (+) 0 [4])))
+ ==> 1 + (2 + (3 + (4 + (foldr (+) 0 []))))
+ ==> 1 + (2 + (3 + (4 + 0)))
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What does this evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+foldr f b [] = b
+foldr f b (x:xs) = f x (foldr f b xs)
+
+quiz = foldr (\x v -> x : v) [] [1,2,3]
+```
+
+**(A)** Type error
+
+**(B)** `[1,2,3]`
+
+**(C)** `[3,2,1]`
+
+**(D)** `[[3],[2],[1]]`
+
+**(E)** `[[1],[2],[3]]`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+foldr (:) [] [1,2,3]
+ ==> (:) 1 (foldr (:) [] [2, 3])
+ ==> (:) 1 ((:) 2 (foldr (:) [] [3]))
+ ==> (:) 1 ((:) 2 ((:) 3 (foldr (:) [] [])))
+ ==> (:) 1 ((:) 2 ((:) 3 []))
+ == 1 : (2 : (3 : []))
+ == [1,2,3]
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the most general type of `foldr`?
+
+```haskell
+
+foldr :: (a -> b -> b) -> b -> [a] -> b
+foldr f b [] = b
+foldr f b (x:xs) = f x (foldr f b xs)
+```
+
+**(A)** `(a -> a -> a) -> a -> [a] -> a`
+
+**(B)** `(a -> a -> b) -> a -> [a] -> b`
+
+**(C)** `(a -> b -> a) -> b -> [a] -> b`
+
+**(D)** `(a -> b -> b) -> b -> [a] -> b`
+
+**(E)** `(b -> a -> b) -> b -> [a] -> b`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* D
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Tail Recursive Fold
+
+```haskell
+foldr f b [] = b
+foldr f b (x:xs) = f x (foldr f b xs)
+```
+
+Is `foldr` **tail recursive**?
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* No! It calls the binary operations on the results of the recursive call
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## What about tail-recursive versions?
+
+Let's write tail-recursive `sum`!
+
+```haskell
+sumTR :: [Int] -> Int
+sumTR = ...
+```
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Lets run `sumTR` to see how it works
+
+```haskell
+sumTR [1,2,3]
+ ==> helper 0 [1,2,3]
+ ==> helper 1 [2,3] -- 0 + 1 ==> 1
+ ==> helper 3 [3] -- 1 + 2 ==> 3
+ ==> helper 6 [] -- 3 + 3 ==> 6
+ ==> 6
+```
+
+**Note:** `helper` directly returns the result of recursive call!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Let's write tail-recursive `cat`!
+
+```haskell
+catTR :: [String] -> String
+catTR = ...
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Lets run `catTR` to see how it works
+
+```haskell
+catTR ["carne", "asada", "torta"]
+
+ ==> helper "" ["carne", "asada", "torta"]
+
+ ==> helper "carne" ["asada", "torta"]
+
+ ==> helper "carneasada" ["torta"]
+
+ ==> helper "carneasadatorta" []
+
+ ==> "carneasadatorta"
+```
+
+**Note:** `helper` directly returns the result of recursive call!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Can you spot the pattern?
+
+```haskell
+-- sumTR
+foo xs = helper 0 xs
+ where
+ helper acc [] = acc
+ helper acc (x:xs) = helper (acc + x) xs
+
+
+-- catTR
+foo xs = helper "" xs
+ where
+ helper acc [] = acc
+ helper acc (x:xs) = helper (acc ++ x) xs
+```
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+pattern = ...
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The "fold-left" pattern
+
+
+
+General Pattern
+
+- Use a helper function with an extra accumulator argument
+- To compute new accumulator, combine current accumulator with the head using some binary operation
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+foldl f b xs = helper b xs
+ where
+ helper acc [] = acc
+ helper acc (x:xs) = helper (f acc x) xs
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Let's refactor `sumTR` and `catTR`:
+
+```haskell
+sumTR = foldl ... ...
+
+catTR = foldl ... ...
+```
+
+Factor the tail-recursion out!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What does this evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+foldl f b xs = helper b xs
+ where
+ helper acc [] = acc
+ helper acc (x:xs) = helper (f acc x) xs
+
+quiz = foldl (\xs x -> x : xs) [] [1,2,3]
+```
+
+<br>
+
+**(A)** Type error
+
+**(B)** `[1,2,3]`
+
+**(C)** `[3,2,1]`
+
+**(D)** `[[3],[2],[1]]`
+
+**(E)** `[[1],[2],[3]]`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* C
+
+```
+foldl f b (x1: x2: x3 : [])
+ ==> helper b (x1: x2: x3 : [])
+ ==> helper (f x1 b) (x2: x3 : [])
+ ==> helper (f x2 (f x1 b)) (x3 : [])
+ ==> helper (f x3 (f x2 (f x1 b))) []
+ ==> ( x3 : (x2 : (x1 : [])))
+```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The "fold-left" pattern
+
+```haskell
+foldl f b [x1, x2, x3, x4]
+ ==> helper b [x1, x2, x3, x4]
+ ==> helper (f b x1) [x2, x3, x4]
+ ==> helper (f (f b x1) x2) [x3, x4]
+ ==> helper (f (f (f b x1) x2) x3) [x4]
+ ==> helper (f (f (f (f b x1) x2) x3) x4) []
+ ==> (f (f (f (f b x1) x2) x3) x4)
+```
+
+Accumulate the values from the **left**
+
+For example:
+
+```haskell
+foldl (+) 0 [1, 2, 3, 4]
+ ==> helper 0 [1, 2, 3, 4]
+ ==> helper (0 + 1) [2, 3, 4]
+ ==> helper ((0 + 1) + 2) [3, 4]
+ ==> helper (((0 + 1) + 2) + 3) [4]
+ ==> helper ((((0 + 1) + 2) + 3) + 4) []
+ ==> ((((0 + 1) + 2) + 3) + 4)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Left vs. Right
+
+```haskell
+foldl f b [x1, x2, x3] ==> f (f (f b x1) x2) x3 -- Left
+
+foldr f b [x1, x2, x3] ==> f x1 (f x2 (f x3 b)) -- Right
+```
+
+For example:
+
+```haskell
+foldl (+) 0 [1, 2, 3] ==> ((0 + 1) + 2) + 3 -- Left
+
+foldr (+) 0 [1, 2, 3] ==> 1 + (2 + (3 + 0)) -- Right
+```
+
+Different types!
+
+```haskell
+foldl :: (b -> a -> b) -> b -> [a] -> b -- Left
+
+foldr :: (a -> b -> b) -> b -> [a] -> b -- Right
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Higher Order Functions
+
+Iteration patterns over collections:
+
+- **Filter** values in a collection given a *predicate*
+- **Map** (iterate) a given *transformation* over a collection
+- **Fold** (reduce) a collection into a value, given a *binary operation* to combine results
+
+<br>
+
+HOFs can be put into libraries to enable modularity
+
+- Data structure **library** implements `map`, `filter`, `fold` for its collections
+
+ - generic efficient implementation
+
+ - generic optimizations: `map f (map g xs) --> map (f.g) xs`
+
+
+- Data structure **clients** use HOFs with specific operations
+
+ - no need to know the implementation of the collection
+
+Crucial foundation of
+
+- "big data" revolution e.g. _MapReduce_, _Spark_, _TensorFlow_
+
+- "web programming" revolution e.g. _Jquery_, _Angular_, _React_
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
diff --git a/lectures/05-closure.md b/lectures/05-closure.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9a16f5e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/05-closure.md
@@ -0,0 +1,1450 @@
+---
+title: Closures
+date: 2019-05-15
+headerImg: books.jpg
+---
+
+## Past three weeks
+
+How to *use* essential language constructs?
+
+- Data Types
+- Recursion
+- Higher-Order Functions
+
+## Next two weeks
+
+How to *implement* language constructs?
+
+- Local variables and scope
+- Environments and Closures
+
+<!--
+- Type Inference
+-->
+
+### Interpreter
+
+How do we *represent* and *evaluate* a program?
+
+<!--
+- How do we *prove properties* about our interpreter
+ (e.g. that certain programs never crash)?
+ -->
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+How should we evaluate this expression?
+
+
+```haskell
+ eval []
+ {let c = 42 in let cTimes = \x -> c * x in cTimes 2}
+=> eval [c:42]
+ {let cTimes = \x -> c * x in cTimes 2}
+=> eval [cTimes:???, c:42]
+ {cTimes 2}
+```
+
+<br>
+
+
+What is the **value** of `cTimes`???
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Rethinking our values
+
+**Until now:** a program *evaluates* to an integer (or fails)
+
+```haskell
+type Value = Int
+
+type Env = [(Id, Value)]
+
+eval :: Env -> Expr -> Value
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+What do these programs evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+(1)
+\x -> 2 * x
+==> ???
+
+(2)
+let f = \x -> \y -> 2 * (x + y) in
+f 5
+==> ???
+```
+
+(I) final
+
+ Conceptually, (1) evaluates to itself (not exactly, see later).
+ while (2) evaluates to something equivalent to `\y -> 2 * (5 + y)`
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Now:** a program evaluates to an integer or *a lambda abstraction* (or fails)
+
+ - Remember: functions are *first-class* values
+
+<br>
+
+Let's change our definition of values!
+
+```haskell
+data Value = VNum Int
+ | VLam ??? -- What info do we need to store?
+
+-- Other types stay the same
+type Env = [(Id, Value)]
+
+eval :: Env -> Expr -> Value
+```
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Function values
+
+How should we represent a function value?
+
+```haskell
+let c = 42 in
+let cTimes = \x -> c * x in
+cTimes 2
+```
+
+We need to store enough information about `cTimes`
+so that we can later evaluate any *application* of `cTimes`
+(like `cTimes 2`)!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+First attempt:
+
+```haskell
+data Value = VNum Int
+ | VLam Id Expr -- formal + body
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Let's try this!
+
+```haskell
+ eval []
+ {let c = 42 in let cTimes = \x -> c * x in cTimes 2}
+=> eval [c:42]
+ {let cTimes = \x -> c * x in cTimes 2}
+=> eval [cTimes:(\x -> c*x), c:42]
+ {cTimes 2}
+ -- evaluate the function:
+=> eval [cTimes:(\x -> c*x), c:42]
+ {(\x -> c * x) 2}
+ -- evaluate the argument, bind to x, evaluate body:
+=> eval [x:2, cTimes:(\x -> c*x), c:42]
+ {c * x}
+=> 42 * 2
+=> 84
+```
+
+<br>
+
+Looks good... can you spot a problem?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What should this evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+let c = 42 in
+let cTimes = \x -> c * x in -- but which c???
+let c = 5 in
+cTimes 2
+```
+
+**(A)** `84`
+
+**(B)** `10`
+
+**(C)** Error: multiple definitions of `c`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* A
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Static vs Dynamic Scoping
+
+What we want:
+
+```haskell
+let c = 42 in
+let cTimes = \x -> c * x in
+let c = 5 in
+cTimes 2
+
+=> 84
+```
+
+**Lexical** (or **static**) scoping:
+
+ - each occurrence of a variable refers to the most recent binding *in the program text*
+ - definition of each variable is unique and known *statically*
+ - good for readability and debugging: don’t have to figure out where a variable got "assigned"
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+What we **don't** want:
+
+```haskell
+let c = 42 in
+let cTimes = \x -> c * x in
+let c = 5 in
+cTimes 2
+
+=> 10
+```
+
+**Dynamic** scoping:
+
+ - each occurrence of a variable refers to the most recent binding *during program execution*
+ - can't tell where a variable is defined just by looking at the function body
+ - nightmare for readability and debugging:
+
+```haskell
+let cTimes = \x -> c * x in
+let c = 5 in
+let res1 = cTimes 2 in -- ==> 10
+let c = 10 in
+let res2 = cTimes 2 in -- ==> 20!!!
+res2 - res1
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Function values
+
+```haskell
+data Value = VNum Int
+ | VLam Id Expr -- formal + body
+```
+
+This representation can only implement dynamic scoping!
+
+```haskell
+let c = 42 in
+let cTimes = \x -> c * x in
+let c = 5 in
+cTimes 2
+```
+
+evaluates as:
+
+```haskell
+ eval []
+ {let c = 42 in let cTimes = \x -> c * x in let c = 5 in cTimes 2}
+=> eval [c:42]
+ {let cTimes = \x -> c * x in let c = 5 in cTimes 2}
+=> eval [cTimes:(\x -> c*x), c:42]
+ {let c = 5 in cTimes 2}
+=> eval [c:5, cTimes:(\x -> c*x), c:42]
+ {cTimes 2}
+=> eval [c:5, cTimes:(\x -> c*x), c:42]
+ {(\x -> c * x) 2}
+=> eval [x:2, c:5, cTimes:(\x -> c*x), c:42]
+ {c * x}
+ -- latest binding for c is 5!
+=> 5 * 2
+=> 10
+```
+
+**Lesson learned:** need to remember what `c` was bound to when `cTimes` was defined!
+
+ - i.e. "freeze" the environment at function definition
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Closures
+
+To implement lexical scoping, we will represent function values as *closures*
+
+<br>
+
+**Closure** = *lambda abstraction* (formal + body) + *environment* at function definition
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+data Value = VNum Int
+ | VClos Env Id Expr -- env + formal + body
+```
+
+<br>
+
+Our example:
+
+```haskell
+ eval []
+ {let c = 42 in let cTimes = \x -> c * x in let c = 5 in cTimes 2}
+=> eval [c:42]
+ {let cTimes = \x -> c * x in let c = 5 in cTimes 2}
+ -- remember current env:
+=> eval [cTimes:<[c:42], \x -> c*x>, c:42]
+ {let c = 5 in cTimes 2}
+=> eval [c:5, cTimes:<[c:42], \x -> c*x>, c:42]
+ {cTimes 2}
+=> eval [c:5, cTimes:<[c:42], \x -> c*x>, c:42]
+ {<[c:42], \x -> c * x> 2}
+ -- restore env to the one inside the closure, then bind 2 to x:
+=> eval [x:2, c:42]
+ {c * x}
+=> 42 * 2
+=> 84
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Which variables should be saved in the closure environment of `f`?
+
+```haskell
+let a = 20 in
+let f =
+ \x -> let y = x + 1 in
+ let g = \z -> y + z in
+ a + g x
+ in ...
+```
+
+**(A)** `a`
+
+**(B)** `a x`
+
+**(C)** `y g`
+
+**(D)** `a y g`
+
+**(E)** `a x y g z`
+
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* A
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Free vs bound variables
+
+- An occurrence of `x` is **free** if it is not **bound**
+- An occurrence of `x` is **bound** if it's inside
+ - `e2` where `let x = e1 in e2`
+ - `e` where `\x -> e`
+- A closure environment has to save *all free variables* of a function definition!
+
+
+```haskell
+let a = 20 in
+let f =
+ \x -> let y = x + 1 in
+ let g = \z -> y + z in
+ a + g x -- a is the only free variable!
+ in ...
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Evaluator
+
+Let's modify our evaluator to handle functions!
+
+```haskell
+data Value = VNum Int
+ | VClos Env Id Expr -- env + formal + body
+
+eval :: Env -> Expr -> Value
+eval env (Num n) = VNum n -- must wrap in VNum now!
+eval env (Var x) = lookup x env
+eval env (Bin op e1 e2) = VNum (f v1 v2)
+ where
+ (VNum v1) = eval env e1
+ (VNum v2) = eval env e2
+ f = ... -- as before
+eval env (Let x e1 e2) = eval env' e2
+ where
+ v = eval env e1
+ env' = add x v env
+eval env (Lam x body) = ??? -- construct a closure
+eval env (App fun arg) = ??? -- eval fun, then arg, then apply
+```
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Evaluating functions:
+
+* **Construct a closure**: save environment at function definition
+* **Apply a closure**: restore saved environment, add formal, evaluate the body
+
+```haskell
+eval :: Env -> Expr -> Value
+...
+eval env (Lam x body) = VClos env x body
+eval env (App fun arg) = eval bodyEnv body
+ where
+ (VClos closEnv x body) = eval env fun -- eval function to closure
+ vArg = eval env arg -- eval argument
+ bodyEnv = add x vArg closEnv
+```
+
+
+## QUIZ
+
+With `eval` as defined above, what does this evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+let f = \x -> x + y in
+let y = 10 in
+f 5
+```
+
+**(A)** `15`
+
+**(B)** `5`
+
+**(C)** Error: unbound variable `x`
+
+**(D)** Error: unbound variable `y`
+
+**(E)** Error: unbound variable `f`
+
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* D
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+ eval []
+ {let f = \x -> x + y in let y = 10 in f 5}
+=> eval [f:<[], \x -> x + y>]
+ {let y = 10 in f 5}
+=> eval [y:10, f:<[], \x -> x + y>]
+ {f 5}
+=> eval [y:10, f:<[], \x -> x + y>]
+ {<[], \x -> x + y> 5}
+=> eval [x:5] -- env got replaced by closure env + formal!
+ {x + y} -- y is unbound!
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+With `eval` as defined above, what does this evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+let f = \n -> n * f (n - 1) in
+f 5
+```
+
+**(A)** `120`
+
+**(B)** Evaluation does not terminate
+
+**(C)** Error: unbound variable `f`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* C
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+ eval []
+ {let f = \n -> n * f (n - 1) in f 5}
+=> eval [f:<[], \n -> n * f (n - 1)>]
+ {f 5}
+=> eval [f:<[], \n -> n * f (n - 1)>]
+ {<[], \n -> n * f (n - 1)> 5}
+=> eval [n:5] -- env got replaced by closure env + formal!
+ {n * f (n - 1)} -- f is unbound!
+```
+
+
+**Lesson learned:** to support recursion,
+we need a different way of constructing the closure environment!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The Nano Language
+
+Features of Nano:
+
+1. Arithmetic expressions **[done]**
+2. Variables and let-bindings **[done]**
+3. Functions **[done]**
+4. Recursion **[this is part of HW4]**
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+<!--
+## Formalizing Nano
+
+**Goal:** we want to guarantee properties about programs, such as:
+
+ * evaluation is deterministic
+ * all programs terminate
+ * certain programs never fail at run time
+ * etc.
+
+To prove theorems about programs we first need to define formally
+
+ * their *syntax* (what programs look like)
+ * their *semantics* (what it means to run a program)
+
+Let's start with Nano1 (Nano w/o functions) and prove some stuff!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Nano1: Syntax
+
+We need to define the syntax for *expressions* (*terms*)
+and *values* using a grammar:
+
+```haskell
+e ::= n | x -- expressions
+ | e1 + e2
+ | let x = e1 in e2
+
+v ::= n -- values
+```
+
+where $n \in \mathbb{N}, x \in \mathrm{Var}$
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Nano1: Operational Semantics
+
+**Operational semantics** defines how to execute a program step by step
+
+<br>
+
+Let's define a *step relation* (*reduction relation*) `e => e'`
+
+ * "expression `e` makes a step (reduces in one step) to an expression `e'`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+We define the step relation *inductively* through a set of *rules*:
+
+```haskell
+ e1 => e1' -- premise
+[Add-L] --------------------
+ e1 + e2 => e1' + e2 -- conclusion
+
+ e2 => e2'
+[Add-R] --------------------
+ n1 + e2 => n1 + e2'
+
+[Add] n1 + n2 => n where n == n1 + n2
+
+ e1 => e1'
+[Let-Def] --------------------------------------
+ let x = e1 in e2 => let x = e1' in e2
+
+[Let] let x = v in e2 => e2[x := v]
+```
+
+Here `e[x := v]` is a value substitution:
+
+```haskell
+x[x := v] = v
+y[x := v] = y -- assuming x /= y
+n[x := v] = n
+(e1 + e2)[x := v] = e1[x := v] + e2[x := v]
+(let x = e1 in e2)[x := v] = let x = e1[x := v] in e2
+(let y = e1 in e2)[x := v] = let y = e1[x := v] in e2[x := v]
+```
+
+Do not have to worry about capture, because `v` is a value (has not free variables!)
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+A reduction is *valid* if we can build its **derivation** by "stacking" the rules:
+
+```haskell
+ [Var] --------------------
+ 1 + 2 => 3
+[Add-L] -----------------------
+ (1 + 2) + 5 => 3 + 5
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+Do we have rules for all kinds of expressions?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### 1. Normal forms
+
+There are no reduction rules for:
+
+ * `n`
+ * `x`
+
+Both of these expressions are *normal forms* (cannot be further reduced), however:
+
+ * `n` is a *value*
+ * intuitively, corresponds to successful evaluation
+ * `x` is *not* a value
+ * intuitively, corresponds to a run-time error!
+ * we say the program `x` is **stuck**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### 2. Evaluation order
+
+In `e1 + e2`, which side should we evaluate first?
+
+In other words, which one of these reductions is valid (or both)?
+
+ (1) `(1 + 2) + (4 + 5) => 3 + (4 + 5)`
+ (2) `(1 + 2) + (4 + 5) => (1 + 2) + 9`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Reduction (1) is *valid* because we can build a **derivation** using the rules:
+
+```haskell
+ [Add] ----------
+ 1 + 2 => 3
+[Add-L] ----------------------------------
+ (1 + 2) + (4 + 5) => 3 + (4 + 5)
+```
+
+Reduction (2) is *invalid* because we cannot build a derivation:
+
+ * there is *no rule* whose conclusion matches this reduction!
+
+```haskell
+ ???
+[???] -----------------------------------
+ (1 + 2) + (4 + 5) => (1 + 2) + 9
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+```haskell
+ e1 => e1'
+[Let-Def] --------------------------------------
+ let x = e1 in e2 => let x = e1' in e2
+
+[Let] let x = v in e2 => e2[x := v]
+```
+
+If these are the only rules for `let` bindings,
+which reductions are valid?
+
+**(A)** `(let x = 1 + 2 in 4 + 5 + x) => (let x = 3 in 4 + 5 + x)`
+
+**(B)** `(let x = 1 + 2 in 4 + 5 + x) => (let x = 1 + 2 in 9 + x)`
+
+**(C)** `(let x = 1 + 2 in 4 + 5 + x) => (4 + 5 + 1 + 2)`
+
+**(D)** A and B
+
+**(E)** All of the above
+
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* A
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Evaluation relation
+
+Like in $\lambda$-calculus, we define the **multi-step reduction** relation `e =*> e'`:
+
+`e =*> e'` iff there exists a sequence of expressions `e1, ..., en` such that
+
+ * `e = e1`
+ * `en = e'`
+ * `ei => e(i+1)` for each `i in [0..n)`
+
+<br>
+
+*Example:*
+
+```haskell
+ (1 + 2) + (4 + 5)
+=*> 3 + 9
+```
+
+because
+```haskell
+ (1 + 2) + (4 + 5)
+=> 3 + (4 + 5)
+=> 3 + 9
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Now we define the **evaluation relation** `e =~> e'`:
+
+`e =~> e'` iff
+
+ * `e =*> e'`
+ * `e'` is in normal form
+
+<br>
+
+Example:
+
+```haskell
+ (1 + 2) + (4 + 5)
+=~> 12
+```
+
+because
+
+```haskell
+ (1 + 2) + (4 + 5)
+=> 3 + (4 + 5)
+=> 3 + 9
+=> 12
+```
+
+and `12` is a *value* (normal form)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Theorems about Nano1
+
+Let's prove something about Nano1!
+
+ 1. Every Nano1 program terminates
+ 2. Closed Nano1 programs don't get stuck
+ 3. *Corollary (1 + 2):* Every closed Nano1 program evaluates to a value
+
+<br>
+
+How do we prove theorems about languages?
+
+**By induction.**
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Mathematical induction in PL
+
+### 1. Induction on natural numbers
+
+To prove $\forall n . P(n)$ we need to prove:
+
+ * *Base case:* $P(0)$
+ * *Inductive case:* $P(n + 1)$ assuming the *induction hypothesis* (IH): that $P(n)$ holds
+
+<br>
+
+Compare with inductive definition for natural numbers:
+
+```haskell
+data Nat = Zero -- base case
+ | Succ Nat -- inductive case
+```
+
+No reason why this would only work for natural numbers...
+
+In fact we can do induction on *any* inductively defined mathematical object (= any datatype)!
+
+ * lists
+ * trees
+ * programs (terms)
+ * etc
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### 2. Induction on terms
+
+```haskell
+e ::= n | x
+ | e1 + e2
+ | let x = e1 in e2
+```
+
+To prove $\forall e . P(e)$ we need to prove:
+
+ * *Base case 1:* `P(n)`
+ * *Base case 2:* `P(x)`
+ * *Inductive case 1:* `P(e1 + e2)` assuming the IH: that `P(e1)` and `P(e2)` hold
+ * *Inductive case 2:* `P(let x = e1 in e2)` assuming the IH: that `P(e1)` and `P(e2)` hold
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### 3. Induction on derivations
+
+Our reduction relation `=>` is also defined *inductively*!
+
+ * Axioms are bases cases
+ * Rules with premises are inductive cases
+
+To prove $\forall e,e' . P(e \Rightarrow e')$ we need to prove:
+
+ * *Base cases:* `[Add]`, `[Let]`
+ * *Inductive cases:* `[Add-L]`, `[Add-R]`, `[Let-Def]` assuming the IH: that `P` holds of their premise
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Theorem: Termination
+
+**Theorem I** [Termination]: For any expression `e` there exists `e'` such that `e =~> e'`.
+
+Proof idea: let's define the *size* of an expression such that
+
+ * size of each expression is positive
+ * each reduction step strictly decreases the size
+
+Then the length of the execution sequence for `e` is *bounded* by the size of `e`!
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+size n = ???
+size x = ???
+size (e1 + e1) = ???
+size (let x = e1 in e2) = ???
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Term size:
+
+```haskell
+size n = 1
+size x = 1
+size (e1 + e1) = size e1 + size e2
+size (let x = e1 in e2) = size e1 + size e2
+```
+
+**Lemma 1**: For any `e`, `size e > 0`.
+
+**Proof:** By induction on the *term* `e`.
+
+ * *Base case 1:* `size n = 1 > 0`
+ * *Base case 2:* `size x = 1 > 0`
+ * *Inductive case 1:* `size (e1 + e2) = size e1 + size e2 > 0` because `size e1 > 0` and `size e2 > 0` by IH.
+ * *Inductive case 2:* similar.
+
+
+**QED.**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Lemma 2**: For any `e, e'` such that `e => e'`, `size e' < size e`.
+
+**Proof:** By induction on the *derivation* of `e => e'`.
+
+*Base case* `[Add]`.
+
+ * Given: the root of the derivation is `[Add]`: `n1 + n2 => n` where `n = n1 + n2`
+ * To prove: `size n < size (n1 + n2)`
+ * `size n = 1 < 2 = size (n1 + n2)`
+
+*Inductive case* `[Add-L]`.
+
+ * Given: the root of the derivation is `[Add-L]`:
+
+```haskell
+ e1 => e1'
+--------------------------
+e1 + e2 => e1' + e2
+```
+
+ * To prove: `size (e1' + e2) < size (e1 + e2)`
+ * IH: `size e1' < size e1`
+
+```
+ size (e1' + e2)
+= -- def. size
+ size e1' + size e2
+< -- IH
+ size e1 + size e2
+= -- def. size
+ size (e1 + e2)
+```
+
+*Inductive case* `[Add-R]`. Try at home
+
+*Base case* `[Let]`.
+
+ * Given: the root of the derivation is `[Let]`: `let x = v in e2 => e2[x := v]`
+ * To prove: `size (e2[x := v]) < size (let x = v in e2)`
+
+```
+ size (e2[x := v])
+= -- auxiliary lemma!
+ size e2
+< -- IH
+ size v + size e2
+= -- def. size
+ size (let x = v in e2)
+```
+
+*Inductive case* `[Let-Def]`. Try at home
+
+**QED.**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+```haskell
+ e1 => e1'
+[Let-Def] --------------------------------------
+ let x = e1 in e2 => let x = e1' in e2
+```
+
+What is the IH for the inductive case `[Let-Def]`?
+
+**(A)** `e1 => e1'`
+
+**(B)** `size e1' < size e1`
+
+**(C)** `size (let x = e1 in e2) < size (let x = e1' in e2)`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* B
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## Theorem: Closed Programs don't Get Stuck
+
+First we need to define what are free variables `fv` of an expression:
+
+```haskell
+fv n = {}
+fv x = {x}
+fv (e1 + e1) = fv e1 + fv e2
+fv (let x = e1 in e2) = fv e1 + fv e2 / {x}
+```
+
+**Theorem II** [No errors]: For any `e` such that `fv e = {}`,
+if `e =~> e'` then `e'` is a value.
+
+Proof idea:
+
+ * Proof by induction on the number of reduction steps
+ * At the beginning we are not stuck
+ * With $k + 1$ steps: after the first step, the expression is still closed, so the other $k$ steps follow by IH
+
+
+**Proof:** by induction on the number $k$ of reduction steps:
+
+ * Base case ($k = 0$): `e` is not stuck.
+ We need an auxiliary lemma that a closed expression cannot be stuck (Lemma 3)
+ * Inductive case ($k > 0$): then `e => e1 =~> e'`.
+ To apply IH, we need to show: `fv e1 = {}` (Lemma 4).
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Lemma 3**: For any `e` such that `fv e = {}`,
+either `e` is a value or there exists `e'` such that `e => e'`
+
+**Proof:** By induction on the *term* `e `.
+
+ * *Base case* `n`: It's a value.
+ * *Base case* `x`: `fv x = {x} /= {}`: contradiction!
+ * *Inductive case* `e1 + e2`: Since `fv (e1 + e2) = {}`,
+ we know that `fv e1 = {}` and `fv e2 = {}`.
+ So we can apply IH to conclude that `e1` (resp. `e2`) is a value or steps to some `e1'` (resp. `e2'`).
+ If `e1 => e1'`, then [Add-L] applies.
+ Otherwise `e1` is a value; then if `e2 => e2'`, then [Add-R] applies.
+ Otherwise `e2` is also a value, so [Add] applies.
+
+ * *Inductive case* `let x = e1 in e2`: Since `fv (let x = e1 in e2) = {}`,
+ we know that `fv e1 = {}`.
+ So we can apply IH to conclude that `e1` is a value or steps to some `e1'`.
+ If `e1 => e1'`, then [Let-Def] applies.
+ Otherwise `e1` is a value; then [Let] applies.
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Lemma 4**: For any `e` such that `fv e = {}`,
+if `e => e'` then `fv e' = {}`
+
+**Proof:** By induction on the *derivation* of `e => e'`.
+
+*Base case* `[Add]`. Try at home.
+
+ * Given: the root of the derivation is `[Add]`: `n1 + n2 => n` where `n = n1 + n2`
+ * To prove: `fv n = {}` (by definition of `fv`)
+
+*Inductive case* `[Add-L]`.
+
+ * Given: the root of the derivation is `[Add-L]`:
+
+```haskell
+ e1 => e1'
+--------------------------
+e1 + e2 => e1' + e2
+```
+
+ * Given: `fv (e1 + e2) = {}`
+ * To prove: `fv (e1' + e2) = {}'`
+ * IH: if `fv e1 = {}` then `fv e1' = {}`
+
+```haskell
+ fv (e1 + e2) = {}
+<==> -- def. fv
+ (fv e1 = {}) & (fv e2 = {})
+==> -- IH
+ (fv e1' = {}) & (fv e2 = {})
+<==> -- def fv
+ fv (e1' + e2) = {}
+```
+
+*Inductive case* `[Add-R]`. Try at home
+
+*Base case* `[Let]`.
+
+ * Given: the root of the derivation is `[Let]`: `let x = n in e2 => e2[x := n]`
+ * Given: `fv (let x = n in e2) = {}`
+ * To prove: `fv (e2[x := n]) = {}`
+
+```haskell
+ fv (e2[x := n])
+== -- auxiliary lemma!
+ fv e2 / {x}
+== -- def fv
+ fv (let x = n in e2)
+== -- given
+ {}
+```
+
+*Inductive case* `[Let-Def]`. Try at home.
+
+**QED.**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Nano2: adding functions
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Syntax
+
+We need to extend the syntax of expressions and values:
+
+```haskell
+e ::= n | x -- expressions
+ | e1 + e2
+ | let x = e1 in e2
+ | \x -> e -- abstraction
+ | e1 e2 -- application
+
+v ::= n -- values
+ | \x -> e -- abstraction
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Operational semantics
+
+We need to extend our reduction relation with rules for abstraction and application:
+
+```haskell
+ e1 => e1'
+[App-L] ----------------
+ e1 e2 => e1' e2
+
+ e => e'
+[App-R] ------------
+ v e => v e'
+
+[App] (\x -> e) v => e[x := v]
+```
+
+### QUIZ
+
+With rules defined above, which reductions are valid?
+
+**(A)** `(\x y -> x + y) 1 (1 + 2) => (\x y -> x + y) 1 3`
+
+**(B)** `(\x y -> x + y) 1 (1 + 2) => (\y -> 1 + y) (1 + 2)`
+
+**(C)** `(\y -> 1 + y) (1 + 2) => (\y -> 1 + y) 3`
+
+**(D)** `(\y -> 1 + y) (1 + 2) => 1 + 1 + 2`
+
+**(E)** B and C
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* E
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Evaluation Order
+
+```haskell
+ ((\x y -> x + y) 1) (1 + 2)
+=> (\y -> 1 + y) (1 + 2) -- [App-L], [App]
+=> (\y -> 1 + y) 3 -- [App-R], [Add]
+=> 1 + 3 -- [App]
+=> 4 -- [Add]
+```
+
+Our rules define **call-by-value**:
+
+ 1. Evaluate the function (to a lambda)
+ 2. Evaluate the argument (to some value)
+ 3. "Make the call": make a substitution of formal to actual in the body of the lambda
+
+The alternative is **call-by-name**:
+
+ * do not evaluate the argument before "making the call"
+ * can we modify the application rules for Nano2 to make it call-by-name?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Theorems about Nano2
+
+Let's prove something about Nano2!
+
+ 1. Every Nano2 program terminates (?)
+ 2. Closed Nano2 programs don't get stuck (?)
+
+### QUIZ
+
+Are these theorems still true?
+
+**(A)** Both true
+
+**(B)** 1 is true, 2 is false
+
+**(C)** 1 is false, 2 is true
+
+**(D)** Both false
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* D
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Theorems about Nano2
+
+ 1. Every Nano2 program terminates (?)
+
+ What about `(\x -> x x) (\x -> x x)`?
+
+ 2. Closed Nano2 programs don't get stuck (?)
+
+ What about `1 2`?
+
+Both theorems are now false!
+
+To recover these properties, we need to add *types*:
+
+ 1. Every *well-typed* Nano2 program terminates
+
+ 2. *Well-typed* Nano2 programs don't get stuck
+
+We'll do that next week!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+That's all folks!
+
+
+-->
diff --git a/lectures/05-environments.md b/lectures/05-environments.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..265169c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/05-environments.md
@@ -0,0 +1,1767 @@
+---
+title: Environments
+date: 2021-02-16
+headerImg: books.jpg
+---
+
+## Past three weeks
+
+How to *use* essential language constructs?
+
+- Data Types
+- Recursion
+- Higher-Order Functions
+
+## Next two weeks
+
+How to *implement* language constructs?
+
+- Local variables and scope
+
+- Environments and Closures
+
+- _(skip)_ Type Inference
+
+### Interpreter
+
+How do we *represent* and *evaluate* a program?
+
+<!--
+- How do we *prove properties* about our interpreter
+ (e.g. that certain programs never crash)?
+ -->
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Roadmap: The Nano Language
+
+Features of Nano:
+
+1. **Arithmetic**
+2. Variables
+3. Let-bindings
+4. Functions
+5. Recursion
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## 1. Nano: Arithmetic
+
+A *grammar* of arithmetic expressions:
+
+```haskell
+e ::= n
+ | e1 + e2
+ | e1 - e2
+ | e1 * e2
+```
+
+<br>
+
+| **Expressions** | | **Values** |
+|:----------------|:------|:------------|
+| `4` | `==>` | 4 |
+| `4 + 12` | `==>` | 16 |
+| `(4+12) - 5` | `==>` | 11 |
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Representing Arithmetic Expressions and Values
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+Lets *represent* arithmetic expressions as type
+
+```haskell
+data Expr
+ = ENum Int -- ^ n
+ | EAdd Expr Expr -- ^ e1 + e2
+ | ESub Expr Expr -- ^ e1 - e2
+ | EMul Expr Expr -- ^ e1 * e2
+```
+
+Lets *represent* arithmetic values as a type
+
+```haskell
+type Value = Int
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Evaluating Arithmetic Expressions
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+We can now write a Haskell function to *evaluate* an expression:
+
+```haskell
+eval :: Expr -> Value
+eval (ENum n) = n
+eval (EAdd e1 e2) = eval e1 + eval e2
+eval (ESub e1 e2) = eval e1 - eval e2
+eval (EMul e1 e2) = eval e1 * eval e2
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Alternative representation
+
+Lets pull the *operators* into a separate type
+
+```haskell
+data Binop = Add -- ^ `+`
+ | Sub -- ^ `-`
+ | Mul -- ^ `*`
+
+data Expr = ENum Int -- ^ n
+ | EBin Binop Expr Expr -- ^ e1 `op` e2
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Evaluator for alternative representation
+
+```haskell
+eval :: Expr -> Value
+eval (ENum n) = n
+eval (EBin op e1 e2) = evalOp op (eval e1) (eval e2)
+```
+
+What is a suitable type for `evalOp`?
+
+```haskell
+{- 1 -} evalOp :: BinOp -> Value
+{- 2 -} evalOp :: BinOp -> Value -> Value -> Value
+{- 3 -} evalOp :: BinOp -> Expr -> Expr -> Value
+{- 4 -} evalOp :: BinOp -> Expr -> Expr -> Expr
+{- 5 -} evalOp :: BinOp -> Expr -> Value
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The Nano Language
+
+Features of Nano:
+
+1. Arithmetic *[done]*
+2. **Variables**
+3. Let-bindings
+4. Functions
+5. Recursion
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## 2. Nano: Variables
+
+Let's add variables and `let` bindings!
+
+```haskell
+e ::= n -- OLD
+ | e1 + e2
+ | e1 - e2
+ | e1 * e2
+ -- NEW
+ | x -- variables
+```
+
+Lets extend our datatype
+
+```haskell
+type Id = String
+
+data Expr
+ = ENum Int -- OLD
+ | EBin Binop Expr Expr
+ -- NEW
+ | EVar Id -- variables
+```
+
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What should the following expression evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+x + 1
+```
+
+**(A)** `0`
+
+**(B)** `1`
+
+**(C)** Error
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Environment
+
+An expression is evaluated in an **environment**
+
+- A **phone book** which maps *variables* to *values*
+
+```haskell
+[ "x" := 0, "y" := 12, ...]
+```
+
+A type for *environments*
+
+```haskell
+type Env = [(Id, Value)]
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Evaluation in an Environment
+
+We write
+
+```haskell
+(eval env expr) ==> value
+```
+
+to mean
+
+When `expr` is **evaluated in environment** `env` the result is `value`
+
+So: when we have variables, we modify our evaluator (`eval`)
+
+- to take an input environment `env` in which `expr` must be evaluated.
+
+```haskell
+eval :: Env -> Expr -> Value
+eval env expr = -- ... value-of-expr-in-env...
+```
+
+First, lets update the evaluator for the arithmetic cases `ENum` and `EBin`
+
+```haskell
+eval :: Env -> Expr -> Value
+eval env (ENum n) = ???
+eval env (EBin op e1 e2) = ???
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is a suitable `?value` such that
+
+```
+eval [ "x" := 0, "y" := 12, ...] (x + 1) ==> ?value
+```
+
+**(A)** `0`
+
+**(B)** `1`
+
+**(C)** Error
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is a suitable `env` such that
+
+```
+eval env (x + 1) ==> 10
+```
+
+**(A)** `[]`
+
+**(B)** `[x := 0, y := 9]`
+
+**(C)** `[x := 9, y := 0]`
+
+**(D)** `[x := 9, y := 10, z := 666]`
+
+**(E)** `[y := 10, z := 666, x := 9]`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Evaluating Variables
+
+Using the above intuition, lets update our evaluator
+to handle variables i.e. the `EVar` case:
+
+```haskell
+eval env (EVar x) = ???
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Lets confirm that our `eval` is ok!
+
+```haskell
+envA = []
+envB = ["x" := 0 , "y" := 9]
+envC = ["x" := 9 , "y" := 0]
+envD = ["x" := 9 , "y" := 10 , "z" := 666]
+envE = ["y" := 10, "z" := 666, "x" := 9 ]
+
+-- >>> eval envA (EBin Add (EVar "x") (ENum 1))
+-- >>> eval envB (EBin Add (EVar "x") (ENum 1))
+-- >>> eval envC (EBin Add (EVar "x") (ENum 1))
+-- >>> eval envD (EBin Add (EVar "x") (ENum 1))
+-- >>> eval envE (EBin Add (EVar "x") (ENum 1))
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The Nano Language
+
+Features of Nano:
+
+1. Arithmetic expressions *[done]*
+2. Variables *[done]*
+3. **Let-bindings**
+4. Functions
+5. Recursion
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## 2. Nano: Variables
+
+Let's add variables and `let` bindings!
+
+```haskell
+e ::= n -- OLD
+ | e1 + e2
+ | e1 - e2
+ | e1 * e2
+ | x
+ -- NEW
+ | let x = e1 in e2
+```
+
+Lets extend our datatype
+
+```haskell
+type Id = String
+
+data Expr
+ = ENum Int -- OLD
+ | EBin Binop Expr Expr
+ | EVar Id
+ -- NEW
+ | ELet Id Expr Expr
+```
+
+How should we extend `eval` ?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What *should* the following expression evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+let x = 0
+in
+ x + 1
+```
+
+
+**(A)** Error
+
+**(B)** `1`
+
+**(C)** `0`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What *should* the following expression evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+let x = 0
+in
+ let y = 100
+ in
+ x + y
+```
+
+**(A)** Error
+
+**(B)** `0`
+
+**(C)** `1`
+
+**(D)** `100`
+
+**(E)** `101`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What *should* the following expression evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+let x = 0
+in
+ let x = 100
+ in
+ x + 1
+```
+
+**(A)** Error
+
+**(B)** `0`
+
+**(C)** `1`
+
+**(D)** `100`
+
+**(E)** `101`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What *should* the following expression evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+let x = 0
+in
+ (let x = 100 in
+ in
+ x + 1
+ )
+ +
+ x
+```
+
+**(A)** Error
+
+**(B)** `1`
+
+**(C)** `101`
+
+**(D)** `102`
+
+**(E)** `2`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Principle: Static/Lexical Scoping
+
+Every variable *use* gets its value from a unique *definition*:
+
+- "Nearest" `let`-binder in program *text*
+
+**Static** means you can tell *without running the program*
+
+Great for readability and debugging
+
+1. Define *local* variables
+
+2. Be sure *where* each variable got its value
+
+Don’t have to scratch head to figure where a variable got "assigned"
+
+How to **implement** static scoping?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Lets re-evaluate the quizzes!
+
+```haskell
+ -- env
+let x = 0
+in -- ??? what env to use for `x + 1`?
+ x + 1
+```
+
+**(A)** `env`
+
+**(B)** `[ ]`
+
+**(C)** `[ ("x" := 0) ]`
+
+**(D)** `("x" := 0) : env`
+
+**(E)** `env ++ ["x" := 0]`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+```haskell
+ -- env
+let x = 0
+in -- (x := 0) : env
+ let y = 100
+ in -- ??? what env to use for `x + y` ?
+ x + y
+```
+
+**(A)** `("x" := 0) : env`
+
+**(B)** `("y" := 100) : env`
+
+**(C)** `("y" := 100) : ("x" := 0) : env`
+
+**(D)** `("x" := 0) : ("y" := 100) : env`
+
+**(E)** `[("y" := 100), ("x" := 0)]`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Lets re-evaluate the quizzes!
+
+```haskell
+ -- env
+let x = 0
+in -- ("x" := 0) : env
+ let x = 100
+ in -- ??? what env to use for `x + 1`?
+ x + 1
+```
+
+**(A)** `("x" := 0) : env`
+
+**(B)** `("x" := 100) : env`
+
+**(C)** `("x" := 100) : ("x" := 0) : env`
+
+**(D)** `("x" := 0) : ("x" := 100) : env`
+
+**(E)** `[("x" := 100)]`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Extending Environments
+
+Lets fill in `eval` for the `let x = e1 in e2` case!
+
+```haskell
+eval env (ELet x e1 e2) = ???
+```
+
+1. **Evaluate** `e1` in `env` to get a value `v1`
+
+2. **Extend** environment with value for `x` i.e. to `(x := v1) : env`
+
+3. **Evaluate** `e2` using *extended* environment.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Lets make sure our tests pass!
+
+## Run-time Errors
+
+Haskell function to *evaluate* an expression:
+
+```haskell
+eval :: Env -> Expr -> Value
+eval env (Num n) = n
+eval env (Var x) = lookup x env -- (A)
+eval env (Bin op e1 e2) = evalOp op v1 v2 -- (B)
+ where
+ v1 = eval env e1 -- (C)
+ v2 = eval env e2 -- (C)
+eval env (Let x e1 e2) = eval env1 e2
+ where
+ v1 = eval env e1
+ env1 = (x, v1) : env -- (D)
+```
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Will `eval env expr` always return a `value` ? Or, can it *crash*?
+
+**(A)** operation at `A` may fail
+**(B)** operation at `B` may fail
+**(C)** operation at `C` may fail
+**(D)** operation at `D` may fail
+**(E)** nah, its all good..., always returns a `Value`
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Free vs bound variables
+
+## Undefined Variables
+
+How do we make sure `lookup` doesn't cause a run-time error?
+
+**Bound Variables**
+
+Consider an expression `let x = e1 in e2`
+
+- An occurrence of `x` is **bound** in `e2`
+
+- i.e. when occurrence of form `let x = ... in ... x ...`
+
+- i.e. when `x` occurs "under" a `let` binding for `x`.
+
+**Free Variables**
+
+An occurrence of `x` is **free** in `e` if it is **not bound** in `e`
+
+**Closed Expressions**
+
+An expression `e` is **closed** in environment `env`:
+
+- If all **free** variables of `e` are defined in `env`
+
+**Successful Evaluation**
+
+`lookup` will never fail
+
+- If `eval env e` is only called on `e` that is closed in `env`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Which variables occur free in the expression?
+
+```haskell
+let y = (let x = 2
+ in x ) + x
+in
+ let x = 3
+ in
+ x + y
+```
+
+**(A)** None
+
+**(B)** `x`
+
+**(C)** `y`
+
+**(D)** `x` and `y`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* B
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Exercise to try at home
+
+Consider the function
+
+```haskell
+evaluate :: Expr -> Value
+evaluate e
+ | isOk e = eval emptyEnv e
+ | otherwise = error "Sorry! bad expression, it will crash `eval`!"
+ where
+ emptyEnv = [] -- has NO bindings
+```
+
+What should `isOk` check for? (Try to implement it for `nano`...)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The Nano Language
+
+Features of Nano:
+
+1. Arithmetic expressions *[done]*
+2. Variables *[done]*
+3. Let-bindings *[done]*
+4. **Functions**
+5. Recursion
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Nano: Functions
+
+Let's add
+
+- *lambda abstraction* (aka function definitions)
+
+- *application* (aka function calls)
+
+```haskell
+e ::= n -- OLD
+ | e1 `op` e2
+ | x
+ | let x = e1 in e2
+ -- NEW
+ | \x -> e -- abstraction
+ | e1 e2 -- application
+```
+
+### Example
+
+```haskell
+let incr = \x -> x + 1
+in
+ incr 10
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Representation
+
+```haskell
+data Expr
+ = ENum Int -- OLD
+ | EBin Binop Expr Expr
+ | EVar Id
+ | ELet Id Expr Expr
+ -- NEW
+ | ??? -- abstraction \x -> e
+ | ??? -- application (e1 e2)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Representation
+
+```haskell
+data Expr
+ = ENum Int -- OLD
+ | EBin Binop Expr Expr
+ | EVar Id
+ | ELet Id Expr Expr
+ -- NEW
+ | ELam Id Expr -- abstraction \x -> e
+ | EApp Expr Expr -- application (e1 e2)
+```
+
+### Example
+
+```haskell
+let incr = \x -> x + 1
+in
+ incr 10
+```
+
+is represented as
+
+```haskell
+ELet "incr" (ELam "x" (EBin Add (EVar "x") (ENum 1)))
+ (
+ EApp (EVar "incr") (ENum 10)
+ )
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+
+## Functions are Values
+
+Recall the trinity
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+But... what is the _value_ of a function?
+
+Lets build some intuition with examples.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What does the following expression evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+let incr = \x -> x + 1 -- abstraction ("definition")
+in
+ incr 10 -- application ("call")
+```
+
+**(A)** Error/Undefined
+
+**(B)** `10`
+
+**(C)** `11`
+
+**(D)** `0`
+
+**(E)** `1`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## What is the Value of `incr`?
+
+- Is it an `Int` ?
+
+- Is it a `Bool` ?
+
+- Is it a ???
+
+**What information** do we need to store (in the `Env`) about `incr`?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## A Function's Value is its Code
+
+```haskell
+ -- env
+let incr = \x -> x + 1
+in -- ("incr" := <code>) : env
+ incr 10 -- evaluate <code> with parameter := 10
+```
+
+What information do we store about `<code>` ?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## A Call's Value
+
+How to evaluate the "call" `incr 10` ?
+
+1. Lookup the `<code>` i.e. `<param, body>` for `incr` (stored in the environment),
+
+2. Evaluate `body` with `param` set to `10`!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Two kinds of Values
+
+We now have _two_ kinds of Values
+
+```haskell
+v ::= n -- OLD
+ | <x, e> -- <param, body>
+```
+
+1. Plain `Int` (as before)
+2. A function's "code": a pair of "parameter" and "body-expression"
+
+```haskell
+data Value
+ = VInt Int -- OLD
+ | VCode Id Expr -- <x, e>
+```
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+## Evaluating Lambdas and Applications
+
+```haskell
+eval :: Env -> Expr -> Value
+ -- OLD
+eval env (ENum n) = ???
+eval env (EVar x) = ???
+eval env (EBin op e1 e2) = ???
+eval env (ELet x e1 e2) = ???
+ -- NEW
+eval env (ELam x e) = ???
+eval env (EApp e1 e2) = ???
+```
+
+Lets make sure our tests work properly!
+
+```haskell
+exLam1 = ELet "incr" (ELam "x" (EBin Add (EVar "x") (ENum 1)))
+ (
+ EApp (EVar "incr") (ENum 10)
+ )
+
+-- >>> eval [] exLam1
+-- 11
+```
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What should the following evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+let c = 1
+in
+ let inc = \x -> x + c
+ in
+ inc 10
+```
+
+**(A)** Error/Undefined
+
+**(B)** `10`
+
+**(C)** `11`
+
+**(D)** `0`
+
+**(E)** `1`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+exLam2 = ELet "c" (ENum 1)
+ (ELet "incr" (ELam "x" (EBin Add (EVar "x") (EVar "c")))
+ (
+ EApp (EVar "incr") (ENum 10)
+ )
+ )
+
+-- >>> eval [] exLam2
+-- ???
+```
+
+## QUIZ
+
+And what should _this_ expression evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+let c = 1
+in
+ let inc = \x -> x + c
+ in
+ let c = 100
+ in
+ inc 10
+```
+
+**(A)** Error/Undefined
+
+**(B)** `110`
+
+**(C)** `11`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The "Immutability Principle"
+
+A function's behavior should _never change_
+
+- A function must _always_ return the same output for a given input
+
+Why?
+
+```haskell
+> myFunc 10
+0
+
+> myFunc 10
+10
+```
+
+Oh no! How to find the bug? Is it
+
+- In `myFunc` or
+- In a global variable or
+- In a library somewhere else or
+- ...
+
+**My worst debugging nightmare**
+
+[Colbert "Immutability Principle"](https://youtu.be/CWqzLgDc030?t=628)
+
+<!--
+The greatest thing about this man is that he’s steady.
+You know where he stands. He believes the same thing
+Wednesday that he believed on Monday — no matter what
+happened Tuesday.
+-->
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The Immutability Principle ?
+
+How does our `eval` work?
+
+```haskell
+exLam3 = ELet "c" (ENum 1)
+ (
+ ELet "incr" (ELam "x" (EBin Add (EVar "x") (EVar "c")))
+ (
+ ELet "c" (ENum 100)
+ (
+ EApp (EVar "incr") (ENum 10)
+ )
+ )
+ )
+
+-- >>> eval [] exLam3
+-- ???
+```
+
+Oops?
+
+```haskell
+ -- []
+let c = 1
+in -- ["c" := 1]
+ let inc = \x -> x + c
+ in -- ["inc" := <x, x+c>, c := 1]
+ let c = 100
+ in -- ["c" := 100, "inc" := <x, x+c", "c" := 1] <<< env
+ inc 10
+```
+
+And so we get
+
+```haskell
+eval env (inc 10)
+
+ ==> eval ("x" := 10 : env) (x + c)
+
+ ==> 10 + 100
+
+ ==> 110
+```
+
+Ouch.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Enforcing Immutability with Closures
+
+How to enforce immutability principle
+
+- `inc 10` **always** returns `11`?
+
+<br>
+
+### Key Idea: Closures
+
+**At definition:**
+_Freeze_ the environment the function's value
+
+**At call:**
+Use the _frozen_ environment to evaluate the _body_
+
+Ensures that `inc 10` _always_ evaluates to the _same_ result!
+
+```haskell
+ -- []
+let c = 1
+in -- ["c" := 1]
+ let inc = \x -> x + c
+ in -- ["inc" := <frozenv, x, x+c>, c := 1] <<< frozenv = ["c" := 1]
+ let c = 100
+ in -- ["c" := 100, "inc" := <frozenv, x, x+c>, "c" := 1]
+ inc 10
+```
+
+Now we evaluate
+
+```haskell
+eval env (inc 10)
+
+ ==> eval ("x" := 10 : frozenv) (x + c) where frozenv = ["c" := 1]
+
+ ==> 10 + 1
+
+ ==> 1
+```
+
+tada!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Representing Closures
+
+Lets change the `Value` datatype to also store an `Env`
+
+```haskell
+data Value
+ = VInt Int -- OLD
+ | VClos Env Id Expr -- <frozenv, param, body>
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Evaluating Function Definitions
+
+How should we fix the definition of `eval` for `ELam`?
+
+```haskell
+eval :: Env -> Expr -> Value
+
+eval env (ELam x e) = ???
+```
+
+**Hint:** What value should we _bind_ `incr` to in our example above?
+
+<br>
+
+(Recall **At definition** _freeze_ the environment the function's value)
+
+<br>
+
+## Evaluating Function Calls
+
+How should we fix the definition of `eval` for `EApp`?
+
+```haskell
+eval :: Env -> Expr -> Value
+
+eval env (EApp e1 e2) = ???
+```
+
+<br>
+
+(Recall **At call:** Use the _frozen_ environment to evaluate the _body_)
+
+<br>
+
+**Hint:** What value should we _evaluate_ `incr 10` to?
+
+1. Evaluate `incr` to get `<frozenv, "x", x + c>`
+2. Evaluate `10` to get `10`
+3. Evaluate `x + c` in ` x:=10 : frozenv`
+
+<br>
+
+Let's generalize that recipe!
+
+1. Evaluate `e1` to get `<frozenv, param, body>`
+2. Evaluate `e2` to get `v2`
+3. Evaluate `body` in `param := v2 : frozenv`
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Immutability Achieved
+
+Lets put our code to the test!
+
+```haskell
+exLam3 = ELet "c" (ENum 1)
+ (
+ ELet "incr" (ELam "x" (EBin Add (EVar "x") (EVar "c")))
+ (
+ ELet "c" (ENum 100)
+ (
+ EApp (EVar "incr") (ENum 10)
+ )
+ )
+ )
+
+-- >>> eval [] exLam3
+-- ???
+```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What should the following evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+let add = \x -> (\y -> x + y)
+in
+ let add10 = add 10
+ in
+ let add20 = add 20
+ in
+ (add10 100) + (add20 1000)
+```
+
+**A.** `1100`
+
+**B.** `1110`
+
+**C.** `1120`
+
+**D.** `1130`
+
+**E.** `1140`
+
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## Functions Returning Functions Achieved!
+
+```haskell
+exLam4 = ...
+
+-- >>> eval [] exLam4
+```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+
+## Practice
+
+What should the following evaluate to?
+
+```haskell
+let add = \x -> (\y -> x + y)
+in
+ let add10 = add 10
+ in
+ let doTwice = \f -> (\x -> f (f x))
+ in
+ doTwice add10 100
+```
+
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## Functions Accepting Functions Achieved!
+
+```haskell
+exLam5 = ...
+
+-- >>> eval [] exLam4
+```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## The Nano Language
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+Features of Nano:
+
+1. Arithmetic expressions *[done]*
+2. Variables *[done]*
+3. Let-bindings *[done]*
+4. Functions *[done]*
+5. **Recursion**
+
+... You figure it out **Hw4** ... :-)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/lectures/06-parsing.md b/lectures/06-parsing.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b47745e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/06-parsing.md
@@ -0,0 +1,786 @@
+---
+title: Lexing and Parsing
+date: 2018-05-16
+headerImg: books.jpg
+---
+
+## Plan for this week
+
+
+**Last week:**
+
+- How do we *evaluate* a program given its AST?
+
+```haskell
+eval :: Env -> Expr -> Value
+```
+
+**This week:**
+
+- How do we *convert* program text into an AST?
+
+```haskell
+parse :: String -> Expr
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Example: calculator with variables
+
+AST representation:
+
+```haskell
+data Aexpr
+ = AConst Int
+ | AVar Id
+ | APlus Aexpr Aexpr
+ | AMinus Aexpr Aexpr
+ | AMul Aexpr Aexpr
+ | ADiv Aexpr Aexpr
+```
+
+<br>
+
+Evaluator:
+
+```haskell
+eval :: Env -> Aexpr -> Value
+...
+```
+
+<br>
+
+Using the evaluator:
+
+```haskell
+λ> eval [] (APlus (AConst 2) (AConst 6))
+8
+
+λ> eval [("x", 16), ("y", 10)] (AMinus (AVar "x") (AVar "y"))
+6
+
+λ> eval [("x", 16), ("y", 10)] (AMinus (AVar "x") (AVar "z"))
+*** Exception: Error {errMsg = "Unbound variable z"}
+```
+
+<br>
+
+But writing ASTs explicitly is really tedious,
+we are used to writing programs as text!
+
+<br>
+
+We want to write a function that converts strings to ASTs if possible:
+
+```haskell
+parse :: String -> Aexpr
+```
+
+<br>
+
+For example:
+
+```haskell
+λ> parse "2 + 6"
+APlus (AConst 2) (AConst 6)
+
+λ> parse "(x - y) / 2"
+ADiv (AMinus (AVar "x") (AVar "y")) (AConst 2)
+
+λ> parse "2 +"
+*** Exception: Error {errMsg = "Syntax error"}
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Two-step-strategy
+
+How do I read a sentence "He ate a bagel"?
+
+ * First split into words: `["He", "ate", "a", "bagel"]`
+ * Then relate words to each other: "He" is the subject, "ate" is the verb, etc
+
+<br>
+
+Let's do the same thing to "read" programs!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Step 1 (Lexing) : From String to Tokens
+
+A string is a list of *characters*:
+
+{#fig:chars width=70%}
+
+First we aggregate characters that "belong together"
+into **tokens** (i.e. the "words" of the program):
+
+{#fig:tokens width=70%}
+
+We distinguish tokens of different kinds based on their format:
+
+* all numbers: integer constant
+* alphanumeric, starts with a letter: identifier
+* `+`: plus operator
+* etc
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Step 2 (Parsing) : From Tokens to AST
+
+Next, we convert a sequence of tokens into an AST
+
+ * This is hard...
+ * ... but the hard parts do not depend on the language!
+
+<br>
+
+**Parser generators**
+
+ * Given the description of the *token format* generates a *lexer*
+ * Given the description of the *grammar* generates a *parser*
+
+We will be using parser generators,
+so we only care about how to describe the token format and the grammar
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Lexing
+
+We will use the tool called `alex` to generate the **lexer**
+
+Input to `alex`: a `.x` file that describes the *token format*
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Tokens
+
+First we list the kinds of tokens we have in the language:
+
+```haskell
+data Token
+ = NUM AlexPosn Int
+ | ID AlexPosn String
+ | PLUS AlexPosn
+ | MINUS AlexPosn
+ | MUL AlexPosn
+ | DIV AlexPosn
+ | LPAREN AlexPosn
+ | RPAREN AlexPosn
+ | EOF AlexPosn
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Token rules
+
+Next we describe the format of each kind of token using a rule:
+
+```haskell
+ [\+] { \p _ -> PLUS p }
+ [\-] { \p _ -> MINUS p }
+ [\*] { \p _ -> MUL p }
+ [\/] { \p _ -> DIV p }
+ \( { \p _ -> LPAREN p }
+ \) { \p _ -> RPAREN p }
+ $alpha [$alpha $digit \_ \']* { \p s -> ID p s }
+ $digit+ { \p s -> NUM p (read s) }
+```
+
+Each line consist of:
+
+ * a *regular expression* that describes which strings should be recognized as this token
+ * a Haskell expression that generates the token
+
+You read it as:
+
+ * if at position `p` in the input string
+ * you encounter a substring `s` that matches the *regular expression*
+ * evaluate the Haskell expression with arguments `p` and `s`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Regular Expressions
+
+A regular expression has one of the following forms:
+
+* `[c1 c2 ... cn]` matches *any of* the characters `c1 .. cn`
+
+ * `[0-9]` matches *any digit*
+ * `[a-z]` matches *any lower-case letter*
+ * `[A-Z]` matches *any upper-case letter*
+ * `[a-z A-Z]` matches *any letter*
+
+* `R1 R2` matches a string `s1 ++ s2` where `s1` matches `R1` and `s2` matches `R2`
+
+ * e.g. `[0-9] [0-9]` matches any two-digit string
+
+* `R+` matches *one or more* repetitions of what `R` matches
+
+ * e.g. `[0-9]+` matches a natural number
+
+* `R*` matches *zero or more* repetitions of what `R` matches
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Which of the following strings are matched by `[a-z A-Z] [a-z A-Z 0-9]*`?
+
+**(A)** (empty string)
+
+**(B)** `5`
+
+**(C)** `x5`
+
+**(D)** `x`
+
+**(E)** C and D
+
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* E
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Back to token rules
+
+We can **name** some common regexps like:
+
+```haskell
+$digit = [0-9]
+$alpha = [a-z A-Z]
+```
+
+and write `[a-z A-Z] [a-z A-Z 0-9]*` as `$alpha [$alpha $digit]*`
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+ [\+] { \p _ -> PLUS p }
+ [\-] { \p _ -> MINUS p }
+ [\*] { \p _ -> MUL p }
+ [\/] { \p _ -> DIV p }
+ \( { \p _ -> LPAREN p }
+ \) { \p _ -> RPAREN p }
+ $alpha [$alpha $digit \_ \']* { \p s -> ID p s }
+ $digit+ { \p s -> NUM p (read s) }
+```
+
+* When you encounter a `+`, generate a `PLUS` token
+* ...
+* When you encounter a nonempty string of digits, convert it into an integer and generate a `NUM`
+* When you encounter an alphanumeric string that starts with a letter, save it in an `ID token
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Running the Lexer
+
+From the token rules, `alex` generates a function `alexScan` which
+
+ * given an input string, find the *longest* prefix `p` that matches one of the rules
+ * if `p` is empty, it fails
+ * otherwise, it converts `p` into a token and returns the rest of the string
+
+We wrap this function into a handy function
+
+```haskell
+parseTokens :: String -> Either ErrMsg [Token]
+```
+
+which repeatedly calls `alexScan` until it consumes the whole input string or fails
+
+<br>
+
+We can test the function like so:
+
+```haskell
+λ> parseTokens "23 + 4 / off -"
+Right [ NUM (AlexPn 0 1 1) 23
+ , PLUS (AlexPn 3 1 4)
+ , NUM (AlexPn 5 1 6) 4
+ , DIV (AlexPn 7 1 8)
+ , ID (AlexPn 9 1 10) "off"
+ , MINUS (AlexPn 13 1 14)
+ ]
+```
+
+```haskell
+λ> parseTokens "%"
+Left "lexical error at 1 line, 1 column"
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the result of `parseTokens "92zoo"`
+(positions omitted for readability)?
+
+**(A)** Lexical error
+
+**(B)** `[ID "92zoo"]`
+
+**(C)** `[NUM "92"]`
+
+**(D)** `[NUM "92", ID "zoo"]`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* D
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Parsing
+
+We will use the tool called `happy` to generate the **parser**
+
+Input to `happy`: a `.y` file that describes the *grammar*
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Wait, wasn't this the grammar?
+
+```haskell
+data Aexpr
+ = AConst Int
+ | AVar Id
+ | APlus Aexpr Aexpr
+ | AMinus Aexpr Aexpr
+ | AMul Aexpr Aexpr
+ | ADiv Aexpr Aexpr
+```
+
+This was *abstract syntax*
+
+Now we need to describe *concrete syntax*
+
+ * What programs look like when written as text
+ * and how to map that text into the abstract syntax
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Grammars
+
+A grammar is a recursive definition of a set of trees
+
+ - each tree is a *parse tree* for some string
+ - *parse* a string `s` = find a parse tree for `s` that belongs to the grammar
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+A grammar is made of:
+
+- **Terminals**: the leaves of the tree (tokens!)
+
+- **Nonterminals:** the internal nodes of the tree
+
+- **Production Rules** that describe how to "produce" a non-terminal from terminals and other non-terminals
+
+ - i.e. what children each nonterminal can have:
+
+```haskell
+Aexpr : -- NT Aexpr can have as children:
+ | Aexpr '+' Aexpr { ... } -- NT Aexpr, T '+', and NT Aexpr, or
+ | Aexpr '-' AExpr { ... } -- NT Aexpr, T '-', and NT Aexpr, or
+ | ...
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Terminals
+
+Terminals correspond to the *tokens* returned by the lexer
+
+In the `.y` file, we have to declare with terminals in the rules
+correspond to which tokens from the `Token` datatype:
+
+```haskell
+%token
+ TNUM { NUM _ $$ }
+ ID { ID _ $$ }
+ '+' { PLUS _ }
+ '-' { MINUS _ }
+ '*' { MUL _ }
+ '/' { DIV _ }
+ '(' { LPAREN _ }
+ ')' { RPAREN _ }
+```
+
+* Each thing on the left is terminal (as appears in the production rules)
+
+* Each thing on the right is a Haskell pattern for datatype `Token`
+
+* We use `$$` to designate one parameter of a token constructor as the **value** of that token
+
+ * we will refer back to it from the production rules
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Production rules
+
+Next we define productions for our language:
+
+```haskell
+Aexpr : TNUM { AConst $1 }
+ | ID { AVar $1 }
+ | '(' Aexpr ')' { $2 }
+ | Aexpr '*' Aexpr { AMul $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '+' Aexpr { APlus $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '-' Aexpr { AMinus $1 $3 }
+```
+
+The expression on the right computes the *value* of this node
+
+ * `$1 $2 $3` refer to the *values* of the respective child nodes
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Example:** parsing `(2)` as `AExpr`:
+
+ 1. Lexer returns a sequence of `Token`s: `[LPAREN, NUM 2, RPAREN]`
+
+ 2. `LPAREN` is the token for terminal `'('`, so let's pick production `'(' Aexpr ')'`
+
+ 3. Now we have to parse `NUM 2` as `Aexpr` and `RPAREN` as `')'`
+
+ 4. `NUM 2` is a token for nonterminal `TNUM`, so let's pick production `TNUM`
+
+ 5. The value of this `Aexpr` node is `AConst 2`, since the value of `TNUM` is `2`
+
+ 6. The value of the top-level `Aexpr` node is also `AConst 2` (see the `'(' Aexpr ')'` production)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the value of the root `AExpr` node when parsing `1 + 2 + 3`?
+
+```haskell
+Aexpr : TNUM { AConst $1 }
+ | ID { AVar $1 }
+ | '(' Aexpr ')' { $2 }
+ | Aexpr '*' Aexpr { AMul $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '+' Aexpr { APlus $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '-' Aexpr { AMinus $1 $3 }
+```
+
+**(A)** Cannot be parsed as `AExpr`
+
+**(B)** `6`
+
+**(C)** `APlus (APlus (AConst 1) (AConst 2)) (AConst 3)`
+
+**(D)** `APlus (AConst 1) (APlus (AConst 2) (AConst 3))`
+
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* Could be C or D
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Running the Parser
+
+First, we should tell the parser that the top-level non-terminal is `AExpr`:
+
+```haskell
+%name aexpr
+```
+
+From the production rules and this line, `happy` generates a function `aexpr` that tries to parse a sequence of tokens as `AExpr`
+
+We package this function together with the lexer and the evaluator into a handy function
+
+```haskell
+evalString :: Env -> String -> Int
+```
+
+<br>
+
+We can test the function like so:
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ λ> evalString [] "1 + 3 + 6"
+ 10
+
+ λ> evalString [("x", 100), ("y", 20)] "x - y"
+ ???
+
+ λ> evalString [] "2 * 5 + 5"
+ ???
+
+ λ> evalString [] "2 - 1 - 1"
+ ???
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ λ> evalString [] "1 + 3 + 6"
+ 10
+
+ λ> evalString [("x", 100), ("y", 20)] "x - y"
+ 80
+
+ λ> evalString [] "2 * 5 + 5"
+ 20
+
+ λ> evalString [] "2 - 1 - 1"
+ 2
+ ```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Precedence and associativity
+
+```haskell
+λ> evalString [] "2 * 5 + 5"
+20
+```
+
+The problem is that our grammar is **ambiguous**!
+
+There are multiple ways of parsing the string `2 * 5 + 5`, namely
+
+- `APlus (AMul (AConst 2) (AConst 5)) (AConst 5)` (good)
+- `AMul (AConst 2) (APlus (AConst 5) (AConst 5))` (bad!)
+
+*Wanted:* tell `happy` that `*` has higher **precedence** than `+`!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+```haskell
+λ> evalString [] "2 - 1 - 1"
+2
+```
+
+There are multiple ways of parsing `2 - 1 - 1`, namely
+
+- `AMinus (AMinus (AConst 2) (AConst 1)) (AConst 1)` (good)
+- `AMinus (AConst 2) (AMinus (AConst 1) (AConst 1))` (bad!)
+
+*Wanted:* tell `happy` that `-` is **left-associative**!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+How do we communicate precedence and associativity to `happy`?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Solution 1: Grammar factoring
+
+We can split the `AExpr` non-terminal into multiple "levels"
+
+```haskell
+Aexpr : Aexpr '+' Aexpr2
+ | Aexpr '-' Aexpr2
+ | Aexpr2
+
+Aexpr2 : Aexpr2 '*' Aexpr3
+ | Aexpr2 '/' Aexpr3
+ | Aexpr3
+
+Aexpr3 : TNUM
+ | ID
+ | '(' Aexpr ')'
+```
+
+Intuition: `AExpr2` "binds tighter" than `AExpr`, and `AExpr3` is the tightest
+
+
+Now I cannot parse the string `2 * 5 + 5` as
+
+- `AMul (AConst 2) (APlus (AConst 5) (AConst 5))`
+
+- Why?
+
+(I) final
+
+ Because the RHS of `*` has to be `AExpr3`, while `5 + 5` is *not* an `AExpr3` (it's an `AExpr`)
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Solution 2: Parser directives
+
+This problem is so common that parser generators have a special syntax for it!
+
+```haskell
+%left '+' '-'
+%left '*' '/'
+```
+
+What this means:
+
+ - All our operators are left-associative
+ - Operators on the lower line have higher precedence
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+That's all folks!
+
+
+
+[0]: https://github.com/ucsd-cse130/arith/blob/master/src/Language/Arith/Types.hs
+[1]: https://github.com/ucsd-cse130/arith/blob/master/src/Language/Arith/Parser0.y
+[2]: https://github.com/ucsd-cse130/arith/blob/master/src/Language/Arith/Lexer.x
+[3]: https://github.com/ucsd-cse130/arith/blob/master/src/Language/Arith/Parser1.y
+[4]: https://github.com/ucsd-cse130/arith/blob/master/src/Language/Arith/Parser2.y
+[7]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_expression
diff --git a/lectures/07-classes.md b/lectures/07-classes.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dcefc27
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/07-classes.md
@@ -0,0 +1,1232 @@
+---
+title: Typeclasses
+date: 2019-05-29
+headerImg: books.jpg
+---
+
+## Past two Weeks
+
+How to *implement* language constructs?
+
+- Local variables and scope
+- Environments and Closures
+- Parsing
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Next two Weeks
+
+Modern language features for structuring programs
+
+- Overloading
+- Type classes
+- Monads
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Overloading Operators: Arithmetic
+
+The `+` operator works for a bunch of different types.
+
+For `Integer`:
+
+```haskell
+λ> 2 + 3
+5
+```
+
+for `Double` precision floats:
+
+```haskell
+λ> 2.9 + 3.5
+6.4
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Overloading Comparisons
+
+Similarly we can _compare_ different types of values
+
+```haskell
+λ> 2 == 3
+False
+
+λ> [2.9, 3.5] == [2.9, 3.5]
+True
+
+λ> ("cat", 10) < ("cat", 2)
+False
+
+λ> ("cat", 10) < ("cat", 20)
+True
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## Ad-Hoc Overloading
+
+Seems unremarkable?
+
+Languages since the dawn of time have supported "operator overloading"
+
+- To support this kind of **ad--hoc polymorphism**
+
+- Ad-hoc: "created or done for a particular purpose as necessary."
+
+You really **need** to _add_ and _compare_ values of _multiple_ types!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Haskell has no caste system
+
+No distinction between operators and functions
+
+- All are first class citizens!
+
+But then, what type do we give to *functions* like `+` and `==` ?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Which of the following would be appropriate types for `(+)` ?
+
+**(A)** `(+) :: Integer -> Integer -> Integer`
+
+**(B)** `(+) :: Double -> Double -> Double`
+
+**(C)** `(+) :: a -> a -> a`
+
+**(D)** _All_ of the above
+
+**(E)** _None_ of the above
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+`Integer -> Integer -> Integer` is bad because?
+
+- Then we cannot add `Double`s!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+`Double -> Double -> Double` is bad because?
+
+- Then we cannot add `Double`s!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+`a -> a -> a` is bad because?
+
+- That doesn't make sense, e.g. to add two `Bool` or two `[Int]` or two functions!
+
+## Type Classes for Ad Hoc Polymorphism
+
+Haskell solves this problem with an *insanely slick*
+mechanism called **type-classes**, introduced by [Wadler and Blott](http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=75283)
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+**BTW:** The paper is one of the clearest examples of academic writing I have seen.
+
+The next time you hear a curmudgeon say all the best CS was done in the 60s,
+just point them to the above.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Qualified Types
+
+To see the right type, lets ask:
+
+```haskell
+λ> :type (+)
+(+) :: (Num a) => a -> a -> a
+```
+
+We call the above a **qualified type**. Read it as `+`
+
+- takes in two `a` values and returns an `a` value
+
+for any type `a` that
+
+- _is a_ `Num` or
+- _implements_ the `Num` interface or
+- _is an instance of_ a `Num`.
+
+The name `Num` can be thought of as a _predicate_ or _constraint_ over types
+
+- Similar but different than [Java interfaces](https://www.parsonsmatt.org/2017/01/07/how_do_type_classes_differ_from_interfaces.html)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## Some types _are_ `Num`s
+
+Examples include `Integer`, `Double` etc
+
+- Any such values of those types can be passed to `+`.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Other types _are not_ `Num`s
+
+Examples include `Char`, `String`, functions etc,
+
+- Values of those types _cannot_ be passed to `+`.
+
+```haskell
+λ> True + False
+
+<interactive>:15:6:
+ No instance for (Num Bool) arising from a use of ‘+’
+ In the expression: True + False
+ In an equation for ‘it’: it = True + False
+```
+
+**Aha!** _Now_ those `no instance for` error messages should make sense!
+
+- Haskell is complaining that `True` and `False` are of type `Bool`
+- and that `Bool` is _not_ an instance of `Num`.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Type Class is a Set of Operations
+
+A type class is a collection of operations (functions)
+that must exist for the underlying type.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## The `Eq` Type Class
+
+The simplest type class is perhaps, `Eq`
+
+```haskell
+class Eq a where
+ (==) :: a -> a -> Bool
+ (/=) :: a -> a -> Bool
+```
+
+A type `a` is _an instance of_ `Eq` if there are two functions
+
+- `==` and `/=`
+
+That determine if two `a` values are respectively _equal_ or _disequal_.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The `Show` Type Class
+
+The type class `Show` requires that instances be convertible to `String`
+(which can then be printed out)
+
+```haskell
+class Show a where
+ show :: a -> String
+```
+
+Indeed, we can test this on different (built-in) types
+
+```haskell
+λ> show 2
+"2"
+
+λ> show 3.14
+"3.14"
+
+λ> show (1, "two", ([],[],[]))
+"(1,\"two\",([],[],[]))"
+```
+
+(Hey, whats up with the funny `\"`?)
+
+When we type an expression into ghci, it computes the value
+and then calls `show` on the result. Thus, if we create a
+*new* type by
+
+```haskell
+data Unshowable = A | B | C
+```
+
+and then create values of the type,
+
+```haskell
+λ> let x = A
+λ> :type x
+x :: Unshowable
+```
+
+but then we **cannot view** them
+
+```haskell
+λ> x
+
+<interactive>:1:0:
+ No instance for (Show Unshowable)
+ arising from a use of `print' at <interactive>:1:0
+ Possible fix: add an instance declaration for (Show Unshowable)
+ In a stmt of a 'do' expression: print it
+```
+
+and we **cannot compare** them!
+
+```haskell
+λ> x == x
+
+<interactive>:1:0:
+ No instance for (Eq Unshowable)
+ arising from a use of `==' at <interactive>:1:0-5
+ Possible fix: add an instance declaration for (Eq Unshowable)
+ In the expression: x == x
+ In the definition of `it': it = x == x
+```
+
+Again, the previously incomprehensible type error message should
+make sense to you.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Creating Instances
+
+Tell Haskell how to show or compare values of type `Unshowable`
+
+By **creating instances** of `Eq` and `Show` for that type:
+
+```haskell
+instance Eq Unshowable where
+ (==) A A = True -- True if both inputs are A
+ (==) B B = True -- ...or B
+ (==) C C = True -- .. or C
+ (==) _ _ = False -- otherwise
+
+ (/=) x y = not (x == y) -- Test if `x == y` and negate result!
+```
+
+**EXERCISE** Lets *create* an `instance` for `Show Unshowable`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Automatic Derivation
+
+This is silly: we _should_ be able to compare and view `Unshowble` "automatically"!
+
+Haskell lets us _automatically derive_ functions for some classes in the standard library.
+
+To do so, we simply dress up the data type definition with
+
+```haskell
+data Showable = A' | B' | C'
+ deriving (Eq, Show) -- tells Haskell to automatically generate instances
+```
+
+Now we have
+
+```haskell
+λ> let x' = A'
+
+λ> :type x'
+x' :: Showable
+
+λ> x'
+A'
+
+λ> x' == x'
+True
+
+λ> x' == B'
+False
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Standard Typeclass Hierarchy
+
+Let us now peruse the definition of the `Num` typeclass.
+
+```haskell
+λ> :info Num
+class (Eq a, Show a) => Num a where
+ (+) :: a -> a -> a
+ (*) :: a -> a -> a
+ (-) :: a -> a -> a
+ negate :: a -> a
+ abs :: a -> a
+ signum :: a -> a
+ fromInteger :: Integer -> a
+```
+
+A type `a` _is an instance of_ (i.e. _implements_) `Num` if
+
+1. The type is *also* an instance of `Eq` and `Show`, and
+2. There are functions for adding, multiplying, subtracting, negating
+ etc values of that type.
+
+In other words in addition to the "arithmetic" operations, we can
+compare two `Num` values and we can view them (as a `String`.)
+
+Haskell comes equipped with a rich set of built-in classes.
+
+
+
+In the above picture, there is an edge from `Eq` and `Show` to `Num`
+because for something to be a `Num` it must also be an `Eq` and `Show`.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## The `Ord` Typeclass
+
+Another typeclass you've used already is the one for `Ord`ering values:
+
+```haskell
+λ> :info (<)
+class Eq a => Ord a where
+ ...
+ (<) :: a -> a -> Bool
+ ...
+```
+
+For example:
+
+```haskell
+λ> 2 < 3
+True
+
+λ> "cat" < "dog"
+True
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Recall the datatype:
+
+```haskell
+data Showable = A' | B' | C' deriving (Eq, Show)
+```
+
+What is the result of:
+
+```haskell
+λ> A' < B'
+```
+
+**(A)** `True`
+**(B)** `False`
+**(C)** Type error
+**(D)** Run-time exception
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Using Typeclasses
+
+Typeclasses integrate with the rest of Haskell's type system.
+
+Lets build a small library for *Environments* mapping keys `k` to values `v`
+
+```haskell
+data Env k v
+ = Def v -- default value `v` to be used for "missing" keys
+ | Bind k v (Env k v) -- bind key `k` to the value `v`
+ deriving (Show)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## An API for `Env`
+
+Lets write a small API for `Env`
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> let env0 = add "cat" 10.0 (add "dog" 20.0 (Def 0))
+
+-- >>> get "cat" env0
+-- 10
+
+-- >>> get "dog" env0
+-- 20
+
+-- >>> get "horse" env0
+-- 0
+```
+
+Ok, lets implement!
+
+```haskell
+-- | 'add key val env' returns a new env that additionally maps `key` to `val`
+add :: k -> v -> Env k v -> Env k v
+add key val env = ???
+
+-- | 'get key env' returns the value of `key` and the "default" if no value is found
+
+get :: k -> Env k v -> v
+get key env = ???
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Oops, y u no check?
+
+## Constraint Propagation
+
+Lets _delete_ the types of `add` and `get` and see what Haskell says their types are!
+
+```haskell
+λ> :type get
+get :: (Eq k) => k -> v -> Env k v -> Env k v
+```
+
+Haskell tells us that we can use any `k` value as a *key*
+as long as the value is an instance of the `Eq` typeclass.
+
+How, did GHC figure this out?
+
+- If you look at the code for `get` you'll see that we check if two keys _are equal_!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## EXERCISE (Do at home)
+
+Write an *optimized* version of
+
+- `add` that ensures the keys are in _increasing_ order,
+- `get` that gives up and returns the "default" the moment
+ we see a key thats larger than the one we're looking for.
+
+_(How) do you need to change the type of `Env`?_
+
+_(How) do you need to change the types of `get` and `add`?_
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Explicit Signatures
+
+While Haskell is pretty good about inferring types in general, there are
+cases when the use of type classes requires explicit annotations (which
+change the behavior of the code.)
+
+For example, `Read` is a built-in typeclass, where any instance `a` of
+`Read` has a function
+
+```haskell
+read :: (Read a) => String -> a
+```
+
+which can parse a string and turn it into an `a`.
+
+That is, `Read` is the _opposite_ of `Show`.
+
+## Quiz
+
+What does the expression `read "2"` evaluate to?
+
+**(A)** compile time error
+
+**(B)** `"2" :: String`
+
+**(C)** `2 :: Integer`
+
+**(D)** `2.0 :: Double`
+
+**(E)** run-time exception
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Haskell is foxed!
+
+- Doesn't know _what type_ to convert the string to!
+- Doesn't know _which_ of the `read` functions to run!
+
+Did we want an `Int` or a `Double` or maybe something else altogether?
+
+Thus, here an **explicit type annotation** is needed to tell Haskell
+what to convert the string to:
+
+```haskell
+λ> (read "2") :: Int
+2
+
+λ> (read "2") :: Float
+2.0
+```
+
+Note the different results due to the different types.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Creating Typeclasses
+
+Typeclasses are useful for *many* different things.
+
+We will see some of those over the next few lectures.
+
+Lets conclude today's class with a quick example that provides a small taste.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## JSON
+
+*JavaScript Object Notation* or [JSON](http://www.json.org/) is a simple format for
+transferring data around. Here is an example:
+
+```json
+{ "name" : "Ranjit"
+, "age" : 41.0
+, "likes" : ["guacamole", "coffee", "bacon"]
+, "hates" : [ "waiting" , "grapefruit"]
+, "lunches" : [ {"day" : "monday", "loc" : "zanzibar"}
+ , {"day" : "tuesday", "loc" : "farmers market"}
+ , {"day" : "wednesday", "loc" : "harekrishna"}
+ , {"day" : "thursday", "loc" : "faculty club"}
+ , {"day" : "friday", "loc" : "coffee cart"} ]
+}
+```
+
+In brief, each JSON object is either
+
+- a *base* value like a string, a number or a boolean,
+
+- an (ordered) *array* of objects, or
+
+- a set of *string-object* pairs.
+
+## A JSON Datatype
+
+We can represent (a subset of) JSON values with the Haskell datatype
+
+```haskell
+data JVal
+ = JStr String
+ | JNum Double
+ | JBool Bool
+ | JObj [(String, JVal)]
+ | JArr [JVal]
+ deriving (Eq, Ord, Show)
+```
+
+Thus, the above JSON value would be represented by the `JVal`
+
+```haskell
+js1 =
+ JObj [("name", JStr "Ranjit")
+ ,("age", JNum 41.0)
+ ,("likes", JArr [ JStr "guacamole", JStr "coffee", JStr "bacon"])
+ ,("hates", JArr [ JStr "waiting" , JStr "grapefruit"])
+ ,("lunches", JArr [ JObj [("day", JStr "monday")
+ ,("loc", JStr "zanzibar")]
+ , JObj [("day", JStr "tuesday")
+ ,("loc", JStr "farmers market")]
+ , JObj [("day", JStr "wednesday")
+ ,("loc", JStr "hare krishna")]
+ , JObj [("day", JStr "thursday")
+ ,("loc", JStr "faculty club")]
+ , JObj [("day", JStr "friday")
+ ,("loc", JStr "coffee cart")]
+ ])
+ ]
+```
+
+## Serializing Haskell Values to JSON
+
+Lets write a small library to _serialize_ Haskell values as JSON.
+
+We could write a bunch of functions like
+
+```haskell
+doubleToJSON :: Double -> JVal
+doubleToJSON = JNum
+
+stringToJSON :: String -> JVal
+stringToJSON = JStr
+
+boolToJSON :: Bool -> JVal
+boolToJSON = JBool
+```
+
+## Serializing Collections
+
+But what about collections, namely _lists_ of things?
+
+```haskell
+doublesToJSON :: [Double] -> JVal
+doublesToJSON xs = JArr (map doubleToJSON xs)
+
+boolsToJSON :: [Bool] -> JVal
+boolsToJSON xs = JArr (map boolToJSON xs)
+
+stringsToJSON :: [String] -> JVal
+stringsToJSON xs = JArr (map stringToJSON xs)
+```
+
+This is **getting rather tedious**
+
+- We are rewriting the same code :(
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Serializing Collections (refactored with HOFs)
+
+You could abstract by making the *individual-element-converter* a parameter
+
+```haskell
+xsToJSON :: (a -> JVal) -> [a] -> JVal
+xsToJSON f xs = JArr (map f xs)
+
+xysToJSON :: (a -> JVal) -> [(String, a)] -> JVal
+xysToJSON f kvs = JObj [ (k, f v) | (k, v) <- kvs ]
+```
+
+But this is *still rather tedious** as you have to pass
+in the individual data converter (yuck)
+
+```haskell
+λ> doubleToJSON 4
+JNum 4.0
+
+λ> xsToJSON stringToJSON ["coffee", "guacamole", "bacon"]
+JArr [JStr "coffee",JStr "guacamole",JStr "bacon"]
+
+λ> xysToJSON stringToJSON [("day", "monday"), ("loc", "zanzibar")]
+JObj [("day",JStr "monday"),("loc",JStr "zanzibar")]
+```
+
+This gets more hideous when you have richer objects like
+
+```haskell
+lunches = [ [("day", "monday"), ("loc", "zanzibar")]
+ , [("day", "tuesday"), ("loc", "farmers market")]
+ ]
+```
+
+because we have to go through gymnastics like
+
+```haskell
+λ> xsToJSON (xysToJSON stringToJSON) lunches
+JArr [ JObj [("day",JStr "monday") ,("loc",JStr "zanzibar")]
+ , JObj [("day",JStr "tuesday") ,("loc",JStr "farmers market")]
+ ]
+```
+
+Yikes. So much for _readability_
+
+Is it too much to ask for a magical `toJSON` that _just works?_
+
+## Typeclasses To The Rescue
+
+Lets _define_ a typeclass that describes types `a` that can be converted to JSON.
+
+```haskell
+class JSON a where
+ toJSON :: a -> JVal
+```
+
+Now, just make all the above instances of `JSON` like so
+
+```haskell
+instance JSON Double where
+ toJSON = JNum
+
+instance JSON Bool where
+ toJSON = JBool
+
+instance JSON String where
+ toJSON = JStr
+```
+
+This lets us uniformly write
+
+```haskell
+λ> toJSON 4
+JNum 4.0
+
+λ> toJSON True
+JBool True
+
+λ> toJSON "guacamole"
+JStr "guacamole"
+```
+
+## Bootstrapping Instances
+
+The real fun begins when we get Haskell to automatically
+bootstrap the above functions to work for lists and key-value lists!
+
+```haskell
+instance JSON a => JSON [a] where
+ toJSON xs = JArr (map toJSON xs)
+```
+
+The above says, if `a` is an instance of `JSON`, that is,
+if you can convert `a` to `JVal` then here's a generic
+recipe to convert lists of `a` values!
+
+```haskell
+λ> toJSON [True, False, True]
+JArr [JBln True, JBln False, JBln True]
+
+λ> toJSON ["cat", "dog", "Mouse"]
+JArr [JStr "cat", JStr "dog", JStr "Mouse"]
+```
+
+or even lists-of-lists!
+
+```haskell
+λ> toJSON [["cat", "dog"], ["mouse", "rabbit"]]
+JArr [JArr [JStr "cat",JStr "dog"],JArr [JStr "mouse",JStr "rabbit"]]
+```
+
+We can pull the same trick with key-value lists
+
+```haskell
+instance (JSON a) => JSON [(String, a)] where
+ toJSON kvs = JObj [ (k, toJSON v) | (k, v) <- kvs ]
+```
+
+after which, we are all set!
+
+```haskell
+λ> toJSON lunches
+JArr [ JObj [ ("day",JStr "monday"), ("loc",JStr "zanzibar")]
+ , JObj [("day",JStr "tuesday"), ("loc",JStr "farmers market")]
+ ]
+```
+
+It is also useful to bootstrap the serialization for tuples (up to some
+fixed size) so we can easily write "non-uniform" JSON objects where keys
+are bound to values with different shapes.
+
+```haskell
+instance (JSON a, JSON b) => JSON ((String, a), (String, b)) where
+ toJSON ((k1, v1), (k2, v2)) =
+ JObj [(k1, toJSON v1), (k2, toJSON v2)]
+
+instance (JSON a, JSON b, JSON c) => JSON ((String, a), (String, b), (String, c)) where
+ toJSON ((k1, v1), (k2, v2), (k3, v3)) =
+ JObj [(k1, toJSON v1), (k2, toJSON v2), (k3, toJSON v3)]
+
+instance (JSON a, JSON b, JSON c, JSON d) => JSON ((String, a), (String, b), (String, c), (String,d)) where
+ toJSON ((k1, v1), (k2, v2), (k3, v3), (k4, v4)) =
+ JObj [(k1, toJSON v1), (k2, toJSON v2), (k3, toJSON v3), (k4, toJSON v4)]
+
+instance (JSON a, JSON b, JSON c, JSON d, JSON e) => JSON ((String, a), (String, b), (String, c), (String,d), (String, e)) where
+ toJSON ((k1, v1), (k2, v2), (k3, v3), (k4, v4), (k5, v5)) =
+ JObj [(k1, toJSON v1), (k2, toJSON v2), (k3, toJSON v3), (k4, toJSON v4), (k5, toJSON v5)]
+```
+
+Now, we can simply write
+
+```haskell
+hs = (("name" , "Ranjit")
+ ,("age" , 41.0)
+ ,("likes" , ["guacamole", "coffee", "bacon"])
+ ,("hates" , ["waiting", "grapefruit"])
+ ,("lunches", lunches)
+ )
+```
+
+which is a Haskell value that describes our running JSON example,
+and can convert it directly like so
+
+```haskell
+js2 = toJSON hs
+```
+
+## EXERCISE: Serializing Environments
+
+To wrap everything up, lets write a routine to serialize our `Env`
+
+```haskell
+instance JSON (Env k v) where
+ toJSON env = ???
+```
+
+and presto! our serializer *just works*
+
+```haskell
+λ> env0
+Bind "cat" 10.0 (Bind "dog" 20.0 (Def 0))
+
+λ> toJSON env0
+JObj [ ("cat", JNum 10.0)
+ , ("dog", JNum 20.0)
+ , ("def", JNum 0.0)
+ ]
+```
+
+Thats it for today.
+
+We will see much more type class awesomeness in the next few lectures...
diff --git a/lectures/07-types.md b/lectures/07-types.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e452c0e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/07-types.md
@@ -0,0 +1,1291 @@
+---
+title: Polymorphism and Type Inference
+date: 2018-05-21
+headerImg: books.jpg
+---
+
+## Plan for this week
+
+
+**Past two weeks:**
+
+How do we *implement* a tiny functional language?
+
+ 1. *Interpreter:* how do we *evaluate* a program given its AST?
+
+ 2. *Operational semantics:* formalizing the interpreter
+
+ 3. *Parser:* how do we convert strings to ASTs?
+
+**This week: adding types**
+
+How do we check statically if our programs "make sense"?
+
+ 1. *Type system:* formalizing the intuition about which expressions have which types
+
+ 2. *Type inference:* computing the type of an expression
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Reminder: Nano2
+
+```haskell
+e ::= n | x -- numbers, vars
+ | e1 + e2 -- arithmetic
+ | \x -> e -- abstraction
+ | e1 e2 -- application
+ | let x = e1 in e2 -- let binding
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Which one of these Nano2 programs is well-typed?
+
+**(A)** `(\x -> x) + 1`
+
+**(B)** `1 2`
+
+**(C)** `let f = \x -> x + 1 in f (\y -> y)`
+
+**(D)** `\x -> \y -> x y`
+
+**(E)** `\x -> x x`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* **D**. A adds a function; B applies a number; C defines `f` to take an `Int` and then passes in a function;
+ E requires a type `T` that is equal to `T -> T`, which doesn't exit.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Type system for Nano2
+
+A **type system** defines what types an expression can have
+
+To define a type system we need to define:
+
+ * the *syntax* of types: what do types look like?
+ * the *static semantics* of our language (i.e. the typing rules): assign types to expressions
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Type system: take 1
+
+Syntax of types:
+
+```haskell
+T ::= Int -- integers
+ | T1 -> T2 -- function types
+```
+
+<br>
+
+Now we want to define a *typing relation* `e :: T` (`e` has type `T`)
+
+<br>
+
+We define this relation *inductively* through a set of *typing rules*:
+
+```haskell
+[T-Num] n :: Int
+
+ e1 :: Int e2 :: Int -- premises
+[T-Add] ----------------------
+ e1 + e2 :: Int -- conclusion
+
+[T-Var] x :: ???
+```
+
+<br>
+
+What is the type of a variable?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+We have to remember what type of expression it was bound to!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Type Environment
+
+An expression has a type in a given **type environment** (also called **context**),
+which maps all its *free variables* to their *types*
+
+`G = x1:T1, x2:T2, ..., xn:Tn`
+
+<br>
+
+Our *typing relation* should include the context `G`:
+
+`G |- e :: T` (`e` has type `T` in context `G`)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Typing rules: take 2
+
+```haskell
+[T-Num] G |- n :: Int
+
+ G |- e1 :: Int G |- e2 :: Int
+[T-Add] -------------------------------
+ G |- e1 + e2 :: Int
+
+[T-Var] G |- x :: T if x:T in G
+
+ G, x:T1 |- e :: T2
+[T-Abs] ------------------------
+ G |- \x -> e :: T1 -> T2
+
+ G |- e1 :: T1 -> T2 G |- e2 :: T1
+[T-App] -----------------------------------
+ G |- e1 e2 :: T2
+
+ G |- e1 :: T1 G, x:T1 |- e2 :: T2
+[T-Let] ------------------------------------
+ G |- let x = e1 in e2 :: T2
+```
+<br>
+
+An expression `e` **has type** `T` in `G` if we can derive `G |- e :: T` using these rules
+
+An expression `e` is **well-typed** in `G` if we can derive `G |- e :: T` for some type `T`
+
+ - and **ill-typed** otherwise
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Examples
+
+**Example 1**:
+
+Let's derive: `[] |- (\x -> x) 2 :: Int`
+
+```haskell
+[T-Var] -------------------
+ [x:Int] |- x :: Int
+[T-Abs] ------------------- -------------- [T-Num]
+ [] |- \x -> x :: Int -> Int [] |- 2 :: Int
+[T-App] -----------------------------------------------
+ [] |- (\x -> x) 2 :: Int
+```
+
+But we *cannot* derive: `[] |- 1 2 :: T` for any type `T`
+
+ - Why?
+ - `T-App` only applies when LHS has a function type, but there's no rule to derive a function type for `1`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Example 2**:
+
+Let's derive: `[] |- let x = 1 in x + 2 :: Int`
+
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ ?
+ [?] -----------------------------------------------
+ [] |- let x = 1 in x + 2 :: Int
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ [T-Var]----------------- -----------------[T-Num]
+ x:Int |- x :: Int x:Int |- 2 :: Int
+ [T-Num] -------------- ------------------------------------[T-Add]
+ [] |- 1 :: Int x:Int |- x + 2 :: Int
+ [T-Let] -----------------------------------------------
+ [] |- let x = 1 in x + 2 :: Int
+ ```
+
+But we *cannot* derive: `[] |- let x = \y -> y in x + 2 :: T` for any type `T`
+
+(I) final
+
+ The `[T-Var]` rule above will fail to derive `x :: Int`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Example 3**:
+
+We cannot derive: `[] |- (\x -> x x) :: T` for any type `T`
+
+(I) final
+
+ We cannot find any type `T` to fill in for `x`, because it has to be equal to `T -> T`
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### A note about typing rules
+
+According to these rules, an expression can have *zero*, *one*, or *many* types
+
+ - examples?
+
+(I) final
+
+ `1 2` has no types; `1` has one type (`Int`)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+`\x -> x` has many types:
+
+ - we can derive `[] |- \x -> x :: Int -> Int`
+ - or `[] |- \x -> x :: (Int -> Int) -> (Int -> Int)`
+ - or `T -> T` for any concrete `T`
+
+<br>
+
+We would like every well-typed expression to have a single **most general** type!
+
+ - most general type = allows most uses
+ - infer type once and reuse later
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Is this program well-typed according to your intuition and according to our rules?
+
+```haskell
+let id = \x -> x in
+ let y = id 5 in
+ id (\z -> z + y)
+```
+
+**(A)** Me: okay, rules: okay
+
+**(B)** Me: okay, rules: nope
+
+**(C)** Me: nope, rules: okay
+
+**(D)** Me: nope, rules: nope
+
+<br>
+
+ (I) final
+
+ *Answer:* B
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Double identity
+
+```haskell
+let id = \x -> x in
+ let y = id 5 in
+ id (\z -> z + y)
+```
+
+Intuitively this program looks okay, but our type system *rejects* it:
+
+ * in the first application, `id` needs to have type `Int -> Int`
+ * in the second application, `id` needs to have type `(Int -> Int) -> (Int -> Int)`
+ * the type system forces us to pick *just one type* for each variable, such as `id` :(
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+What can we do?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Polymorphic types
+
+Intuitively, we can describe the type of `id` like this:
+
+ * it's a function type where
+ * the argument type can be any type `T`
+ * the return type is then also `T`
+
+<br>
+
+We formalize this intuition as a **polymorphic type**: `forall a . a -> a`
+
+ * where `a` is a (bound) type variable
+
+ * also called a **type scheme**
+
+ * Haskell also has polymorphic types, but you don't usually write `forall a.`
+
+<br>
+
+We can **instantiate** this scheme into different types by replacing `a` in the body with some type, e.g.
+
+ * instantiating with `Int` yields `Int -> Int`
+ * instantiating with `Int -> Int` yields `(Int -> Int) -> Int -> Int`
+ * etc.
+
+
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Inference with polymorphic types
+
+With polymorphic types, we can derive `e :: Int -> Int` where `e` is
+
+```haskell
+let id = \x -> x in
+ let y = id 5 in
+ id (\z -> z + y)
+```
+
+At a high level, inference works as follows:
+
+ 1. When we have to pick a type `T` for `x`, we pick a **fresh type variable** `a`
+
+ 2. So the type of `\x -> x` comes out as `a -> a`
+
+ 3. We can **generalize** this type to `forall a . a -> a`
+
+ 4. When we apply `id` the first time, we **instantiate** this polymorphic type with `Int`
+
+ 5. When we apply `id` the second time, we **instantiate** this polymorphic type with `Int -> Int`
+
+Let's formalize this intuition as a type system!
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Type system: take 3
+
+**Syntax of types**
+
+```haskell
+-- Mono-types
+T ::= Int -- integers
+ | T1 -> T2 -- function types
+ | a -- NEW: type variable
+
+-- NEW: Poly-types (type schemes)
+S ::= T -- mono-type
+ | forall a . S -- polymorphic type
+```
+
+where $a \in \mathrm{TVar}, T \in \mathrm{Type}, S \in \mathrm{Poly}$
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Type Environment**
+
+The type environment now maps variables to poly-types: `G : Var -> Poly`
+
+ * example, `G = [z: Int, id: forall a . a -> a]`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Type Substitutions**
+
+We need a mechanism for replacing all type variables in a type with another type
+
+A **type substitution** is a finite map from type variables to types: `U : TVar -> Type`
+
+ * example: `U1 = [a / Int, b / (c -> c)]`
+
+<br>
+
+To **apply** a substitution `U` to a type `T` means replace all type vars in `T` with whatever they are mapped to in `U`
+
+ * example 1: `U1 (a -> a) = Int -> Int`
+ * example 2: `U1 Int = Int`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the result of the following substitution application?
+
+```haskell
+[a / Int, b / c -> c] (b -> d -> b)
+```
+
+
+**(A)** `c -> d -> c`
+
+**(B)** `(c -> c) -> d -> (c -> c)`
+
+**(C)** Error: no mapping for type variable `d`
+
+**(D)** Error: type variable `a` is unused
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* B
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Typing rules
+
+We need to change the typing rules so that:
+
+ 1. Variables (and their definitions) can have polymorphic types
+
+```haskell
+[T-Var] G |- x :: S if x:S in G
+
+ G |- e1 :: S G, x:S |- e2 :: T
+[T-Let] ------------------------------------
+ G |- let x = e1 in e2 :: T
+```
+
+ 2. We can *instantiate* a type scheme into a type
+
+```haskell
+ G |- e :: forall a . S
+[T-Inst] ----------------------
+ G |- e :: [a / T] S
+```
+
+ 3. We can *generalize* a type with free type variables into a type scheme
+
+```haskell
+ G |- e :: S
+[T-Gen] ---------------------- if not (a in FTV(G))
+ G |- e :: forall a . S
+```
+
+The rest of the rules are the same:
+
+```haskell
+[T-Num] G |- n :: Int
+
+ G |- e1 :: Int G |- e2 :: Int
+[T-Add] -------------------------------
+ G |- e1 + e2 :: Int
+
+ G, x:T1 |- e :: T2
+[T-Abs] ------------------------
+ G |- \x -> e :: T1 -> T2
+
+ G |- e1 :: T1 -> T2 G |- e2 :: T1
+[T-App] -----------------------------------
+ G |- e1 e2 :: T2
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Examples
+
+**Example 1**
+
+Let's derive: `[] |- \x -> x :: forall a . a -> a`
+
+```haskell
+[T-Var] ---------------
+ [x:a] |- x :: a
+[T-Abs] -----------------------
+ [] |- \x -> x :: a -> a
+[T-Gen] ----------------------------------- not (a in FTV([]))
+ [] |- \x -> x :: forall a . a -> a
+```
+
+<br>
+
+Can we derive: `[x:a] |- x :: forall a . a `?
+
+(I) final
+
+ No! The side condition of `[T-Gen]` is violated because `a` **is present** in the context!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Example 2**
+
+Let's derive: `G1 |- id 5 :: Int` where `G1 = [id : (forall a . a -> a)]`:
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ ?
+ [?] ----------------
+ G1 |- id 5 :: Int
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ [T-Var]-------------------------
+ G1 |- id :: forall a.a -> a
+ [T-Inst]------------------------ --------------[T-Num]
+ G1 |- id :: Int -> Int G1 |- 5 :: Int
+ [T-App] ---------------------------------------
+ G1 |- id 5 :: Int
+ ```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Example 3**
+
+Finally, we can derive:
+
+```haskell
+(let id = \x -> x in
+ let y = id 5 in
+ id (\z -> z + y)) :: Int -> Int
+```
+
+```haskell
+ easy
+ [T-Var]-------------------------- ------------------ [Add]
+ G2 |- id::forall a.a -> a G3 |- z + y :: Int
+[T-Inst]------------------------------ -------------------------[T-Abs]
+ G2 |- id::(Int->Int)->Int->Int G2 |- \z -> z+y :: Int->Int
+ | |
+ example 2 | |
+ ----------------- ----------------------------------[T-App]
+ G1 |- id 5 :: Int G2 |- id (\z -> z+y) :: Int -> Int
+ [T-Let] ------------------------------------------------------
+ G1 |- let y = id 5 in ... :: Int -> Int
+ |
+ example 1 |
+[T-Abs] -------------------------------- |
+ [] |- \x -> x :: forall a.a -> a |
+[T-Let] -------------------------------------------------------------
+ [] |- let id = \x -> x in ... :: Int -> Int
+```
+
+where
+
+ * `G1 = [id : (forall a . a -> a)]`
+ * `G2 = [y : Int, id : (forall a . a -> a)]`
+ * `G3 = [z : Int, y : Int, id : (forall a . a -> a)]`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Type inference algorithm
+
+Our ultimate goal is to implement a Haskell function `infer` which
+
+ * given a context `G` and an expression `e`
+ * returns a type `T` such that `G |- e :: T`
+ * *or* reports a type error if `e` is ill-typed in `G`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Representing types
+
+First, let's define a Haskell datatype to represent Nano2 types:
+
+```haskell
+data Type
+ = TInt -- Int
+ | Type :=> Type -- T1 -> T2
+ | TVar TVar -- a, b, c
+
+data Poly = Mono Type
+ | Forall TVar Poly
+
+type TVar = String
+type TEnv = [(Id, Poly)] -- type environment
+type Subst = [(TVar, Type)] -- type substitution
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Inference: main idea
+
+Let's implement `infer` like this:
+
+ 1. Depending on what kind of expression `e` is, find a typing rule that applies to it
+
+ 2. If the rule has premises, recursively call `infer` to obtain the types of sub-expressions
+
+ 3. Combine the types of sub-expression according to the conclusion of the rule
+
+ 4. If no rule applies, report a type error
+
+<br>
+
+```haskell
+-- | This is not the final version!!!
+infer :: TypeEnv -> Expr -> Type
+infer _ (ENum _) = TInt
+infer tEnv (EVar var) = lookup var tEnv
+infer tEnv (EAdd e1 e2) =
+ if t1 == TInt && t2 == TInt
+ then return TInt
+ else throw "type error: + expects Int operands"
+ where
+ t1 = infer tEnv e1
+ t2 = infer tEnv e2
+...
+```
+
+<br>
+
+This doesn't quite work (for other cases). Why?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Inference: tricky bits
+
+The trouble is that our typing rules are *nondeterministic*!
+
+ * When building derivations, sometimes we had to *guess* how to proceed
+
+**Problem 1:** Guessing a type
+
+```haskell
+ -- oh, now we know!
+[T-Var]----------------
+ [x:?] |- x: Int [x:?] |- 1 :: Int
+[T-Add]----------------------------
+ [x:?] |- x + 1 :: ?? -- what should "?" be?
+[T-Abs]------------------------------
+ [] |- (\x -> x + 1) :: ? -> ??
+```
+
+So, if we want to implement
+
+```haskell
+infer tEnv (ELam x e) = tX :=> tBody
+ where
+ tEnv' = extendTEnv x tX tEnv
+ tX = ??? -- what do we put here?
+ tBody = infer tEnv' e
+...
+```
+
+<br>
+
+**Problem 2:** Guessing when to generalize
+
+In the derivation for
+
+```haskell
+(let id = \x -> x in
+ let y = id 5 in
+ id (\z -> z + y)) :: Int -> Int
+```
+
+we had to *guess* that the type of `id` should be generalized into `forall a . a -> a`
+
+<br>
+
+Let's deal with problem 1 first
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Constraint-based type inference
+
+```haskell
+ -- oh, now we know!
+[T-Var]----------------
+ [x:?] |- x: Int [x:?] |- 1 :: Int
+[T-Add]----------------------------
+ [x:?] |- x + 1 :: ?? -- what should "?" be?
+[T-Abs]------------------------------
+ [] |- (\x -> x + 1) :: ? -> ??
+```
+
+
+**Main idea:**
+
+1. Whenever you need to "guess" a type, don't.
+
+ * just return a **fresh** type variable
+
+ * *fresh* = not used anywhere else in the program
+
+2. Whenever a rule *imposes a constraint* on a type (i.e. says it should have certain form):
+
+ * try to find the right *substitution* for the free type vars to satisfy the constraint
+
+ * this step is called **unification**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Example
+
+Let's infer the type of `\x -> x + 1`:
+
+```haskell
+-- TEnv Expression Step Subst Inferred type
+
+1 [] \x -> x + 1 [T-Abs] []
+2 [x:a0] x + 1 [T-Add]
+3 x [T-Var] a0
+4 x + 1 unify a0 Int [a0/Int]
+5 [x:Int] 1 [T-Num] Int
+6 x + 1 unify Int Int
+7 x + 1 Int
+8 [] \x -> x + 1 Int -> Int
+```
+
+<br>
+
+1. Infer the type of `(\x -> x + 1)` in `[]` (apply `[T-Abs]`)
+
+2. For the type of `x`, pick *fresh type variable* (say, `a0`);
+ infer the type of `x + 1` in `[x:a0]` (apply `[T-Add]`)
+
+3. Infer the type of `x` in `[x:a0]` (apply `[T-Var]`); result: `a0`
+
+4. `[T-Add]` *imposes a constraint*: its LHS must be of type `Int`,
+ so *unify* `a0` and `Int` and update the *current substitution* to `[a0 / Int]`
+
+5. *Apply* the current substitution `[a0/Int]` to the type environment `[x:a0]` to get `[x:Int]`.
+ Infer the type of `1` in `[x:Int]` (apply `[T-Num]`); result: `Int`
+
+6. `[T-Add]` *imposes a constraint*: its RHS must be of type `Int`,
+ so *unify* `Int` and `Int`; current substitution doesn't change
+
+7. By conclusion of `[T-Add]`: return `Int` as the inferred type
+
+8. By conclusion of `[T-Lam]`: return `Int -> Int` as the inferred type
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Unification
+
+The **unification** problem: given two types `T1` and `T2`,
+find a type substitution `U` such that `U T1 = U T2`.
+
+Such a substitution is called a *unifier* of `T1` and `T2`
+
+**Examples:**
+
+The unifier of:
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```haskell
+ a and Int is [a / Int]
+
+ a -> a and Int -> Int is [a / Int]
+
+ a -> Int and Int -> b is ???
+
+ Int and Int is ???
+
+ a and a is ???
+
+ Int and Int -> Int is ???
+
+ Int and a -> a is ???
+
+ a and a -> a is ???
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```haskell
+ a and Int is [a / Int]
+
+ a -> a and Int -> Int is [a / Int]
+
+ a -> Int and Int -> b is [a / Int, b / Int]
+
+ Int and Int is []
+
+ a and a is []
+
+ Int and Int -> Int cannot unify!
+
+ Int and a -> a cannot unify!
+
+ a and a -> a cannot unify!
+ ```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the unifier of the following two types?
+
+```
+1. a -> Int -> Int
+2. b -> c
+```
+
+**(A)** Cannot unify
+
+**(B)** `[a / Int, b / Int -> Int, c / Int]`
+
+**(C)** `[a / Int, b / Int, c / Int -> Int]`
+
+**(D)** `[b / a, c / Int -> Int]`
+
+**(E)** `[a / b, c / Int -> Int]`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+(C), (D) and (E) are all unifiers!
+
+But somehow (D) and (E) are *better* than (C)
+
+ * they make the *least commitment* required to make these types equal
+
+ * this is called **the most general unifier**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Infer: take 2
+
+Let's add constraint-based typing to `infer`!
+
+```haskell
+-- | Now has to keep track of current substitution!
+infer :: Subst -> TypeEnv -> Expr -> (Subst, Type)
+infer sub _ (ENum _) = (sub, TInt)
+infer sub tEnv (EVar var) = (sub, lookup var tEnv)
+
+-- Lambda case: simply generate fresh type variable!
+infer sub tEnv (ELam x e) = (sub1, tX' :=> tBody)
+ where
+ tEnv' = extendTEnv x tX tEnv
+ tX = freshTV -- we'll get to this
+ (sub1, tBody) = infer sub tEnv' e
+ tX' = apply sub1 tX
+
+-- Add case: recursively infer types of operands
+-- and enforce constraint that they are both Int
+infer sub tEnv (EAdd e1 e2) = (sub4, TInt)
+ where
+ (sub1, t1) = infer sub tEnv e1 -- 1. infer type of e1
+ sub2 = unify sub1 t1 Int -- 2. enforce constraint: t1 is Int
+ tEnv' = apply sub2 tEnv -- 3. apply substitution to context
+ (sub3, t2) = infer sub2 tEnv' e2 -- 4. infer type of e2 in new ctx
+ sub4 = unify sub3 t2 Int -- 5. enforce constraint: t2 is Int
+```
+
+<br>
+
+Why are all these steps necessary? Can't we just return `(sub, TInt)`?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Which of these programs will type-check if we skip step 3?
+
+```haskell
+infer sub tEnv (EAdd e1 e2) = (sub4, TInt)
+ where
+ (sub1, t1) = infer sub tEnv e1 -- 1. infer type of e1
+ sub2 = unify sub1 t1 Int -- 2. enforce constraint: t1 is Int
+ tEnv' = apply sub2 tEnv -- 3. apply substitution to context
+ (sub3, t2) = infer sub2 tEnv' e2 -- 4. infer type of e2 in new ctx
+ sub4 = unify sub3 t2 Int -- 5. enforce constraint: t2 is Int
+```
+
+**(A)** `1 2 + 3`
+
+**(B)** `1 + 2 3`
+
+**(C)** `(\x -> x) + 1`
+
+**(D)** `1 + (\x -> x)`
+
+**(E)** `\x -> x + x 5`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* E. A fails in step 1 (LHS is ill-typed); B fails in step 4 (RHS is ill-typed);
+ C fails in step 2 (LHS is not `Int`); D fails in step 5 (RHS is not `Int`);
+ finally, E fails because LHS and RHS by themselves are fine, but not together!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Fresh type variables
+
+```haskell
+-- | Now has to keep track of current substitution!
+infer :: Subst -> TypeEnv -> Expr -> (Subst, Type)
+
+-- Lambda case: simply generate fresh type variable!
+infer tEnv (ELam x e) = tX :=> tBody
+ where
+ tEnv' = extendTEnv x tX tEnv
+ tX = freshTV -- how do we do this?
+ tBody = infer tEnv' e
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Intended behavior:
+
+ * First time we call `freshTV` it returns `a0`
+ * Second time it returns `a1`
+ * Third time it returns `a2`
+ * .. and so on
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Can we do that in Haskell?
+
+(I) final
+
+ No, Haskell is pure. Have to thread the counter through :(
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Polymorphism: the final frontier
+
+Back to double identity:
+
+```haskell
+let id = \x -> x in -- Must generalize the type of id
+ let y = id 5 in -- Instantiate with Int
+ id (\z -> z + y) -- Instantiate with (Int -> Int)
+```
+
+<br>
+
+ * When should we to generalize a type like `a -> a` into a polymorphic type like `forall a . a -> a`?
+
+ * When should we instantiate a polymorphic type like `forall a . a -> a` and with what?
+
+<br>
+
+
+**Generalization and instantiation:**
+
+ * Whenever we infer a type for a let-defined variable, generalize it!
+
+ * it's safe to do so, even when not strictly necessary
+
+ * Whenever we see a variable with a polymorphic type, instantiate it
+
+ * with what type?
+
+ * well, what do we use when we don't know what type to use?
+
+ * *fresh type variables!*
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Example
+
+Let's infer the type of `let id = \x -> x in id 5`:
+
+```haskell
+-- TEnv Expression Step Subst Type
+
+1 [] let id=\x->x in id 5 [T-Let] []
+2 \x->x [T-Abs]
+3 [x:a0] x [T-Var] a0
+4 \x->x a0 -> a0
+5 [] let id=\x->x in id 5 generalize a0
+6 tEnv id 5 [T-App]
+7 id [T-Var]
+8 id instantiate a1 -> a1
+9 5 [T-Num] Int
+10 id 5 unify (a1->a1)
+ (Int->a2) [a1/Int,a2/Int]
+10 id 5 Int
+11 [] let id=\x->x in id 5 Int
+```
+
+Here `tEnv = [id : forall a0.a0->a0]`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Infer: take 3
+
+Let's add polymorphism to `infer`!
+
+```haskell
+infer :: Subst -> TypeEnv -> Expr -> (Subst, Type)
+
+-- Variable case: add instantiation!
+infer sub tEnv (EVar var) = (sub, t)
+ where
+ t = instantiate (lookup var tEnv)
+
+-- Let case: add generalization!
+infer sub tEnv (ELet x e1 e2) = infer sub1 tEnv2 e2
+ where
+ (sub1, t1) = infer sub tEnv e1 -- 1. infer type of e1
+ tEnv1 = apply sub1 tEnv -- 2. apply substitution to context
+ s1 = generalize tEnv1 t1 -- 3. generalize
+ tEnv2 = extendTEnv x s1 tEnv1 -- 4. add x to context
+```
+
+**Note:** this version still doesn't properly handle
+
+ * generating fresh type variables
+ * recursive definitions
+
+You'll have to do that in the homework!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## What we learned this week
+
+**Type system:** a set of rules about which expressions have which types
+
+**Type environment (or context):** a mapping of variables to their types
+
+**Polymorphic type:** a type parameterized with type variables that can be instantiated with any concrete type
+
+**Type substitution:** a mapping of type variables to types;
+ you can **apply** a substitution to a type by replacing all its variables with their values in the substitution
+
+**Unifier** of two types: a substitution that makes them equal;
+ **unification** is the process of finding a unifier
+
+**Type inference:** an algorithm to determine the type of an expression
+
+**Constraint-based type inference:** a type inference technique that uses fresh type variables and unification
+
+**Generalization:** turning a mono-type with free type variables into a polymorphic type (by binding its variables with a `forall`)
+
+**Instantiation:** turning a polymorphic type into a mono-type by substituting type variables in its body with some types
+
+
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+That's all folks
+
diff --git a/lectures/08-monads.md b/lectures/08-monads.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..915762c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/08-monads.md
@@ -0,0 +1,521 @@
+---
+title: Monads
+date: 2019-06-5
+headerImg: books.jpg
+---
+
+## Abstracting Code Patterns
+
+a.k.a. **Don't Repeat Yourself**
+
+### Lists
+
+```haskell
+data List a
+ = []
+ | (:) a (List a)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Rendering the Values of a List
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> incList [1, 2, 3]
+-- ["1", "2", "3"]
+
+showList :: [Int] -> [String]
+showList [] = []
+showList (n:ns) = show n : showList ns
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Squaring the values of a list
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> sqrList [1, 2, 3]
+-- 1, 4, 9
+
+sqrList :: [Int] -> [Int]
+sqrList [] = []
+sqrList (n:ns) = n^2 : sqrList ns
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Common Pattern: `map` over a list
+
+Refactor iteration into `mapList`
+
+```haskell
+mapList :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]
+mapList f [] = []
+mapList f (x:xs) = f x : mapList f xs
+```
+
+Reuse `map` to implement `inc` and `sqr`
+
+```haskell
+showList xs = map (\n -> show n) xs
+
+sqrList xs = map (\n -> n ^ 2) xs
+```
+
+### Trees
+
+```haskell
+data Tree a
+ = Leaf
+ | Node a (Tree a) (Tree a)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Incrementing and Squaring the Values of a Tree
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> showTree (Node 2 (Node 1 Leaf Leaf) (Node 3 Leaf Leaf))
+-- (Node "2" (Node "1" Leaf Leaf) (Node "3" Leaf Leaf))
+
+showTree :: Tree Int -> Tree String
+showTree Leaf = ???
+showTree (Node v l r) = ???
+
+-- >>> sqrTree (Node 2 (Node 1 Leaf Leaf) (Node 3 Leaf Leaf))
+-- (Node 4 (Node 1 Leaf Leaf) (Node 9 Leaf Leaf))
+
+sqrTree :: Tree Int -> Tree Int
+sqrTree Leaf = ???
+sqrTree (Node v l r) = ???
+```
+
+### QUIZ: `map` over a Tree
+
+Refactor iteration into `mapTree`! What should the type of `mapTree` be?
+
+```haskell
+mapTree :: ???
+
+showTree t = mapTree (\n -> show n) t
+sqrTree t = mapTree (\n -> n ^ 2) t
+
+{- A -} (Int -> Int) -> Tree Int -> Tree Int
+{- B -} (Int -> String) -> Tree Int -> Tree String
+{- C -} (Int -> a) -> Tree Int -> Tree a
+{- D -} (a -> a) -> Tree a -> Tree a
+{- E -} (a -> b) -> Tree a -> Tree b
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Lets write `mapTree`
+
+```haskell
+mapTree :: (a -> b) -> Tree a -> Tree b
+mapTree f Leaf = ???
+mapTree f (Node v l r) = ???
+```
+
+### QUIZ
+
+Wait ... there is a common pattern across two _datatypes_
+
+```haskell
+mapList :: (a -> b) -> List a -> List b -- List
+mapTree :: (a -> b) -> Tree a -> Tree b -- Tree
+```
+
+Lets make a `class` for it!
+
+```haskell
+class Mappable t where
+ map :: ???
+```
+
+What type should we give to `map`?
+
+```haskell
+{- A -} (b -> a) -> t b -> t a
+{- B -} (a -> a) -> t a -> t a
+{- C -} (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]
+{- D -} (a -> b) -> t a -> t b
+{- E -} (a -> b) -> Tree a -> Tree b
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Reuse Iteration Across Types
+
+Haskell's libraries use the name `Functor` instead of `Mappable`
+
+```haskell
+instance Functor [] where
+ fmap = mapList
+
+instance Functor Tree where
+ fmap = mapTree
+```
+
+And now we can do
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> fmap (\n -> n + 1) (Node 2 (Node 1 Leaf Leaf) (Node 3 Leaf Leaf))
+-- (Node 4 (Node 1 Leaf Leaf) (Node 9 Leaf Leaf))
+
+-- >>> fmap show [1,2,3]
+-- ["1", "2", "3"]
+```
+
+### Exercise: Write a `Functor` instance for `Result`
+
+```haskell
+data Result a
+ = Error String
+ | Ok a
+
+instance Functor Result where
+ fmap f (Error msg) = ???
+ fmap f (Ok val) = ???
+```
+
+When you're done you should see
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> fmap (\n -> n ^ 2) (Node 2 (Node 1 Leaf Leaf) (Node 3 Leaf Leaf))
+-- (Node 4 (Node 1 Leaf Leaf) (Node 9 Leaf Leaf))
+
+-- >>> fmap (\n -> n ^ 2) (Error "oh no")
+-- Error "oh no"
+
+-- >>> fmap (\n -> n ^ 2) (Ok 9)
+-- Ok 81
+```
+
+## Next: A Class for Sequencing
+
+Recall our old `Expr` datatype
+
+```haskell
+data Expr
+ = Number Int
+ | Plus Expr Expr
+ | Div Expr Expr
+ deriving (Show)
+
+eval :: Expr -> Int
+eval (Number n) = n
+eval (Plus e1 e2) = eval e1 + eval e2
+eval (Div e1 e2) = eval e1 `div` eval e2
+
+-- >>> eval (Div (Number 6) (Number 2))
+-- 3
+```
+
+### But, what is the result
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> eval (Div (Number 6) (Number 0))
+-- *** Exception: divide by zero
+```
+
+A crash! Lets look at an alternative approach to avoid dividing by zero.
+
+The idea is to return a `Result Int` (instead of a plain `Int`)
+
+- If a _sub-expression_ had a divide by zero, return `Error "..."`
+- If all sub-expressions were safe, then return the actual `Result v`
+
+```haskell
+eval :: Expr -> Result Int
+eval (Number n) = Value n
+eval (Plus e1 e2) = case e1 of
+ Error err1 -> Error err1
+ Value v1 -> case e2 of
+ Error err2 -> Error err2
+ Value v1 -> Result (v1 + v2)
+eval (Div e1 e2) = case e1 of
+ Error err1 -> Error err1
+ Value v1 -> case e2 of
+ Error err2 -> Error err2
+ Value v1 -> if v2 == 0
+ then Error ("yikes dbz:" ++ show e2)
+ else Value (v1 `div` v2)
+```
+
+The **good news**, no nasty exceptions, just a plain `Error` result
+
+```haskell
+λ> eval (Div (Number 6) (Number 2))
+Value 3
+λ> eval (Div (Number 6) (Number 0))
+Error "yikes dbz:Number 0"
+λ> eval (Div (Number 6) (Plus (Number 2) (Number (-2))))
+Error "yikes dbz:Plus (Number 2) (Number (-2))"
+```
+
+The **bad news**: the code is super duper **gross**
+
+## Lets spot a Pattern
+
+The code is gross because we have these cascading blocks
+
+```haskell
+case e1 of
+ Error err1 -> Error err1
+ Value v1 -> case e2 of
+ Error err2 -> Error err2
+ Value v1 -> Result (v1 + v2)
+```
+
+but really both blocks have something **common pattern**
+
+```haskell
+case e of
+ Error err -> Error err
+ Value v -> {- do stuff with v -}
+```
+
+1. Evaluate `e`
+2. If the result is an `Error` then _return_ that error.
+3. If the result is a `Value v` then _do further processing_ on `v`.
+
+Lets **bottle** that common structure in two functions:
+
+- `>>=` (pronounced _bind_)
+- `return` (pronounced _return_)
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=20%}
+
+```haskell
+(>>=) :: Result a -> (a -> Result b) -> Result b
+(Error err) >>= _ = Error err
+(Value v) >>= process = process v
+
+return :: a -> Result a
+return v = Value v
+```
+
+**NOTE:** `return` is _not_ a keyword; it is just the name of a function!
+
+## A Cleaned up Evaluator
+
+The magic bottle lets us clean up our `eval`
+
+```haskell
+eval :: Expr -> Result Int
+eval (Number n) = return n
+eval (Plus e1 e2) = eval e1 >>= \v1 ->
+ eval e2 >>= \v2 ->
+ return (v1 + v2)
+eval (Div e1 e2) = eval e1 >>= \v1 ->
+ eval e2 >>= \v2 ->
+ if v2 == 0
+ then Error ("yikes dbz:" ++ show e2)
+ else return (v1 `div` v2)
+```
+
+**The gross _pattern matching_ is all hidden inside `>>=`**
+
+Notice the `>>=` takes *two* inputs of type:
+
+- `Result Int` (e.g. `eval e1` or `eval e2`)
+- `Int -> Result Int` (e.g. The _processing_ function that takes the `v` and does stuff with it)
+
+In the above, the processing functions are written using `\v1 -> ...` and `\v2 -> ...`
+
+**NOTE:** It is _crucial_ that you understand what the code above
+is doing, and why it is actually just a "shorter" version of the
+(gross) nested-case-of `eval`.
+
+## A Class for `>>=`
+
+Like `fmap` or `show` or `jval` or `==`, or `<=`,
+the `>>=` operator is useful across **many** types!
+
+Lets capture it in an interface/typeclass:
+
+```haskell
+class Monad m where
+ (>>=) :: m a -> (a -> m b) -> m b
+ return :: a -> m a
+```
+
+Notice how the definitions for `Result` fit the above, with `m = Result`
+
+```haskell
+instance Monad Result where
+ (>>=) :: Either a -> (a -> Either b) -> Either b
+ (Error err) >>= _ = Error err
+ (Value v) >>= process = process v
+
+ return :: a -> Result a
+ return v = Value v
+```
+
+## Syntax for `>>=`
+
+In fact `>>=` is *so* useful there is special syntax for it.
+
+Instead of writing
+
+```haskell
+e1 >>= \v1 ->
+ e2 >>= \v2 ->
+ e3 >>= \v3 ->
+ e
+```
+
+you can write
+
+```haskell
+do v1 <- e1
+ v2 <- e2
+ v3 <- e3
+ e
+...
+```
+
+Thus, we can further simplify our `eval` to:
+
+```haskell
+eval :: Expr -> Result Int
+eval (Number n) = return n
+eval (Plus e1 e2) = do v1 <- eval e1
+ v2 <- eval e2
+ return (v1 + v2)
+eval (Div e1 e2) = do v1 <- eval e1
+ v2 <- eval e2
+ if v2 == 0
+ then Error ("yikes dbz:" ++ show e2)
+ else return (v1 `div` v2)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Generalizing `Result` to *Many* Values
+
+We can generalize `Result` to "many" values, using `List`
+
+```haskell
+data Result a = Err String | Result a
+data List a = Nil | Cons a (List a)
+```
+
+- The `Err` is like `[]` except it has a message too,
+- The `tail` of type `(List a)` lets us hold *many* possible `a` values
+
+We can now make a `Monad` instance for lists as
+
+```haskell
+instance Monad [] where
+ return = returnList
+ (>>=) = bindList
+
+returnList :: a -> [a]
+returnList x = [x]
+
+bindList :: [a] -> (a -> [b]) -> [b]
+bindList [] f = []
+bindList (x:xs) f = f x ++ bindList xs f
+```
+
+Notice `bindList xs f` is like a `for-loop`:
+
+- **for each** `x` in `xs` we call,
+- `f x` to get the results
+- and concatenate _all_ the results
+
+so,
+
+```haskell
+bindList [x1,x2,x3,...,xn] f ==>
+ f x1 ++ f x2 ++ f x3 ++ ... ++ f xn
+```
+
+This has some fun consequences!
+
+```haskell
+silly xs = do
+ x <- xs
+ return (x * 10)
+```
+
+produces the result
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> silly [1,2,3]
+-- [10,20,30]
+```
+
+and
+
+```haskell
+foo xs ys = do
+ x <- xs
+ y <- ys
+ return (x, y)
+```
+
+produces the result
+
+```haskell
+-- >>> foo ["1", "2", "red", "blue"] ["fish"]
+-- [("1","fish"),("2","fish"),("red","fish"),("blue","fish")]
+```
+
+behaves like Python's
+
+```python
+for x in xs:
+ for y in ys:
+ yield (x, y)
+```
+
+## EXERCISE
+
+Fill in the blanks to implement `mMap` (i.e. `map` using monads)
+
+```haskell
+mMap :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]
+mMap f xs = do
+ _fixme
+```
+
+## EXERCISE
+
+Fill in the blanks to implement `mFilter` (i.e. `filter` using monads)
+
+```haskell
+mFilter :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]
+mFilter f xs = do
+ _fixme
+```
+
diff --git a/lectures/08-prolog.md b/lectures/08-prolog.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0690a07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/08-prolog.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2883 @@
+---
+title: Logic Programming
+headerImg: sea.jpg
+---
+
+## Logic Programming
+
+**Imperative/functional programming**
+
+- Program = Algorithm + Data Structures
+
+- Execute
+
+**Logic programming**
+
+- Program = Facts + Rules
+
+- Query
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Example
+
+**Collection of Facts**
+
+- Carnitas is Mexican
+- `isMexican(carnitas).`
+
+**Collection of Rules**
+
+- All Mexican food is delicious
+- `isDelicious(X) :- isMexican(X).`
+
+**Query**
+
+- Hey Prolog! What is a delicious food ?
+- `?- isDelicious(Y)`
+
+**Answer**
+
+- Carnitas!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+You don't "run" a Prolog program, you *ask it questions*!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Why Prolog?
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Prolog History
+
+1970s: developed for *Artificial Intelligence*
+
+ - original vision "expert systems"
+
+Out came the whole field of **declarative programming**:
+
+ - Specify *what* you want
+
+ - Not *how* to obtain result
+
+ - Ideal for searching large space of results
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Declarative Programming: Example
+
+Flight search: Orbitz / Expedia / etc.
+
+**Collection of Facts**
+
+- Airports, Flights, Times, Durations, Costs
+
+**Collection of Rules**
+
+- *If* travel from `A` to `B` with price (`P1`) *AND* `B` to `C` with price (`P2`)
+- *then* travel from `A` to `C` with price (`P1 + P2`)
+
+**Queries**
+
+- What is cheapest flight from SAN to JFK with duration < 6 Hrs ?
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Declarative Programming: Applications
+
+Used heavily in many domains (together with statistical methods)
+
+- Scheduling
+
+ - travel, sports, ...
+
+- Rule-based Anomaly detection
+
+ - Credit card fraud
+
+- SQL (and similar DB Query Languages)
+
+Many of these are inspired-by or are subsets of Prolog
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Why Prolog?
+
+<br>
+
+Most importantly:
+
+yet another **new** way to think about programming!
+
+<br>
+
+(Remember the goal of this class: open your mind)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Plan
+
+Language
+
+1. Terms
+2. Facts
+3. Queries
+ - implementation: unification
+4. Rules
+5. Programs
+ - implementation: backtracking search
+
+Programming
+
+- Numeric Computation
+- Data Structures
+- Puzzle Solving
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Language: Terms
+
+Prolog Program
+
+- Facts
+- Rules
+- Queries
+
+... **about what** ? Terms!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Syntax of Prolog terms:
+
+```haskell
+t ::= n -- number: 1, 92, 4.4
+ | a -- atom
+ | X -- variable
+ | a (t1, t2, ..) -- compound term
+```
+
+where
+
+* `a` is an identifier that starts with a lower-case letter
+* `X` is an identifier that starts with an upper-case letter
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+### Prolog Terms: Atoms
+
+**Atom:** any identifier starting with *lower*-case
+
+**Examples:** `x`, `alice`, `taco`, `giraffe`, `appleSauce`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Prolog knows *NOTHING* about the atoms, except that:
+
+ - Each atom is *equal to* itself
+ - `alice = alice`
+ - `taco = taco`
+
+ - Each atem is *disequal to* every other atom
+ - `alice = taco` *never* holds
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+You can think of atoms as constructors of a single mega *enum* type:
+
+- `data Atom = x | alice | taco | giraffe | appleSauce | ...`
+- except that in Haskell, constructors start with upper case :(
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Prolog Terms: Variables
+
+**Variable:** any identifier starting with *upper*-case
+
+- **Examples:** `X`, `Y`, `Z`, `Head`, `Tail`, `Taco`, `Burrito`, `Alice`, `Bob`
+
+- `_` is the *wildcard* variable, similar to Haskell
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+A variable *stands for* (and can be *substituted with*) any term:
+
+ - `alice = taco` *never* holds
+ - but `X = taco` holds is we replace `[X = taco]`
+ - what about `Alice = taco`?
+
+(I) final
+
+ `Alice = taco` holds with `[Alice = taco]`
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Prolog Terms: Compound Terms
+
+**Compound** terms are of the form
+
+`a (t1, t2, t3, ..)`
+
+where
+
+ - `a` is a lower-case string (a *function symbol*)
+ - each `ti` is a term (an argument to the function symbol)
+
+
+**Examples:**
+
+```prolog
+x(y, z) % y, z are atoms
+parent(alice, bob) % alice, bob are atoms
+parent(alice, Child) % alice is an atom, Child is a variable
+```
+
+
+You can think of compound terms as trees:
+
+<img src="../static/img/prolog_tree1.png" width=400 align="middle"/>
+
+They are not function calls!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Prolog terms: Haskell representation
+
+If we were *implementing* a Prolog interpreter in Haskell,
+we would *represent* terms like so:
+
+```haskell
+data Term
+ = Num Int
+ | Atom LId
+ | Var UId
+ | Compound LId [Term]
+
+type LId = String -- lower-case
+type UId = String -- upper-case
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+```haskell
+data Term
+ = Num Int
+ | Atom LId
+ | Var UId
+ | Compound LId [Term]
+```
+
+What *Haskell* value of type `Term` represents *Prolog* term
+`parent(alice, Bob)` ?
+
+**A.** `parent ("alice", "Bob")`
+
+**B.** `parent (Atom "alice") (Var "Bob")`
+
+**C.** `[Atom "parent", Atom "alice", Var "Bob"]`
+
+**D.** `Compound "parent" [Atom "alice", Var "Bob"]`
+
+**E.** `Compound (Atom "parent") [Atom "alice", Var "Bob"]`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* D
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+```haskell
+data Term
+ = Num Int
+ | Atom LId
+ | Var UId
+ | Compound LId [Term]
+```
+
+What *Haskell* value of type `Term` represents *Prolog* term
+`factorial(5)` ?
+
+**A.** `factorial(5)`
+
+**B.** `factorial(Atom 5)`
+
+**C.** `120`
+
+**D.** `Num 120`
+
+**E.** `Compound "factorial" [Num 5]`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* E
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Prolog Terms
+
+Prolog term `factorial(5)` is simply the tree
+
+<img src="../static/img/prolog_tree3.png" width=200 align="middle"/>
+
+Prolog has **no idea** what `factorial` is (it's just a name)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Plan
+
+Language
+
+1. ~~Terms~~
+2. **Facts**
+3. Queries
+4. Rules
+5. Programs
+
+Programming
+
+- Numeric Computation
+- Data Structures
+- Puzzle Solving
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Language: Facts
+
+A **fact** is a "boolean" term (typically without variables) followed by `.`
+
+
+**Examples:**
+
+The following facts specify a list of *parent-child* relationships:
+
+```prolog
+parent(kim, holly).
+parent(margaret, kim).
+parent(herbert, margaret).
+parent(john, kim).
+parent(felix, john).
+parent(albert, felix).
+parent(albert, dana).
+parent(felix, maya).
+```
+
+```
+ albert
+ | |
+herbert felix dana
+ | | |
+ margaret john maya
+ | |
+ kim
+ |
+ holly
+```
+
+Here:
+
+ * `kim`, `holly`, `margaret` etc. are all atoms
+ * `parent` is a **predicate** (i.e. a boolean function symbol)
+ * ... of **arity** 2 (i.e. takes two arguments)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Predicates have *no meaning* to Prolog, but
+the programmer *mentally notes* that:
+
+ * `parent(kim, holly)` **means** `kim` is a "parent-of" `holly`
+ * `parent(margaret, kim)` **means** `margaret` is a "parent-of" `kim`
+ * etc.
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Database of facts
+
+Prolog maintains a database (collection) of facts
+
+Suppose we have a collection of facts saved in [intro.pl](/static/raw/intro.pl)
+
+You can **load** the facts into the Prolog interpreter
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- consult('intro.pl').
+true.
+~~~~~
+
+... or you can **add** them one-at-a-time
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- assert(parent(margaret, kim)).
+~~~~~
+
+Once facts are loaded, you **query** Prolog
+
+ * "Hey Prolog! Is this new fact **in** your Database ... or can it be **inferred** from your database?"
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Plan
+
+Language
+
+1. ~~Terms~~
+2. ~~Facts~~
+3. **Queries** (Implementation: Unification)
+4. Rules
+5. Programs (Implementation: Backtracking Search)
+
+Programming
+
+- Numeric Computation
+- Data Structures
+- Puzzle Solving
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Language: Query
+
+A **query** is a boolean term (possibly with variables),
+which we type into a prompt
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Example 1:**
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- parent(margaret, kim).
+~~~~~
+
+Prolog replies:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+true.
+~~~~~
+
+- As this was indeed one of the facts loaded in [intro](/static/raw/intro.pl)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Example 2:**
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- parent(margaret, john).
+~~~~~
+
+What does Prolog reply? Why?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+The meaning of the query is "Is this fact **provable**"?
+
+So the answer is: "No"
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+Pfft. Big deal? Is Prolog just a table lookup?!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Queries With Variables
+
+What should Prolog reply to this query?
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- parent(margaret, X).
+~~~~~
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Meaning:**
+
+"Hey Prolog, for **which value(s)** of `X` is the fact **provable**"?
+
+**Prolog replies:**
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+X = kim.
+~~~~~
+
+- Because it can *plug-in* `kim` for `X`,
+- and then can infer `parent(margaret, kim)` from the facts
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## More examples
+
+**Example 3:**
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- parent(X, kim).
+~~~~~
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ Meaning: ???
+
+(I) final
+
+ Meaning: Who is the parent of `kim`?
+
+<br>
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ Prolog replies: ???
+
+(I) final
+
+ Prolog replies: `X = margaret; X = john.`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Example 4:**
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- parent(X, Y).
+~~~~~
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ Meaning: ???
+
+(I) final
+
+ Meaning: What are all parent-child pairs in our database?
+
+<br>
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ Prolog replies: ???
+
+(I) final
+
+ Prolog replies: `X = holly, Y = kim; X = kim, Y = margaret; ...`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## QUIZ
+
+How do we ask Prolog the following query:
+
+> Does there exist **any** person who is their **own parent** ?
+
+**A.** `parent(kim, kim)`
+
+**B.** `parent(x, x)`
+
+**C.** `parent(X, X)`
+
+**D.** `parent(X, Y)`
+
+**E.** `parent(Y, X)`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* C
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## More examples
+
+**Example 4:**
+
+How do we ask Prolog:
+
+> Does there exist **any** person who has more than one child?
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```prolog
+ parent(X,Y), parent(Y,Z), Y \= Z
+ ```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Queries work like magic
+
+In Java/C#/Haskell you would need
+
+- Some `parentOf` or `childOf` data structure / methods
+ - to represent parent-child relationship
+
+- Some looping or iteration
+ - to search through all pairs
+
+- Instead, Prolog uses *facts* and *queries*
+ - to search *forwards* and *backwards*
+ - to enumerate all results
+ - in a single uniform *declarative* manner!
+
+<br>
+
+How?
+
+<br>
+
+**Magic** = **Unification** + **Backtracking Search**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Plan
+
+Language
+
+1. ~~Terms~~
+2. ~~Facts~~
+3. Queries
+ - implementation: **unification**
+4. Rules
+5. Programs
+ - implementation: backtracking search
+
+Programming
+
+- Numeric Computation
+- Data Structures
+- Puzzle Solving
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Unification
+
+When does one term *match* (= *unify with*) another?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+A term **unifies with** another term
+when we can *substitute* values for their *variables* to make them *identical*
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Unification is the computational heart of Prolog
+
+<br>
+
+When you write
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- term1 = term2.
+~~~~~
+
+you are asking whether `term1` *can be unified with* `term2`.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Unification By Example
+
+(I) lecture
+
+ ```prolog
+ ?- kim = kim.
+ true.
+ % atom is identical to itself!
+
+ ?- kim = holly.
+ false.
+ % different atoms are never identical
+
+ ?- foo(kim) = foo(kim).
+ true.
+ % compound term: recursively unify subtrees
+
+ ?- foo(kim) = foo(holly).
+ ???
+
+ ?- X = kim.
+ X = kim.
+ % X can be made identical to kim if we substitute [X = kim]
+
+ ?- X = foo(kim).
+ ???
+
+ ?- foo(X) = foo(kim).
+ ???
+
+ ?- X = Y.
+ ???
+ ```
+
+(I) final
+
+ ```prolog
+ ?- kim = kim.
+ true.
+ % atom is identical to itself!
+
+ ?- kim = holly.
+ false.
+ % different atoms are never identical
+
+ ?- foo(kim) = foo(kim).
+ true.
+ % compound term: recursively unify subtrees
+
+ ?- foo(kim) = foo(holly).
+ false.
+
+ ?- X = kim.
+ X = kim.
+ % X can be made identical to kim if we substitute [X = kim]
+
+ ?- X = foo(kim).
+ X = foo(kim).
+
+ ?- foo(X) = foo(kim).
+ X = kim.
+ % compound term: recursively unify subtrees
+
+ ?- X = Y.
+ X = Y.
+ ```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+How does Prolog respond to the following query?
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- p(X, dog) = p(cat, Y).
+~~~~~
+
+**A.** `false`
+
+**B.** `X = cat, Y = cat.`
+
+**C.** `X = dog, Y = dog.`
+
+**D.** `X = dog, Y = cat.`
+
+**E.** `X = cat, Y = dog.`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* E
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+How does Prolog respond to the following query?
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- p(X, dog, X) = p(cat, Y, Y).
+~~~~~
+
+**A.** `false`
+
+**B.** `X = cat, Y = cat.`
+
+**C.** `X = dog, Y = dog.`
+
+**D.** `X = dog, Y = cat.`
+
+**E.** `X = cat, Y = dog.`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* A
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Unification step-by-step
+
+Let's see how Prolog reasons about this query:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- p(X, dog, X) = p(cat, Y, Y).
+~~~~~
+
+Two compound terms: function symbols match, so recursively unify arguments...
+
+<img src="../static/img/prolog_unify_1.png" width=500 align="middle"/>
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+To unify `X` and `cat`, extend the current *substitution* with `X = cat`...
+
+<img src="../static/img/prolog_unify_2.png" width=500 align="middle"/>
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Apply substitution `[X = cat]` to both terms. Move on to next leaf...
+
+<img src="../static/img/prolog_unify_3.png" width=500 align="middle"/>
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+To unify `dog` and `Y`, extend the current *substitution* with `Y = dog`...
+
+<img src="../static/img/prolog_unify_4.png" width=500 align="middle"/>
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+... and apply this substitution throughout *both* terms.
+
+<img src="../static/img/prolog_unify_6.png" width=500 align="middle"/>
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Uh oh! Now we have different atoms in the last leaf! **Unification fails.**
+
+<img src="../static/img/prolog_unify_7.png" width=500 align="middle"/>
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Unification in Prolog vs Nano?
+
+It's the same thing, except!
+
+| Unification in Nano | Unification in Prolog |
+| ---------------------------- | --------------------- |
+| on two *types* | on two *terms* |
+| is a pain to implement | is built-in |
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+So, if we implemented Nano type inference in Prolog instead of Haskell,
+we wouldn't have to implement `unify`, we could just use `=`!
+
+```prolog
+?- int = int.
+true.
+
+?- int = bool.
+false.
+
+?- funT(int,A) = funT(B,bool).
+A = bool, B = int.
+
+?- A = funT(A,A).
+???
+```
+
+(I) final
+
+ By default, Prolog doesn't perform the occurs check for efficiency reason, so it answers `A = funT(A,A)`.
+ You can enable it with `set_prolog_flag(occurs_check, true).`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Unification for answering queries
+
+What happens when we ask
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- parent(margaret, X).
+~~~~~
+
+- Prolog goes through the list of *facts* in its database
+
+- *For each fact*, checking if it can be *unified* with the query
+
+ - If unification *fails* it moves on to the next fact
+
+ - If unification *succeeds* it returns *the unifier* (the unifying substitution)
+
+ - if the unifier is empty, it just replies `true`
+
+- If unification fails for each fact, it relies `false`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**More examples**
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- parent(X, kim).
+~~~~~
+
+This query has multiple solutions!
+
+ - Once the first solution is found, we can ask Prolog to keep going through the facts
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- parent(X, Y).
+~~~~~
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Plan
+
+Language
+
+1. ~~Terms~~
+2. ~~Facts~~
+3. ~~Queries~~
+ - implementation: unification
+4. **Rules**
+5. Programs
+ - implementation: backtracking search
+
+Programming
+
+- Numeric Computation
+- Data Structures
+- Puzzle Solving
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Complex queries
+
+How do we determine if `margaret` is the *grandparent* of `holly`?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+We use a **conjunction** (comma-separated sequence of terms):
+
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- parent(margaret, X), parent(X, holly).
+~~~~~
+
+Is there a person `X` who is a child of `margaret` **AND** a parent of `holly` ?
+
+**Note:** how we link the terms with the same variable to capture relationships.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+How do we determine who is the *great-grandparent* of `holly`?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- parent(GGP, GP), parent(GP,P), parent(P, holly).
+~~~~~
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Which of these queries returns all pairs `X`, `Y` of (half-) **siblings**?
+
+**A.** `parent(X, Y), X \= Y.`
+
+**B.** `parent(X, Z), parent(Z, Y), X \= Y.`
+
+**C.** `parent(X, Z), parent(Y, Z), X \= Y.`
+
+**D.** `parent(Z, X), parent(Z, Y), X \= Y.`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* D
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Complex queries
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- parent(GGP, GP), parent(GP,P), parent(P, holly).
+~~~~~
+
+This is getting a tad repetitive!
+
+What do we do in other languages to avoid repeating ourselves?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Abstract things into functions!
+
+In Prolog, they are called **rules**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Rules
+
+Rules let us build *complex predicates* from *queries*
+
+<br>
+
+**Syntax:**
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+t :- t1, t1, t2,...
+~~~~~
+
+- `t` is called the **head** of the rule
+- `t1, t2, t3,...` is called the **body** of the rule
+- all `t, t1, t2, t3,...` are predicate applications
+
+<br>
+
+**Intuition:**
+
+To prove the head `t`, you must prove all sub-goals `t1` **AND** `t2` **AND** `t3` ...
+
+<br>
+
+**Example:**
+
+We can build a new (complex) predicate `grandparent` from `parent` predicates:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+grandparent(GP, GC) :- parent(GP, P), parent(P, GC).
+~~~~~
+
+`GP` is a *grandparent* of `GC` if `GP` is a *parent* of `P` **and** `P` is a *parent* of `GC`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Now we can use the new predicate in a query:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- grandparent(X, kim). % who are the grandparents of kim
+X = herbert ; % hit ; to see next
+X = felix ; % hit ; to see next
+false. % thats it!
+~~~~~
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Why? Because Prolog can prove the sub-goals:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- parent(herbert, P), parent(P, kim). % Solution 1. X = herbert
+P = margaret.
+
+?- parent(felix, P), parent(P, kim). % Solution 2. X = felix
+P = john .
+~~~~~
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Which of the following is a valid `greatgrandparent` predicate?
+
+**A.** `greatgrandparent(X, Y) :- parent(X, Y), grandparent(X, Y).`
+
+**B.** `greatgrandparent(X, Y) :- parent(X, Z), grandparent(Z, Y).`
+
+**C.** `greatgrandparent(X, Y) :- grandparent(X, Z), parent(Z, Y).`
+
+**D.** `greatgrandparent(X, Y) :- parent(X, Z), parent(Z, Y).`
+
+**E.** `greatgrandparent(X, Y) :- parent(X, Z1), parent(Z1, Z2), parent(Z2, Y).`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* B, C, or D
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Rules: complex predicates from queries
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+greatgrandparent(GGP, GC) :- parent(GGP, GP), grandparent(GP, GC).
+~~~~~
+
+That was your first Prolog program!
+
+Let's take it out for a spin!
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- greatgrandparent(X, holly).
+X = herbert ;
+X = felix ;
+false.
+~~~~~
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Plan
+
+Language
+
+1. ~~Terms~~
+2. ~~Facts~~
+3. ~~Queries~~
+ - ~~implementation: unification~~
+4. ~~Rules~~
+5. **Programs**
+ - implementation: backtracking search
+
+Programming
+
+- Numeric Computation
+- Data Structures
+- Puzzle Solving
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Prolog Programs
+
+A **program** is a collection of *facts* and *rules*
+
+Facts and Rules are two kinds of **clauses**:
+
+- **Fact:** clause **without** any conditions
+
+- **Rule:** clause **with** conditions
+
+ - used to derive new facts
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Program structure
+
+How do combine multiple rules into a program?
+
+1. Scope
+
+2. Disjunction
+
+3. Recursion
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Scope
+
+In the `grandparent` rule, the variable `GP` appears *twice*:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+greatgrandparent(GGP, GC) :- parent(GGP, GP), grandparent(GP, GC).
+~~~~~
+
+Is it the same `GP`?
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Yes*
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Below we use `X` in *both* rules:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+isDelicious(X) :- isMexican(X).
+isVegetarian(X) :- isVegan(X).
+~~~~~
+
+Is is the same `X`?
+
+(I) final
+
+ *No*
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+In Prolog, the **scope** of a variable is the *single* rule where it appears.
+
+There is *no connection* between variables *across* rules.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Program structure
+
+How do combine multiple rules into a program?
+
+1. Scope
+
+2. **Disjunction**
+
+3. Recursion
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Complex Predicates: Disjunction
+
+Lets write a predicate `has_family` which is true for persons who
+
+- **either** have a parent
+
+- **or** have a child
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+has_family(X) :- parent(X, _). % if X is the parent of some _
+has_family(X) :- parent(_, X). % if X is the child of some _
+~~~~~
+
+`_` is a *wildcard* or *dont-care* variable (as in Haskell)
+
+<br>
+
+**Intuition:**
+
+- *If* we can prove `parent(X, _)` *then* we can prove `has_family(X)`
+
+- *And also*: *if* we can prove `parent(_, X)` *then* we can prove `has_family(X)`
+
+<br>
+
+**Running the program:**
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- has_family(holly).
+true. % Second rule fires for holly
+
+?- has_family(sansa).
+false. % Neither rule fires for sansa
+~~~~~
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Complex Predicates: Disjunction
+
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+has_family(X) :- parent(X, _). % if X is the parent of some _
+has_family(X) :- parent(_, X). % if X is the child of some _
+~~~~~
+
+Can be abbreviated to
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+has_family(X) :- parent(X, _) ; parent(_, X).
+~~~~~
+
+Semicolon `;` indicates disjunction.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Program structure
+
+How do combine multiple rules into a program?
+
+1. Scope
+
+2. Disjunction
+
+3. **Recursion**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Recursion
+
+Lets write a predicate `ancestor(A, X)` which is true if
+
+- `parent(A, X)` ... **or**
+
+- `parent(A, P)` and `parent(P, X)` ... **or**
+
+- `parent(A, GP)` and `parent(GP, P)` and `parent(P, X)` ... **or**
+
+- ... if **some** chain of parent-links holds between `A` and `X`.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+`A` is an ancestor of `X` if:
+
+ - *Base case:* `A` is a parent of `X`
+
+ `ancestor(A, X) :- parent(A, X).`
+
+ - *Inductive case:* `A` is an ancestor of `X`'s parent
+
+ `ancestor(A, X) :- parent(P, X), ancestor(A, P).`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+To sum up:
+
+```prolog
+ancestor(A, X) :- parent(A, X).
+ancestor(A, X) :- parent(P, X), ancestor(A, P).
+```
+
+What can we do with this predicate?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+We can find *descendants* (forwards)
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- ancestor(kim, X).
+X = holly.
+~~~~~
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+We can find *ancestors* (backwards)
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- ancestor(X,kim).
+X = margaret ;
+X = john ;
+X = herbert ;
+X = felix ;
+X = albert .
+~~~~~
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+Pretty neat: search forward or back, in just two lines!
+
+ - Try doing that in any other language!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Plan
+
+Language
+
+1. ~~Terms~~
+2. ~~Facts~~
+3. ~~Queries~~
+ - ~~implementation: unification~~
+4. ~~Rules~~
+5. Programs
+ - implementation: **backtracking search**
+
+Programming
+
+- Numeric Computation
+- Data Structures
+- Puzzle Solving
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Backtracking Search
+
+How does Prolog answer recursive queries?
+
+- Brute force *backtracking search*
+
+View each clause as a **proof rule**:
+
+```prolog
+goal :- subgoal_1, subgoal_2, ...
+goal :- subgoal_3, subgoal_4, ...
+...
+```
+
+To prove `goal`, try to:
+
+1. Prove `subgoal_1` **and then** prove `subgoal_2` etc, or, **failing that**,
+2. Prove `subgoal_3` **and then** prove `subgoal_4`, etc, or, **failing that**...
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Example:**
+
+```prolog
+ancestor(A,X) :- parent(A,X).
+ancestor(A,X) :- parent(P,X), ancestor(A,P).
+```
+
+To prove `ancestor(A,X)`, try to:
+
+1. Prove `parent(A,X)`, or, **failing that**,
+2. Prove `parent(P,X)`, **and then** prove `ancestor(A,P)`.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Suppose we ask it the query:
+
+```prolog
+?- ancestor(felix,holly).
+```
+
+To prove this query, it undertakes the following backtracking search:
+
+```prolog
+ ancestor(felix,holly)?
+ / \
+parent(felix,holly) parent(P0,holly)
+ NO ancestor(felix,P0)
+ |
+ ------------------
+ |
+ | P0=kim (by fact)
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,kim)
+ / \
+ parent(felix,kim) parent(P1,kim)
+ NO ancestor(felix,P1)
+ | |
+ P1 = margaret | | P1 = john
+ | |
+ ancestor(felix,margaret) ancestor(felix,john)
+ / \ |
+parent(felix,margaret) parent(P2,margaret) parent(felix,john)
+ NO ancestor(felix,P2) YES
+ |
+ P2 = herbert |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix, herbert)
+ / |
+ parent(felix,herbert) parent(P3,herbert)
+ NO NO
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**NOTE:** Prolog introduces a fresh `P` variable (`P1, P2, P3...`)
+every time the second rule for `ancestor` is triggered
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**HINT:** Trace mode in Prolog shows the search tree!
+
+```prolog
+?- trace.
+?- ancestor(felix,holly).
+```
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Queries with Variables
+
+*Backtracking Search* is done for **every** query.
+
+```prolog
+ ?- ancestor(X,kim).
+```
+
+- Prolog does the proof search
+- Returns **all** unifiers for `X` for which the proof succeeds with `YES`.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Order matters
+
+Order of clauses & terms influences unification & backtracking.
+
+For each
+
+- **goal** different clauses are selected in order
+- **clause** subgoals are solved (and unified!) *from left-to-right*
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Which alternative definitions of `ancestor` are correct?
+
+```prolog
+% A
+ancestor(A,X) :- parent(P,X), ancestor(A,P).
+ancestor(A,X) :- parent(A,X).
+
+% B
+ancestor(A,X) :- parent(A,X).
+ancestor(A,X) :- ancestor(A,P), parent(P,X).
+
+% C
+ancestor(A,X) :- ancestor(A,P), parent(P,X).
+ancestor(A,X) :- parent(A,X).
+
+% D: All of the above
+
+% E: None of the above
+```
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* A is correct, but less efficient. B and C loop forever
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Bad orders
+
+A bad order of sub-goals of in a recursive rule can cause **non-termination**
+
+If we define:
+
+```prolog
+ancestor(A,X) :- ancestor(A,P), parent(P,X).
+ancestor(A,X) :- parent(A,X).
+```
+
+The following query doesn't terminate:
+
+```prolog
+?- ancestor(felix,holly).
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Why? The search tree looks like this now!
+
+```prolog
+ ancestor(felix,holly)?
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,P0) %prove first subgoal,
+ | %then parent(P,holly)
+ |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,P1) %prove first subgoal,
+ | %then parent(P1,P0)
+ |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,P2)
+ .
+ .
+ .
+```
+
+**To avoid infinite recursion:**
+
+- Always place the base-case subgoal *first* in a recursive rule
+
+- Then unification with the base facts *fixes* the variable `P`
+
+- Thereby guaranteeing termination
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the best definition of `sibling`?
+
+- where `sibling(X, Y)` if `X` and `Y` share a parent.
+
+```prolog
+% A
+sibling(X, Y) :- parent(P, X), parent(P, Y).
+
+% B
+sibling(X, Y) :- parent(P, X), parent(P, Y), not(X = Y).
+
+% C
+sibling(X, Y) :- not(X = Y), parent(P, X), parent(P, Y).
+```
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* B
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Ordering and Unification
+
+Remember: `=` means *unification*!
+
+So, `X = Y` *always holds*:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- X = Y.
+X = Y
+~~~~~
+
+Hence, `not(X=Y)` (which is the same as `X \= Y`) *always fails*!
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- not(X = Y).
+false.
+~~~~~
+
+So, if we define:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+sibling(X, Y) :- not(X = Y), parent(P, X), parent(P, Y).
+~~~~~
+
+Then `sibling(X,Y)` (with variables for inputs) always fails!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Solution**
+
+Always ensure the sub-goal `not(X=Y)` fires *after* `X` and `Y` have been fully instantiated:
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+sibling(X, Y) :- parent(P, X), parent(P, Y), not(X = Y).
+~~~~~
+
+and now we get:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+ ?- sibling(X,Y).
+ X = john
+ Y = maya ;
+
+ X = felix
+ Y = dana ;
+
+ X = dana
+ Y = felix ;
+
+ X = maya
+ Y = john ;
+ No
+~~~~~
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Plan
+
+~~Language~~
+
+**Programming**
+
+- **Numeric Computation**
+- Data Structures
+- Puzzle Solving
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Numeric Computation
+
+Two big problems:
+
+1. How do we even *evaluate*? e.g. `2 + 3` ?
+
+2. How do we write *functions*? e.g. `add x y = x + y`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Problem 1: How to Evaluate?
+
+Everything is a *term* and `=` is a *unification* operator:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- X = 2 + 3.
+X = 2 + 3
+~~~~~
+
+But to "compute" we need to be able to *evaluate* `2 + 3` to `5`!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Prolog has a magic operator called `is` that *evaluates* its second argument:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- X is 2 + 3.
+X = 5.
+~~~~~
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+To solve the goal `t1 is t2`, Prolog:
+
+1. **evaluates** `t2` and _then_
+2. **unifies** result with `t1`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+All variables in `t2` must be instantiated *before* evaluation!
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+% Not good:
+?- Y is X+2, X=1.
+ERROR: Args are not sufficiently instantiated
+
+% This is okay:
+?- X=1, Y is X+2.
+X=1
+Y=3
+~~~~~
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Problem 2: How to Write Functions?
+
+In Prolog we can define *predicates* using *clauses* (facts and rules)
+
+Can we represent a *function definition* like
+
+```haskell
+add x y = x + y
+```
+
+using predicates and clauses?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+Which of the following represents `add x y = x + y`?
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+% A
+addP(X, Y) :- Z is X + Y.
+
+% B
+addP(X, Y, Z) :- Z is X + Y.
+
+% C
+addP(X, Y, X + Y).
+
+% D
+addP(X, Y) :- X + Y.
+
+% E
+addP(X, Y, Z) :- X + Y is Z.
+~~~~~
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* B
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Functions as Predicates
+
+Every **function** of the form:
+
+```haskell
+foo x y = Res
+```
+
+corresponds to a **predicate** of the form:
+
+```prolog
+fooP(X, Y, Res).
+```
+
+i.e. a predicate that is `True` for those triples `(X, Y, Res)` s.t.
+the function `foo X Y` evaluated to `Res`
+
+The predicate captures the **input-output relation** of the function.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+### Example: Fibonacci
+
+Recall the definition of Fibonacci numbers in Haskell:
+
+```haskell
+fib :: Int -> Int
+fib 0 = 1
+fib 1 = 1
+fib n = fib (n - 1) + fib (n -2)
+```
+
+<br>
+
+Lets write a Prolog predicate capturing the IO relationship of `fib`:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+fib(N, Res)
+~~~~~
+
+holds only when `Res` is the `N-th` Fibonacci number.
+
+When we are done, we can **call** the function with a query:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- fib(0, Res).
+Res = 1
+
+?- fib(5, Res).
+Res = 8
+~~~~~
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+What is the correct Prolog implementation of factorial?
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+% A
+fact(1,1).
+fact(N,R) :- N1 is N-1, fact(N1,R1), R is N*R1.
+
+% B
+fact(N,1) :- N < 2.
+fact(N,R) :- N1 is N-1, fact(N1,R1), R is N*R1.
+
+% C
+fact(N,1) :- N < 2.
+fact(N,R) :- 1 < N, N1 is N-1, fact(N1,R1), R is N*R1.
+
+% D
+fact(N,R) :- 1 < N, N1 is N-1, fact(N1,R1), R is N*R1.
+fact(N,1) :- N < 2.
+~~~~~
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* C and D both fine (order of clauses doesn't matter with mutually exclusive guards!)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Plan
+
+~~Language~~
+
+**Programming**
+
+- ~~Numeric Computation~~
+- **Data Structures**
+- Puzzle Solving
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Lists
+
+Prolog has built-in syntax for lists
+
+```prolog
+?- [H|T] = [1,2,3].
+H = 1,
+T = [2,3].
+```
+
+<br>
+
+Feels a lot like Haskell pattern matching
+
+ * no wonder: pattern matching **is** unification!
+
+<br>
+
+Unlike Haskell, can mix `,` and `|`:
+
+```prolog
+?- [X,Y|T] = [1,2,3].
+X = 1,
+Y = 2,
+T = [3].
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Head and tail
+
+We have to write them as predicates:
+
+```prolog
+headOf([H|_],H).
+
+tailOf([_|T],T).
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## QUIZ
+
+How do we write a predicate `hasThreeOrMore` that satisfies the following test cases:
+
+```prolog
+?-hasThreeOrMore([]).
+false.
+?-hasThreeOrMore([1,two]).
+false.
+?-hasThreeOrMore([1,two,dog]).
+true.
+?-hasThreeOrMore([1,two,dog,taco]).
+true.
+```
+
+**A.** `hasThreeOrMore([_|_]).`
+
+**B.** `hasThreeOrMore([_,_|_]).`
+
+**C.** `hasThreeOrMore([_,_,_|_]).`
+
+**D.** `hasThreeOrMore([_,_,_,_|_]).`
+
+**E.** `hasThreeOrMore([_,_,_]).`
+
+<br>
+
+(I) final
+
+ *Answer:* C
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Recursive functions on lists
+
+**Example 1:** `isIn`
+
+Let's write the Prolog equivalent of the following Haskell function:
+
+```haskell
+isIn :: a -> [a] -> Bool
+isIn _ [] = False
+isIn x (y:ys) = x == y || isIn x ys
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```prolog
+isIn(X,[X|_]).
+isIn(X,[_|T]) :- isIn(X,T).
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Example 2:** `sum`
+
+Let's write the Prolog equivalent of the following Haskell function:
+
+```haskell
+sum :: [Int] -> Int
+sum [] = 0
+sum (x:xs) = x + sum xs
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```prolog
+sum([],0).
+sum([H|T],R) :- sum(T,R1), R is R1 + H.
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+**Example 3:** `append`
+
+Let's write the Prolog equivalent of the following Haskell function:
+
+```haskell
+append :: [a] -> [a] -> [a]
+append [] ys = ys
+append (x:xs) ys = x:(append xs ys)
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+```prolog
+append([],Ys,Ys).
+append([H|T],Ys,[H|R]) :- append(T,Ys,R).
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Unlike in Haskell, Prolog's append is **magical!**
+
+```prolog
+?- append(Xs,Ys,[1,2,3,4]).
+Xs = [], Ys = [1,2,3,4] ;
+Xs = [1], Ys = [2,3,4] ;
+Xs = [1,2], Ys = [3,4] ;
+Xs = [1,2,3], Ys = [4] ;
+Xs = [1,2,3,4], Ys = [] .
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Prolog has a built-in library of list functions, including `append`, `reverse`, etc
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Plan
+
+~~Language~~
+
+**Programming**
+
+- ~~Numeric Computation~~
+- ~~Data Structures~~
+- Puzzle Solving
+
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Farmer, Wolf, Goat, Cabbage
+
+{#fig:puzzle .align-center}
+
+Farmer needs to end up on the east bank of the river.
+
+He has a little boat that can only carry him and one of the goods.
+
+Goat can't be left alone with the cabbage, wolf can't be left alone with the goat.
+
+Let's ask Prolog to solve it for us!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+We will encode the state of the game as a list with four positions:
+
+```prolog
+[P_Farmer,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cab]
+```
+
+Each position can take on one of the two atoms: `east` or `west`.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+First, we define four legal moves that have the farmer at at most one good in the boat:
+
+```prolog
+move([X,X,P_Goat,P_Cab], move_wolf, [Y,Y,P_Goat,P_Cab])
+ :- change(X,Y).
+move([X,P_Wolf,X,P_Cab], move_goat, [Y,P_Wolf,Y,P_Cab])
+ :- change(X,Y).
+move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,X], move_cabbage,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,Y])
+ :- change(X,Y).
+move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cab],move_nothing,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cab])
+ :- change(X,Y).
+
+change(east,west).
+change(west,east).
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Next, we define the safety condition:
+
+```prolog
+safe([P_Farmer,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cab]) :-
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Wolf,P_Goat),
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Goat,P_Cab).
+
+one_equal(X,X,_).
+one_equal(X,_,X).
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Finally, we define a solution as a sequence of legal moves that ends in the final state:
+
+```prolog
+solution([east,east,east,east],[]).
+solution(State,[FirstMove|RemainingMoves]) :-
+ move(State,FirstMove,NextState),
+ safe(NextState),
+ solution(NextState,RemainingMoves).
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Now we can ask Prolog to solve the puzzle like so:
+
+```prolog
+?- length(Moves,7), solution([west,west,west,west],Moves).
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Why do we need `length(Moves,7)`?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Backtracking control
+
+Sometimes we want more fine-grained control over the backtracking
+
+<br>
+
+For example:
+
+```prolog
+?- length(Moves,7), solution([west,west,west,west],Moves).
+```
+
+gives us a gazillion solutions, most that all look the same (-ish?)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Stop backtracking
+
+The **cut** operator `!` is a goal that
+
+ - always succeeds
+ - cannot be back-tracked out of
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+We can use cut to tell Prolog:
+once you found a solution to the puzzle, look no further!
+
+```prolog
+solution([east,east,east,east],[]).
+solution(State,[FirstMove|RemainingMoves]) :-
+ move(State,FirstMove,NextState),
+ safe(NextState),
+ solution(NextState,RemainingMoves), !.
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+### Collect all solutions
+
+Sometimes you want to **localize** the backtracking
+and collect all solutions in a list.
+
+```prolog
+?- isIn(X,[2,1,3,2]).
+X = 2.
+X = 1.
+X = 3.
+X = 2.
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Use `bagof` to get the list of all solutions:
+
+```prolog
+?- bagof(X, isIn(X,[2,1,3,2]), Sols).
+Sols = [2,1,3,2].
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+Use `setof` to get the list of all *unique* solutions:
+
+```prolog
+?- setof(X, isIn(X,[2,1,3,2]), Sols).
+Sols = [1,2,3].
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+
+How do we find all *unique* solutions to the farmer puzzle?
+
+(I) final
+
+ `?- setof(_, (length(Moves,7), solution([west,west,west,west],Moves)), _).`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+That's all folks!
diff --git a/lectures/09-io.md b/lectures/09-io.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1aaf867
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/09-io.md
@@ -0,0 +1,570 @@
+---
+title: Hello, world! (The IO Monad)
+date: 2019-06-5
+headerImg: books.jpg
+---
+
+## Writing Applications
+
+In most language related classes, we _start_ with a "Hello world!" program.
+
+With 130, we will _end_ with it.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+<!--
+For example, in Python you may write:
+
+```python
+def main():
+ print "hello, world!"
+
+main()
+```
+
+and then you can run it:
+
+```sh
+$ python hello.py
+hello world!
+```
+-->
+
+## Purity and the Immutability Principle
+
+Haskell is a **pure** language. Not a _value_ judgment, but a precise _technical_ statement:
+
+**The "Immutability Principle":**
+
+- A function must _always_ return the same output for a given input
+
+- A function's behavior should _never change_
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## No Side Effects
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=60%}
+
+Haskell's most radical idea: `expression ==> value`
+
+- When you evaluate an expression you get a value and **nothing else happens**
+
+Specifically, evaluation must not have an **side effects**
+
+- _change_ a global variable or
+
+- _print_ to screen or
+
+- _read_ a file or
+
+- _send_ an email or
+
+- _launch_ a missile.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Purity
+
+Means _functions may depend only on their inputs_
+
+- i.e. **functions should give the same output for the same input every time.**
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## But... how to write "Hello, world!"
+
+But, we _want_ to ...
+
+- print to screen
+- read a file
+- send an email
+
+A language that only lets you write `factorial` and `fibonacci` is ... _not very useful_!
+
+Thankfully, you _can_ do all the above via a very clever idea: `Recipe`
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## Recipes
+
+[This analogy is due to Joachim Brietner][brietner]
+
+Haskell has a special type called `IO` -- which you can think of as `Recipe`
+
+```haskell
+type Recipe a = IO a
+```
+
+A _value_ of type `Recipe a` is
+
+- a **description** of an effectful computations
+
+- when **when executed** (possibly) perform some effectful I/O operations to
+
+- **produce** a value of type `a`.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+
+## Recipes have No Effects
+
+A value of type `Recipe a` is
+
+- Just a **description** of an effectful computation
+
+- An inert, perfectly safe thing with **no effects**.
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=80%}
+
+**(L)** chocolate _cake_, **(R)** a _sequence of instructions_ on how to make a cake.
+
+They are different (_hint_: only one of them is delicious.)
+
+Merely having a `Recipe Cake` has no effects: holding the recipe
+
+- Does not make your oven _hot_
+
+- Does not make your your floor _dirty_
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+## Executing Recipes
+
+There is **only one way** to execute a `Recipe a`
+
+Haskell looks for a special value
+
+```haskell
+main :: Recipe ()
+```
+
+The value associated with `main` is handed to the **runtime system and executed**
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=70%}
+
+The Haskell runtime is a _master chef_ who is the only one allowed to cook!
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+
+## How to write an App in Haskell
+
+Make a `Recipe ()` that is handed off to the master chef `main`.
+
+- `main` can be arbitrarily complicated
+
+- will be composed of _many smaller_ recipes
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Hello World
+
+
+```haskell
+putStrLn :: String -> Recipe ()
+```
+
+The function `putStrLn`
+
+- takes as input a `String`
+- returns as output a `Recipe ()`
+
+`putStrLn msg` is a `Recipe ()` _when executed_ prints out `msg` on the screen.
+
+```haskell
+main :: Recipe ()
+main = putStrLn "Hello, world!"
+```
+
+... and we can compile and run it
+
+```sh
+$ ghc --make hello.hs
+$ ./hello
+Hello, world!
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## QUIZ: Combining Recipes
+
+Next, lets write a program that prints multiple things:
+
+```haskell
+main :: IO ()
+main = combine (putStrLn "Hello,") (putStrLn "World!")
+
+-- putStrLn :: String -> Recipe ()
+-- combine :: ???
+```
+
+What must the _type_ of `combine` be?
+
+```haskell
+{- A -} combine :: () -> () -> ()
+{- B -} combine :: Recipe () -> Recipe () -> Recipe ()
+{- C -} combine :: Recipe a -> Recipe a -> Recipe a
+{- D -} combine :: Recipe a -> Recipe b -> Recipe b
+{- E -} combine :: Recipe a -> Recipe b -> Recipe a
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+
+
+## Using Intermediate Results
+
+Next, lets write a program that
+
+1. **Asks** for the user's `name` using
+
+```haskell
+ getLine :: Recipe String
+```
+
+2. **Prints** out a greeting with that `name` using
+
+```haskell
+ putStrLn :: String -> Recipe ()
+```
+
+**Problem:** How to pass the **output** of _first_ recipe into the _second_ recipe?
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## QUIZ: Using Yolks to Make Batter
+
+Suppose you have two recipes
+
+```haskell
+crack :: Recipe Yolk
+eggBatter :: Yolk -> Recipe Batter
+```
+
+and we want to get
+
+```haskell
+mkBatter :: Recipe Batter
+mkBatter = crack `combineWithResult` eggBatter
+```
+
+What must the type of `combineWithResult` be?
+
+```haskell
+{- A -} Yolk -> Batter -> Batter
+{- B -} Recipe Yolk -> (Yolk -> Recipe Batter) -> Recipe Batter
+{- C -} Recipe a -> (a -> Recipe a ) -> Recipe a
+{- D -} Recipe a -> (a -> Recipe b ) -> Recipe b
+{- E -} Recipe Yolk -> (Yolk -> Recipe Batter) -> Recipe ()
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Looks Familiar
+
+Wait a bit, the signature looks familiar!
+
+```haskell
+combineWithResult :: Recipe a -> (a -> Recipe b) -> Recipe b
+```
+
+Remember this
+
+```haskell
+(>>=) :: Result a -> (a -> Result b) -> Result b
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## `Recipe` is an instance of `Monad`
+
+In fact, in the standard library
+
+```haskell
+instance Monad Recipe where
+ (>>=) = {-... combineWithResult... -}
+```
+
+So we can put this together with `putStrLn` to get:
+
+```haskell
+main :: Recipe ()
+main = getLine >>= \name -> putStrLn ("Hello, " ++ name ++ "!")
+```
+
+or, using `do` notation the above becomes
+
+```haskell
+main :: Recipe ()
+main = do name <- getLine
+ putStrLn ("Hello, " ++ name ++ "!")
+```
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## EXERCISE
+
+1. _Compile_ and run to make sure its ok!
+
+2. _Modify_ the above to repeatedly ask for names.
+
+3. _Extend_ the above to print a "prompt" that tells you how many iterations have occurred.
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+
+## Monads are Amazing
+
+Monads have had a _revolutionary_ influence in PL, well beyond Haskell, some recent examples
+
+- **Error handling** in `go` e.g. [1](https://speakerdeck.com/rebeccaskinner/monadic-error-handling-in-go) and [2](https://www.innoq.com/en/blog/golang-errors-monads/)
+
+- **Asynchrony** in JavaScript e.g. [1](https://gist.github.com/MaiaVictor/bc0c02b6d1fbc7e3dbae838fb1376c80) and [2](https://medium.com/@dtipson/building-a-better-promise-3dd366f80c16)
+
+- **Big data** pipelines e.g. [LinQ](https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/project/dryadlinq/) and [TensorFlow](https://www.tensorflow.org/)
+
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+
+## A Silly App to End CSE 130
+
+Lets write an app called [moo](/static/raw/moo.hs) inspired by [cowsay](https://medium.com/@jasonrigden/cowsay-is-the-most-important-unix-like-command-ever-35abdbc22b7f)
+
+**A Command Line App**
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=70%}
+
+**`moo` works with pipes**
+
+{#fig:types .align-center width=70%}
+
+<!--
+{#fig:types .align-center width=70%}
+
+```sh
+$ ./moo Jhala, y u no make final easy!
+
+ --------------------------------
+< Jhala, y u no make final easy! >
+ --------------------------------
+ \ ^__^
+ \ (oo)\_______
+ (__)\ )\/\
+ ||----w |
+ || ||
+```
+
+or even using unix pipes
+
+```txt
+$ ./moo Thats all folks, thanks!
+
+ ------------------------------------
+< 00-intro.pdf 01-lambda.pdf >
+< 03-datatypes.pdf 04-hof.pdf >
+< 05-environments.pdf 06-parsing.pdf >
+< 07-classes.pdf 08-monads.pdf >
+ ------------------------------------
+ \ ^__^
+ \ (oo)\_______
+ (__)\ )\/\
+ ||----w |
+ || ||
+```
+
+Thats all, folks.
+
+-->
+
+
+[brietner]: https://www.seas.upenn.edu/~cis194/fall16/lectures/06-io-and-monads.html
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/lectures/info_ocaml.md b/lectures/info_ocaml.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5e1bc8b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/info_ocaml.md
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+---
+title: How to run Ocaml in the Lab machines
+headerImg: books.jpg
+---
+
+## Entering the Ocaml Shell
+
+You need to type `prep cs130s` before you can run `Ocaml`.
+
+Here is a sample session.
+
+```bash
+$ prep cs130s
+
+$ ocaml
+ OCaml version 4.02.3
+
+# 2 + 3;;
+- : int = 5
+
+# Printf.printf "Hello, %s \n" "world" ;;
+Hello, world
+- : unit = ()
+```
+
+If you run `Ocaml` on your _own_ machine, then do
+
+```bash
+$ rlwrap ocaml
+```
+
+The `rlwrap` is **optional** but rather nice as it lets you
+hit the up/down cursors to go to your old commands (to avoid
+typing them out again.) We have used `alias` so you don't have
+to type it out on `ieng6`.
+
+
+## Loading Files
+
+Enter
+
+```ocaml
+#use "foo.ml";;
+```
+
+to `load` the file `foo.ml`.
+This has the same effect as
+typing out the file at the
+prompt, but its usually more
+convenient to type and edit
+the file with Vim/Emacs/Atom
+and load it in like this.
+(A more convenient option is
+the OCaml-mode for Emacs.)
+
+Press `Ctrl-D` to exit OCaml.
+
+## Directly Running Ocaml from Bash
+
+You can directly _run_ the file,
+i.e. send the file `foo.ml` into
+OCaml and get the output piped
+to `stdout` by typing:
+
+```bash
+$ ocaml foo.ml
+```
diff --git a/lectures/info_prolog.md b/lectures/info_prolog.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..25905ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/info_prolog.md
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+---
+title: How to run Prolog in the Lab machines
+headerImg: books.jpg
+---
+
+
+## Entering the Prolog Shell
+
+Here is a sample session. We use `$` for the Unix shell prompt, and `?-` for
+the Prolog shell prompt.
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+$ rlwrap swipl
+
+130f@ieng6-202]:~:501$ swipl
+Welcome to SWI-Prolog (Multi-threaded, 32 bits, Version 5.10.5)
+Copyright (c) 1990-2011 University of Amsterdam, VU Amsterdam
+SWI-Prolog comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY. This is free software,
+and you are welcome to redistribute it under certain conditions.
+Please visit http://www.swi-prolog.org for details.
+
+For help, use ?- help(Topic). or ?- apropos(Word).
+
+?- X = cat.
+X = cat.
+
+?- X = Y.
+X = Y.
+
+?- halt.
+~~~~~
+
+To **load** a program [lec-prolog.pl](/lectures/lec-prolog.pl) from disk use the `consult` command like so:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+?- consult('lec-prolog.pl').
+% foo.pl compiled 0.00 sec, 10,640 bytes
+true.
+
+?- parent(albert, z).
+false.
+
+?- parent(albert, Z).
+Z = felix ;
+Z = dana.
+
+?- parent(Z, dana).
+Z = albert ;
+false.
+~~~~~
diff --git a/lectures/partial-solutions.md b/lectures/partial-solutions.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bb92da5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/partial-solutions.md
@@ -0,0 +1,218 @@
+---
+title: Partial Solution Key For Sample Exams
+headerImg: books.jpg
+---
+
+## Final Fall 06
+
+### 6 (a)
+
+~~~~~{.scala}
+def elementAndRest[A](xs: List[A]): Iterator[(A, List[A])] = {
+ for (i <- (0 until xs.length).iterator)
+ yield (xs(i), xs.slice(0, i) ++ xs.slice(i+1, xs.length))
+}
+~~~~~
+
+### 6 (b)
+
+~~~~~{.scala}
+def permutations[A](xs: List[A]): Iterator[List[A]] =
+ xs match {
+ case Nil =>
+ Iterator(List())
+ case x::rest =>
+ for ( ys <- permutations(rest)
+ ; i <- 0 until xs.length)
+ yield ys.slice(0, i) ++ List(x) ++ ys.slice(i, ys.length)
+ }
+~~~~~
+
+## Fall 07
+
+### 6 (d)
+
+~~~~~{.scala}
+object tick {
+ private var ctr = 0
+ def apply() = {
+ ctr += 1
+ ctr
+ }
+}
+~~~~~
+
+### 7 (a)
+
+~~~~~{.scala}
+def valid(es:List[(Int, Int)], c: List[Int]): Boolean =
+ es.forall(e => c(e._1) != c(e._2))
+~~~~~
+
+
+### 7 (b)
+
+~~~~~{.scala}
+def colorings(n: Int, k: Int): List[List[Int]] = {
+ if (n <= 0) List(List())
+ else { for ( cs <- colorings(n-1, k)
+ ; c <- 0 until k)
+ yield (c::cs) }
+}
+
+~~~~~
+
+### 7 (c)
+
+~~~~~{.scala}
+def initColoring(n: Int) =
+ (0 until n).toList.map(x => 0)
+
+def lastColoring(xs: List[Int], k: Int) =
+ xs.forall(_ == k-1)
+
+def nextColoring(xs: List[Int], k: Int) = {
+ var res : List[Int] = List()
+ var carry = 1
+ for (i <- (xs.length - 1) to 0 by -1) {
+ val sum = carry + xs(i)
+ val dig = sum % k
+ carry = sum / k
+ res = dig :: res
+ }
+ res
+}
+~~~~~
+
+
+## Midterm Spring 12
+
+### 1 (a)
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+val (<.>) : ('b -> 'c) -> ('a -> 'b) -> ('a -> 'c)
+~~~~~
+
+### 1 (b)
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+10
+~~~~~
+
+### 1 (c)
+
+~~~~~{.scala}
+let giftList =
+ let rec helper acc xs = match xs with
+ | [] -> acc^" and thats what I want for Christmas!"
+ | x::xs' -> helper (acc ^ " and ") xs'
+ in helper ""
+~~~~~
+
+### 2 (a)
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+val getEven : int list -> int option
+~~~~~
+
+### 2 (b)
+
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+let rec find_first f xs = match xs with
+ | [] -> None
+ | x::xs' -> if f x then Some x else find_first f xs'
+~~~~~
+
+### 2 (c)
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+val tree_to_string: string tree -> string
+~~~~~
+
+### 2 (d)
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+let rec post_fold f b t = match t with
+ | Leaf -> b
+ | Node (x, l, r) -> f x (post_fold f b l) (post_fold f b r)
+~~~~~
+
+### 2 (e)
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+let rec in_fold f b t = match t with
+ | Leaf -> b
+ | Node (x, l, r) -> let bl = in_fold f b l in
+ let bx = f bl x in
+ let br = in_fold f bx r in
+ br
+~~~~~
+
+
+### 3 (a)
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+Left 3
+~~~~~
+
+### 3 (b)
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+Right "monkey"
+~~~~~
+
+
+### 3 (c)
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+let rec assoc key kvs = match kvs with
+ | (k, v)::rest -> if key = k then Right v else assoc key rest
+ | [] -> Left key
+~~~~~
+
+### 3 (d)
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+let map f e = match e with
+ | Left l -> Left l
+ | Right r -> Right (f r)
+~~~~~
+
+### 3 (e)
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+let map2 f e1 e2 = match (e1, e2) with
+ | Right r1, Right r2 -> Right (f r1 r2)
+ | Left l, _ -> Left l
+ | _, Left l -> Left l
+~~~~~
+
+
+### 4 (a)
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+let lookup x env = match assoc x env with
+ | Left z -> Left (UnboundVariable z)
+ | Right i -> Right i
+~~~~~
+
+### 4 (b)
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+let safeDiv n m =
+ if m != 0 then Right (n / m) else Left DivideByZero
+~~~~~
+
+### 4 (c)
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+let rec eval env e = match e with
+ | Const i -> Right i
+ | Var v -> lookup v env
+ | Bin (e1, Plus, e2) -> map2 (+) (eval env e1) (eval env e2)
+ | Bin (e1, Div, e2) -> (match (eval env e1) (eval env e2) with
+ | _, Right 0 -> Left DivideByZero
+ | Right i1, Right i2 -> Right (i1/ i2)
+ | Left l, _ | _, Left l -> Left l)
+~~~~~
diff --git a/lectures/piazza.md b/lectures/piazza.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a66a47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/piazza.md
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+---
+title: Piazza Discussions
+headerImg: sea.jpg
+date: 2017-03-28
+---
+
+## Lambda Calculus 4/7
+
+- https://piazza.com/class/j0va76qxb1s6gw?cid=26
+- https://piazza.com/class/j0va76qxb1s6gw?cid=19
+
+
+## 4/10
+
+- https://piazza.com/class/j0va76qxb1s6gw?cid=56
+- https://piazza.com/class/j0va76qxb1s6gw?cid=79
+
diff --git a/lectures/prolog.md b/lectures/prolog.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8d13394
--- /dev/null
+++ b/lectures/prolog.md
@@ -0,0 +1,1562 @@
+---
+title: Logic Programming
+headerImg: sea.jpg
+---
+
+# Logic Programming
+
+(adapted from lecture notes by Henri Casanova and Todd Millstein)
+
+
+## Introduction
+
+
+We now turn to a brand new paradigm, called "Logic Programming Languages"
+-- our vehicle for studying this paradigm is Prolog, whose roots are
+in logic and on automated theorem proving.
+Prolog was developed in the 1970s for AI applications. Some such applications
+have a knowledge base (or database) of facts, from which you'd like to
+ask queries and deduce other facts. For example, given facts in the
+knowledge base like "Carnitas is Mexican" and "Mexican food is delicious",
+then we can deduce "Carnitas is delicious".
+
+Prolog probably looks nothing like any language you've seen before.
+Fundamental difference between Prolog and most other languages:
+
+ You don't run a Prolog Program
+
+Instead, you ask questions and the system attempts to answer them using the
+rules and facts that it has been given.
+
+ Logic programs are "declarative": the specification of the
+ desired results are written, rather than how to obtain them.
+
+This approach is very good at expressing problems that involve searching
+a large space of possibilities. For example, given a list of cities and
+distances between them, find me the shortest route that passes through
+each one once (the travelling salesman problem).
+
+The philosophy of this approach is that it is often hard to specify a
+search algorithm -- and in such cases, it is easier to specify
+the characteristics of the solution.
+To do so, you specify *facts* and *rules* for deducing new
+facts from old facts, and then a *query*. So you just state what is
+true and then ask what (else) is true. The language implementation figures
+out how to actually compute appropriate solutions.
+Use the travelling salesman problem as an illustration: I say
+the constraints, not how to search the space of possible solutions.
+Of course, as we will see, this is a simplification, and often for reasons
+of efficiency, one has to impose constraints on the search.
+
+The original and principal applications for Prolog are in various AI
+settings such as (expert databases). Examples include using prolog-based
+databases to determine when credit card fraud has occurred (prolog is used
+to specify rules that indicate when a fraud occurs), and there are
+projects afoot to use ideas from prolog to determine suspicious
+people from phone/communication patterns.
+Note that currently AI researchers devise statistical techniques to
+complement (if not replace) logical approaches for such tasks.
+Another big application is as a database query language.
+E.g., my facts are things like the daily stock prices of various
+stocks over the last year. Queries can be things like: find me all
+pairs of stocks that had the same price on the same day at least 50
+times this year.
+Standard query languages like SQL are inspired by and are really subsets of Prolog.
+Of course, the reason we're studying it is that its a radically different
+way of thinking about computation: "programming as proving".
+You'll be surprised at how many places this paradigm fits beautifully, or
+leads to very elegant and readable systems.
+
+## Terms
+
+
+Based on propositional logic. The entire program comprises three kinds of
+elements: facts, rules, and queries. The basic unit of each of these are
+terms.
+
+Terms are Prolog's way of encoding data. They are very similar to the
+values of datatypes created in ML. There are three kinds of terms:
+constants, variables and compound terms.
+
+1. **Constants**: The simplest kind of terms are constants.
+
+ - _integers_ and _reals_: are constants.
+
+ - _atoms_: are identifiers starting with a lowercase letter.
+
+ For example:
+
+ `alice`, `bob`, `charlie`
+
+ are all atoms.
+
+ **Atoms are NOT variables** -- the way to think of them is as TAGS,
+ or special constants, or elements of a giant enum datatype.
+ They are similar to the tags used in ML datatypes:
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+ type day = Alice | Bob | Charlie ...
+~~~~~
+
+ Only in ML, the tags start with a capital letter.
+
+ Atoms are *uninterpreted constants*: nothing is known about each tag
+ except that it is equal to itself.
+
+ Intuitively, Prolog knows that:
+
+ `alice = alice`
+
+ as the tags are the same. However, to it,
+
+ `alice = bob`
+
+ *never* makes sense, as it has a strange notion of equality, that we
+ will see shortly.
+
+ There are some built-in atoms such as `[]` that signifies the empty
+ list, `.` which is used for list concatenation and so on, that we will
+ see shortly.
+
+2. **Variables**: Any identifier beginning with an upper case letter
+ or an underscore is a variable.
+
+ For example,
+
+ `X`, `Y`, `Head`, `Tail`, `Alfred`
+
+ are all variables.
+
+ The variable `_` is like a **wildcard" variable**, whose meaning
+ is similar to the `_` in ML, but more on that when we see what a
+ variable means.
+
+ As we shall see:
+
+ -- `x = a` is nonsense (as x and a are two *different* constants/tags).
+ -- `X = a` has some sense (but isnt at all what one might think...).
+
+ WARNING: Upercase/Lowercase is a common source of error! Also, variables
+ are NOT declared before use (so be careful!).
+
+3. **Compound Terms**: These are terms of the form: atom(term,term,term,...)
+ where each "term" is either an atom or a variable or a compound term.
+ Examples include:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+ x(y,z)
+ parent(alice,bob). %here alice,bob are atoms
+ parent(alice,Child). %here alice is an atom, Child is a variable
+~~~~~
+
+ In other words, (compound) terms are generated by the following grammar:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+ atom := [a-z][A-z,a-z,0-9]* | [0-9]* | ...
+
+ variable := [A-Z][a-z,A-Z,0-9]* | _
+
+ term := atom | variable | atom(term,term,term,...)
+~~~~~
+
+ While you may be tempted to think of compound terms like:
+
+ `parent(alice, bob)`
+
+ as function calls, they are NOT! Instead, you should think about this
+ in the same way as we thought of ML the recursive, one-of types in ML.
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+ type term = alice | bob | charlie | ... (* other atoms *)
+ | Var of string
+ | Parent of term * term
+~~~~~
+
+ Thus, `parent(alice, bob)` in Prolog is "equivalent to" the ML value:
+
+ `Parent(alice, bob)`
+
+ which is just a tuple `alice, bob` with a tag `Parent` on it, or
+ equivalently represented as a tree:
+
+~~~~~
+ Parent
+ / \
+ / \
+ alice bob
+~~~~~
+
+ and parent(alice,Charlie) in Prolog is "equivalent to" the ML value:
+ Parent(alice,Var ("Charlie")), or represented as a tree:
+
+~~~~~
+ Parent
+ / \
+ / \
+ alice Var
+ |
+ |
+ Charlie
+~~~~~
+
+
+Consider a term: `factorial(5)`
+
+It is **NOT a function** (despite what it looks like).
+
+ - there is no associated function implementation
+
+Prolog has no idea of the meaning you intend for this term -- to it,
+this is just a box containing `5` with a label `factorial`.
+
+Another way to view it is as a tree:
+
+~~~~~
+ factorial
+ |
+ |
+ 5
+~~~~~
+
+Thus, the only thing Prolog knows is that:
+
+`factorial(5)=factorial(5)`
+
+
+i.e. the two terms are the same. In particular, to Prolog,
+`factorial(5)=120` is NOT true.
+
+Thus Prolog compound terms are really just structured data -- like values
+of a datatype in ML. Can also think of atoms that begin a compound term
+as *uninterpreted functions*: e.g., `factorial` is a function about which
+NOTHING is known, except that the result of applying this function to the
+atom x, is the term `factorial(x)`.
+
+These atoms are called **function symbols**.
+
+## Facts
+
+A fact is just a term, typically without any variables.
+You specify a fact by writing a term followed by a '.'.
+For example, here are a few facts that one might have
+in the system.
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+% List of parent relationships
+parent(kim,holly).
+parent(margaret,kim).
+parent(herbert,margaret).
+parent(john,kim).
+parent(felix,john).
+parent(albert,felix).
+~~~~~
+
+Note that `kim`, `holly`, `margaret`, `herbert`, `john`, `kim`, `felix`, `albert`
+are all atoms.
+
+The Prolog interpreter maintains a collection of facts like the above --
+think of it as the underlying data in the database over which queries will be asked.
+You can define your own facts and add them to the database. The function
+symbols beginning a fact are called *predicates*: intuitively, they
+represent functions that evaluate to a boolean.
+
+Thus, (the atom) `parent` is a predicate that, intuitively,
+takes two arguements and returns a boolean -- we say that
+`parent` is a predicate of arity 2.
+
+The key thing to note, is that predicates have _no intrinsic meaning_.
+However, they are generally designed and named so that
+the programmer can easily "interpret" them.
+
+For example, as a programmer, I will decide that
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+parent(X,Y)
+~~~~~
+
+means that `X` is a parent of `Y`. In other words,
+I will specify the fact:
+
+~~~~~{.prolog}
+parent(a,b).
+~~~~~
+
+only if the person corresponding to atom `a` is
+a parent of the person corresponding to atom `b`.
+Thus, the predicate is interpreted as a logical
+relation between `X` and `Y`.
+
+Prolog uses these facts to answer queries, as well
+as to infer new facts.
+
+Lets see how it does the first.
+
+## Running Prolog : Queries
+
+HEREHEREHEREHERE
+
+The standard interface to Prolog is in an interactive shell.
+To run it, first, lets put a bunch of facts into a file, and then load the
+file into the shell. Suppose the list of facts are stored in a file called
+"facts.pl". First, we load prolog, and get the shell prompt:
+
+Prolog prompt: "?-"
+
+At this prompt, enter something like:
+
+?- consult('facts.prolog').
+
+You can manually add the facts one by one by typing at the prompt:
+
+?- assert(parent(margaret,kim)).
+
+(or whatever fact you want to insert).
+
+Once this is done, the facts have been registered into the shell, we can query Prolog as follows:
+
+ 1. Prompts you to type a query
+ 2. You type a query
+ 3. Prolog tries to prove your query
+ 4. Prints out the result (or 'failure')
+ 5. Repeat
+
+The simplest query is a term followed by a '.'
+(looks like a fact, but is just typed at the prompt).
+For example, suppose you type the following query:
+
+?- parent(margaret, john).
+
+The meaning of a query is "is this fact in your database or can it be
+inferred from your database". In other words, we are asking Prolog if it
+can PROVE the fact. Prolog replies:
+
+No
+
+as this is not one of the facts (we have not yet given it any rules to
+infer new facts).
+Instead, if we were to ask:
+
+?- parent(margaret,kim).
+
+Prolog replies:
+
+Yes
+
+As this is in the database of facts we fed in.
+(Tip: If you forget the period then you can type it on the next line)
+Not bad, but not especially exciting -- we gave it a bunch of facts, and
+basically each query is effectively asking if the query term was one of the
+facts we supplied.
+
+Things get more fun, when we toss variables into the queries.
+
+ ?- parent(margaret,X).
+
+This is where we Prolog departs radically from other paradigms. The meaning
+of this query is:
+
+"What value(s) can you plug in for X such that the fact becomes provable for that value ?"
+Prolog replies:
+
+ X = kim [press enter if you're satisfied]
+ Yes
+
+This means that it can plug in "kim" for X, and thus, it can deduce the
+fact: parent(margaret,kim). Instead, you can enter the query:
+
+ ?- parent(X,kim).
+
+This asks prolog, for what values of X does the fact parent( _ , kim) hold.
+In other words, this innocent query is asking prolog -- who are the (known)
+parents of kim ? It replies:
+
+ X = margaret ; [press ';' if you want another answer]
+ X = john ;
+ No
+
+Thus, it returns, one-by-one, all the "solutions" for X that make the fact
+parent(X,kim) provable. We can make both the parameters variables:
+
+ ?- parent(X,Y).
+
+This asks prolog -- what are the pairs X,Y such that X is (provably) the
+parent of Y ? It responds:
+
+ X=kim Y=holly ;
+ X=margaret Y=kim;
+ ...
+
+Suppose you want to know if there are any strange circularities in your
+fact database -- for example, does there exist any person who is their own
+parent ? The following query does the trick:
+
+ ?- parent(X,X).
+ No
+
+------------------------------- Unification -----------------------------------
+
+In most other languages, a function designed to look up
+things like this would be less flexible -- it would require tedious
+parentOf() method or a childOf() method, loops, etc.
+With Prolog -- the queries are very flexible, and work like magic.
+Whats going on ?
+
+Turns out that Prolog's computational heart is a fancy pattern matching
+technique (also, btw, at the heart of ML's type system) borrowed from
+logicians, called "Unification". Regrettably, we won't have time to go
+into the details of unification -- and so, lets content ourselves with a
+cartoon version.
+
+
+ Intuitively, two terms can be unified if there a
+ way of assigning values to their variables so that
+ the terms become identical.
+
+This is really what " = " means in prolog -- when you ask it:
+
+ ?- t1 = t2.
+
+For any two terms t1 and t2, you are asking it whether the terms t1 and t2
+can be unified. So, if you ask:
+
+ ?- foo(bar) = foo(bar).
+ Yes
+
+Because there are no variables and the terms are the same.
+If instead you ask:
+
+ ?- foo(X) = foo(bar).
+
+It replies:
+ X = bar
+ Yes
+
+Meaning that foo(X) can be unified with foo(bar) by assigning the variable
+X to the term "bar".
+Note that we can ask this from Prolog without "declaring" any of the above
+atoms. This is because everything is symbolic -- everything is a term which
+is an arbitrary notation that can encode whatever concept.
+One can type the above right after starting the interpreter.
+
+
+The more interesting case is when there are several variable in the terms:
+
+ ?- p(X,dog) = p(cat,Y).
+ X = cat
+ Y = dog
+ Yes
+
+meaning that one can unify the terms p(X,dog) and p(cat,Y) by assigning
+appropriate values to X and Y. However, if we were to ask:
+
+ ?- p(cat) = p(dog).
+ No
+
+As the terms are different, and so, if we ask:
+ ?- q(X,dog,X) = p(cat,Y,Y).
+ No
+
+is the answer as to unify, X must be "cat" and Y must be "dog", but this
+ensures that the last parameter of the term can never be the same!
+
+Similarly, the unification happens "deep" into the terms:
+
+?- a(W,foo(W,Y),Y) = a(2,foo(X,3),Z).
+ W = 2
+ X = 2
+ Y = 3
+ Z = 3
+ Yes
+
+Intuitively, it first matches up the first position, and so W gets 2,
+next, it tries to match up the second position -- i.e.
+
+ foo(W,Y) with foo(X,3).
+
+now, W is already 2, so X also gets 2, and Y gets 3.
+Finally, it tries to match up the last position,
+and Y is 3 and so Z gets 3.
+
+Instead, the query:
+
+?- a(W,foo(W,Y),Y) = a(2,foo(X,3),X).
+ No
+
+Thus, by using W,X,Y in two places, we are forcing it to find a solution where
+those two places get exactly the same value. As a result, the constraints
+ensure that all the variables must get the same value. However, W and Y
+must get 2 and 3 and so there is no solution.
+
+Thus, this innocent "pattern matching" operation actually does a lot under
+its hood, and it turns out to be a surprisingly powerful and flexible way
+to encode all kinds of computation! All the queries that we asked before,
+were answered via unification.
+
+When we ask:
+
+ ?- parent(margaret, john).
+
+prolog checks if the term "parent(margaret,john)" can be unified with any
+of the known facts (that are also terms). If so, it says Yes, but as it
+cannot, it replies No.
+
+When we ask:
+
+ ?- parent(margaret,kim).
+
+it can unify the query term with a known fact term, and so it replies Yes.
+
+When we ask:
+
+ ?- parent(margaret,X).
+
+it tries to find all the known facts with which it can unify the query term
+-- there is only one, and so it "answers the query" by returning the
+substitution required for unification:
+ X = kim
+
+Similarly, when we ask:
+
+ ?- parent(X,kim).
+
+It attempts to find all the known terms with which this query can be
+unified -- this time, there are several terms, and the different
+valid unifying substitutions (called unifiers) yield the different parents
+of kim:
+ X = margaret ;
+ X = john ;
+ No
+
+Finally, to answer the query:
+
+ ?- parent(X,Y).
+
+It attempts to unify the query term with all known facts -- and the list of
+resulting unifiers is exactly the set of known parent child pairs.
+
+------------------------------- Conjunction ------------------------------
+
+Often, its more useful to ask questions about several terms.
+For example, to determine if margaret is holly's grandparent, we would like
+to find if there is some person who is both the child of margaret AND the
+parent of holly.
+To do so, we can issue a conjunctive query which is a list of terms
+separated by commas as follows:
+
+ ?- parent(margaret, X), parent(X, holly).
+
+To answer this query, Prolog attempts to find an X such that
+parent(margaret,X) unifies with the set of known facts, AND,
+parent(X,holly) unifies with the set of known facts.
+Upon finding a unifier that works, it replies:
+
+ X = kim
+ Yes
+
+Thus, as kim is the intermediate parent, we can conclude that margaret is
+indeed a grandparent of holly. Finally, consider the following query:
+
+ ?- parent(X,Y), parent(Y,Z), parent(Z,kim).
+
+It asks if there are X,Y,Z such that X is Y's parent, Y is Z's parent and Z
+is kim's parent. In other words, the query determines if kim has any
+"great-grandparent". Upon finding appropriate unifiers, prolog replies:
+
+ X = john
+ Y = felix
+ Z = albert
+ Yes
+
+------------------------------- Rules ------------------------------------
+
+The above is quite nifty -- it allows us to quickly mine the database to
+find interesting relationships. However, it gets somewhat cumbersome as we
+have to devise a complex conjunctive query ever time.
+Instead, it would be nice if we could define complex queries out of simpler
+queries.
+
+Rules serve exactly that purpose. They allow us to specify complex queries
+(i.e. predicates) using simpler ones. In general, the format of a rule is:
+
+ head :- condition1, condition2, condition3....
+
+Intuitively, it means, that the "head" query is true if condition1,
+condition2, condition3,... are all true. In other words, it tells prolog,
+to prove the head query, prove the conditions 1,2,3.
+
+For example, suppose we'd like to define a grandparent relationship
+(predicate). We do so as:
+
+ grandparent(GP,GC) :- parent(GP,P), parent (P,GC).
+
+Intuitively this states:
+
+ "GP is a grandparent of GC if GP is a parent of P AND P is a parent of GC".
+
+With this definition, we can now issue the following query:
+
+ ?- grandparent(X,kim).
+
+and prolog responds with:
+
+ X=herbert
+ Yes
+
+as it can find that parent(herbert,margaret) and parent(margaret,kim),
+therefore, applying the rule, grandparent(herbert,kim), to which fact the
+query term gets unified. We can use this predicate to write more
+predicates:
+
+ greatgrandparent(GGP,GGC) :- parent(GGP,GP) , grandparent (GP, GGC).
+
+We can now issue the query:
+
+ ?- greatgrandparent(X,holly).
+ X=herbert
+ Yes
+
+Program = Facts + Rules:
+------------------------
+
+Facts and Rules are the two kinds of "Clauses" (intuitively, a fact is
+just a rule without any conditions).
+Thus, a prolog program is a set of clauses -- partitioned into a
+database of facts and a set of rules for inferring new facts.
+
+Scope:
+------
+Notice that the same variable P appears twice in the grandparent rule.
+Indeed one may be tempted to reuse P across several rules. In Prolog, the
+scope of a variable is the clause (rule) that contains it. Thus, there is
+no connection whatsoever between variables across clauses.
+
+For example, consider the two clauses:
+
+ foo(P) :- bar(P). % There is no connection between P in
+ stuff(P) :- thing(P). % the 2 clauses.
+
+In other words, there are no global variables, all variables are local to
+the individual clauses.
+
+------------ Multiple Clauses = Disjunction and Recursion ---------------
+
+Suppose we want to define a predicate that is true for all those persons
+that have some family -- that is, those persons who have either a parent OR
+a child. We can do so as follows:
+
+ has_family(X) :- parent(X,_).
+ has_family(X) :- parent(_,X).
+
+If we have multiple rules for the same predicate, effectively we are
+specifying a disjunction. The first rule says:
+
+ "X has a family if there is some _ such that X is the parent of _"
+
+The second rule says:
+
+ "X has a family if there is some _ such that _ is the parent of X"
+
+If either of these clauses fire then, has_family(X) becomes true.
+Like in ML, the symbol "_" represents a "wildcard" or dont-care
+variable that we will use only in one place and so we not bother
+to name it.
+
+Thus,
+ ?- has_family(holly).
+ Yes
+
+as the second rule fires for holly. While,
+
+ ?- has_family(mugatu).
+ No
+
+as neither rule fires for mugatu.
+
+For those of you who are economical with the keystrokes, there is another
+way to specify disjunctive rules -- via a semicolon:
+
+ has_family(X) :- parent(X,_) ; parent(_,X).
+
+
+Suppose you want to specify an predicate ancestor(X,Y) which is true if
+X is an ancestor of Y, i.e. if by following the parent relationship from Y
+one eventually reaches X. Intuitively, X is an ancestor of Y either if:
+
+ 1. X is the parent of Y, or,
+ 2. Z is the parent of Y, and X is an ancestor of Z.
+
+Thus, we can specify this predicate recursively as follows:
+
+ ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y). %[Base case]
+ ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(Z,Y),ancestor(X,Z) %[Recursive case]
+
+This works quite niftily:
+
+ ?- ancestor(kim,X).
+ X = holly ;
+ No
+
+i.e. holly is the only "descendant" of kim, and:
+
+ ?- ancestor(X,kim).
+ X = margaret ;
+ X = john ;
+ X = herbert ;
+ X = felix ;
+ X = albert ;
+ No
+
+i.e. kim has a long ancestry.
+
+----------------------------- Backtracking Search ---------------------------
+
+At this point, its worth looking into how exactly prolog pulls off this
+trick of answering queries in this manner, as it has its limits, which one
+needs to know to phrase the queries appropriately. Turns out, there's no
+real magic -- just brute force "proof" search.
+
+We can view each clause as a "proof rule":
+
+ goal :- subgoal_1, subgoal_2,...
+
+Thus, the rules for ancestor are as follows:
+
+ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y). %rule 1
+ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(Z,Y),ancestor(X,Z). %rule 2
+
+To prolog, these rules mean the following -- to prove ancestor(X,Y), try to:
+
+ 1. prove the subgoal parent(X,Y), or, failing that,
+ 2. prove the subgoal parent(X,Z), and then the subgoal ancestor(X,Z).
+
+Thus, suppose we ask it the query:
+
+ ?- ancestor(felix,holly).
+
+To prove this query, it undertakes the following backtracking search:
+
+
+ ancestor(felix,holly)?
+ / \
+ parent(felix,holly) parent(Z,holly)
+ NO ancestor(felix,Z)
+ |
+ | Z = kim (by fact)
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,kim)
+ / \
+ parent(felix,kim) parent(Z',kim)
+ NO ancestor(felix,Z') ----------|
+ | | Z'=john
+ Z'=margaret | |
+ | ancestor(felix,john)
+ ancestor(felix,margaret) |
+ / \ parent(felix,john)
+ parent(felix,margaret) parent(Z'',margaret) YES
+ NO ancestor(felix,Z'')
+ |
+ Z'' = herbert |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix, herbert)
+ / |
+ parent(felix,herbert) parent(Z''',herbert)
+ NO NO
+
+Thus, it first tries the base rule i.e. to prove the subgoal parent(felix,holly).
+As it cannot unify this query with any known fact, it fails (NO),
+and so it backtracks and tries the other recursive rule.
+The only Z such that parent(Z,holly) unifies with a known fact is when
+Z=kim, thus, it tries to prove the second subgoal ancestor(felix,kim).
+To do so, again it first applies the base rule, which fails, and so it
+backtracks and applies the recursive rule.
+
+This time, there are two different Z (written Z' in the figure to
+distinguish from the upper part of the tree), such that parent(Z,kim) --
+namely Z=margaret and Z=john. It picks margaret first (as that is the first
+unification that succeeds, and tries to prove the the second subgoal
+ancestor(felix,margaret). As we can see, from the subtree, this search
+fails, (as margaret's sole parent is herbert who has no parent).
+
+Thus, prolog backtracks and tries the second Z=john, and tries to prove the
+second subgoal, ancestor(felix,john). This time, the base rule works as
+parent(felix,john) is a known fact, and thus the proof search succeeds and
+prolog returns:
+
+ ?- ancestor(felix,holly).
+ Yes
+
+This same process is repeated for any query. When there is a variable in
+the query, eg.
+
+ ?- ancestor(X,kim).
+
+Prolog attempts the proof search and returns all the unifiers for X for which
+the proof succeeds. Thus, prolog is literally programming by proving.
+
+
+Hint: Trace mode in prolog shows the tree:
+
+ ?- trace.
+
+The subsequent query is traced: use the on-line help on the ACS Prolog interpreter
+
+ ?- help(trace).
+
+Order Matters:
+--------------
+
+The rub is that the order of the clauses and terms influences greatly the order
+in which the unification and backtracking happens. This is because, to
+prove a particular goal query, the different clauses are selected in
+order, and further, within each clause, the subgoals are selected from
+left-to-right, which affects how the unification happens.
+
+In the above example, if we had entered the branch Z'=john rather than
+than the branch Z'=margaret, then we would have proven the query faster.
+Similarly, if we had swapped the order of the conjunctions (subgoals) in
+the recursive clause, we would have a rather different tree (try as an
+exercise). Thus, order matters for performance.
+Hint: Try simple things first!
+
+More importantly, there are cases where the program may not even work (may
+not terminate), depending on the order:
+
+ ancestor(X,Y) :- ancestor(X,Z), parent(Z,Y).
+ ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y).
+
+Now lets try the same query:
+
+ ?- ancestor(felix,holly).
+ ERROR: Out of local stack
+
+Why ? Well, if you try to build the search tree, you'll see it goes forever:
+
+ ancestor(felix,holly)?
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,Z) %prove first subgoal,
+ | %then parent(Z,holly)
+ |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,Z') %prove first subgoal,
+ | %then parent(Z',Z)
+ |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,Z'')
+ .
+ .
+ .
+
+So, to avoid this, we must place the parent subgoal first (in the recursive
+rule). If this is done, the unification with the base facts (parent),
+fix the possible unifiers for Z, thereby guaranteeing termination.
+
+HEREHEREHEREHERE
+
+Lets see another example. Suppose we want to define a sibling predicate,
+where sibling(X,Y) holds if X and Y have the same parent. How about:
+
+ sibling(X,Y) :- parent(P,X), parent(P,Y).
+
+Almost:
+
+ ? sibling(kim,kim).
+ Yes
+
+Ah, we have to ensure that X and Y are not the same. Ok, how about:
+
+ sibling(X,Y) :- not(X=Y), parent(P,X), parent(P,Y).
+
+Surely this works ? Nope. The reason is prolog's semantics of equality
+(i.e. unification). This clause is read by prolog as:
+
+first, find a X,Y such that X cannot be unified with Y,
+then, find a P such that parent(P,X), and parent(P,Y).
+
+Now the catch is that to process the first subgoal, prolog finds it can
+always unify (two unconstrained variables) X and Y, by simply assigning X to Y!
+ ?- X=Y.
+ X=Y
+ Yes
+
+ ?- not(X=Y).
+ No
+
+Thus, the very first subgoal always fails, thereby ensuring that:
+
+ ?- sibling(X,Y).
+ No
+
+Thus, to get the rule right, we must make sure that the goal that ensures
+that X and Y are not the same, is fired AFTER X and Y have been unified
+with appropriate atoms. We can do so by simply placing the subgoal at the
+end.
+ sibling(X,Y) :- parent(P,X), parent(P,Y), not(X=Y).
+
+ ?- sibling(X,Y).
+ X = john
+ Y = maya ;
+
+ X = felix
+ Y = dana ;
+
+ X = dana
+ Y = felix ;
+
+ X = maya
+ Y = john ;
+ No
+
+This shows a major weakness: You can's just rely on the logical
+meanings and you sort of need to know how things work.
+
+Oh well, nothing's perfect.
+
+We'll see that many, many things break down the pure philosophy
+that says: "Just write what you need logically"
+
+---------------------------- Numeric Computation --------------------------
+
+Although Prolog is mostly symbolic, there is a need for numeric
+computation.
+
+ - '=' is the unification operator
+ ?- X = 2+3.
+ X = 2+3
+ Yes
+ - 'is' evaluates arithmetic expressions before doing unification
+ ?- X is 2+3.
+ X = 5
+ Yes
+
+When prolog tries to solve an "is" goal it evaluates the second argument
+and then unifies, as opposed to "=" which just does the unification.
+
+ ?- Y is X+2, X=1.
+ ERROR: Args are not sufficiently instantiated
+
+ ?- X=1, Y is X+2.
+ X=1
+ Y=3
+ Yes
+
+Again, order of evaluation matters!
+
+Functions are Predicates:
+-------------------------
+
+Lets try to write a factorial function in Prolog. We need to somehow encode
+functions as predicates. Here's the deal:
+Whenever you have a function f(x), you can write a predicate
+
+ pred_f(X,Y)
+
+that captures the behavior of f by being true for all those pairs X,Y
+where Y is f(X).
+
+Thus, we can write a predicate capturing the input/output relationship of
+the factorial function -- i.e. a predicate factorial(X,Y), that is true for
+those pairs X,Y where Y is the factorial of X.
+
+ factorial(0,1). % base case
+ factorial(X,N):- X1 is X-1, factorial(X1,N1), N is X1*N1.
+
+We "call" the function with a query.
+
+ ?- factorial(0,X).
+ X = 1
+ Yes
+
+ ?- factorial(5,X).
+ X = 120
+
+
+---------------------------- Data Structures: Lists --------------------------------
+
+Let us now see how we can encode lists in Prolog. Again, its useful to
+recall how lists were encoded as a datatype in ML.
+ -- There is a "base atom": [] denoting the empty list
+ -- There is a "cons"tructor: | (different syntax for this).
+
+Thus, ML's list Cons(1,Cons(2,Cons(3,Nil))) is equivalent
+to the prolog term:
+
+ [1|[2|[3|[]]]]
+
+where (1) | is Cons, and (2) [] is Nil.
+
+Also, as they are heavily used, Prolog lets you write the above term as:
+[1,2,3].
+
+ ?- [1,2,3] = [1|[2|[3|[]]]].
+ Yes
+
+To "deconstruct" a list into head and tail, we use pattern-matching (very
+much like in ML). So:
+
+ [X|Y] unifies with any non-empty list (like h::t),
+ X unified to the first element (head)
+ Y unified to the rest of the list (tail).
+
+ ?- [X|Y] = [1,2,3,4,5].
+ X = 1
+ Y = [2,3,4,5]
+ Yes
+
+ ?- [X|Y] = [1].
+ X = 1
+ Yes
+
+ ?- [X|Y] = [].
+ No
+
+ [1|Y] unifies with any list starting with 1 (like 1::t),
+ Y unified to the rest of the list.
+
+
+ However, prolog also lets you write:
+
+ [1,2|X] which unifies with any list that starts with 1 and then 2.
+ ?- [1,2|X] = [1,2,3,4,5].
+ X = [3,4,5]
+ Yes
+
+ ?- [1,2|X] = [1,2]
+ X = []
+ Yes
+
+ ?- [1,2|X] = [1,3]
+ No
+
+ One can place variables wherever in the term, so:
+ ?- [X,Y|Z] = [1,2,3].
+ X = 1
+ Y = 2
+ Z = [3]
+
+Ok -- how do we do interesting things with lists. For example, how might we
+"append" two lists ? Well, there is no "concatenation" or sticking
+together. In prolog you write a predicate:
+
+ append(X,Y,Z)
+
+which is true if Z is the result of appending the lists X and Y.
+Turns out such a predicate is built-in, so lets see what it does.
+
+ ?- append([1,2],[3,4],Z).
+ Z=[1,2,3,4]
+ Yes
+
+It simply "solves" for the right Z that happens to be the result of
+appending [1,2] and [3,4], but wait, predicates can do more:
+
+ ?- append(X,[3,4],[1,2,3,4]).
+ X=[1,2]
+
+whoa! backwards computation -- what X is such that when appended to [3,4]
+you get [1,2,3,4] ? And now, the full power of multiple solutions:
+
+ ?- append(X,Y,[1,2,3]).
+ X = []
+ Y = [1,2,3] ;
+
+ X = [1]
+ Y = [2,3] ;
+
+ X = [1,2]
+ Y = [3] ;
+
+ X = [1,2,3]
+ Y = []
+ Yes
+
+Try doing that in another language.
+
+There are several such predicates for reverse, sort, append, built-in, but
+lets try to roll our own.
+
+ How would you write append(X,Y,Z) in Prolog?
+
+Well, the base case is that if X is empty then, Z is just Y.
+
+ append([], Y, Y). % base case
+
+The recursive case is when X is of the form [H|Tx], in which case, Z must
+begin with H, and the tail of Z is obtained by appending Tx to Y:
+
+ append([H|T], Y, [H|Tz]) :- append(Tx,Y,Tz). % recursive case
+
+Very different way of thinking than imperative languages. Lets see what
+happens with the query:
+ ?- append([1],[2],Z).
+
+ Prolog tries to prove the term append([1],[2],Z)
+ ---> recursive case fires.
+ H unifies to 1
+ Tx unifies to []
+ Y unifies to [2]
+ Z unifies to [1|Tz]
+ ---> prove: append(Tx,Y,Tz)
+ ---> i.e. prove: append([], [2], Tz)
+ base case fires.
+ ---> Tz unifies to [2]
+ ---> therefore: Z = [1,2]
+
+But, because of the magic of pattern matching, proving and predicates, you
+get the backwards computations by the same "proving" process !
+
+Lets do a few more. Lets write a predicate tailof(X,Y) which is true if Y
+is the tail of the list X.
+
+ tailof([_|X],X).
+
+Again, note the judicious use of the wildcard "_". If you actually named
+the variable there, eg.
+
+ tailof([H|X],X).
+
+The compiler would warn you that you named a variable but used it only
+once -- a "Singleton Variable".
+
+Lets write a predicate which is true of lists with three or more elements:
+
+ has3orMoreElements([_,_,_|_]).
+
+What does this predicate do ?
+
+ foo([X,_,_,_,X|_]).
+
+One more tricky one. Lets write a predicate isin(X,L) which is true if
+X is an element of the list L. How ?
+
+base case: if X is the first element of the list L.
+
+ isin(X,[X|_]).
+
+recursive case: if X appears in the tail of the list L.
+
+ isin(X,[_|T]) :- isin(X,T).
+
+Let's give it a spin:
+
+ ?- isin(2,[1,2,3]).
+ Yes
+
+ ?- isin(X,[1,2]).
+ X=1 ;
+ X=2 ;
+ No
+
+ ?- isin(1,[2,3]).
+ No
+
+
+Let's write another predicate:
+
+ mylength(L,X)
+
+which is true if X is the length of list L
+
+ mylength([],0).
+ mylength([_|Tail],Len) :- mylength(Tail,TailLen),
+ Len is TailLen +1.
+
+ ?- mylength([1,2],L).
+ does not unify with mylength([],0)
+ unifies with mylength([_|Tail],Len) with the bindings:
+ Tail = [2] and Len = L
+
+ now I need to prove the two things:
+ mylength([2],TailLen) and Len is TailLen + 1
+
+ can I prove the first one?
+ mylength([2],TailLen) does not unify with mylength([],0)
+ mylength([2],TailLen) unifies with mylength([_|Tail'],Len')
+ with the bindings:
+ Tail' = [] and Len' = TailLen
+
+ now I need to prove the two conditions:
+ mylength([],TailLen'') and Len' is TailLen'' + 1
+ can I prove the first one?
+ mylength([],TailLen'') unifies with mylength([],0)
+ with the bindings: TailLen'' = 0
+ Len' is TailLen'' + 1 then leads to the binding
+ Len' = 1
+ therefore TailLen is equal to Len', and thus to 1
+ therefore Len is equal to Len' + 1, and thus to 2
+ therefore L is equal to Len, and thus to 2
+ Prolog answers L = 2.
+
+----------------------------------- Cuts ----------------------------------
+
+ - Ordering clauses and goals is a way to somewhat control the search and
+ backtracking process, but it is very limited.
+ - There is something called a "cut" that prevents Prolog from backtracking.
+ - Example: Let's say we're writing a program to compute the following step function:
+ X < 3 phi(X) = 0
+ 3 <= X < 6 phi(X) = 2
+ 6 <= X phi(X) = 4
+
+ In Prolog we can implement this with a binary predicate, f(X,Y), which
+ is true if Y is the function value at point X. For instance, f(0,0) is
+ true, f(4,2) is true, but f(2,4) is false. Here is the program:
+
+ f(X,0) :- X < 3. [rule 1]
+ f(X,2) :- 3 =< X, X < 6. [rule 2] note '=<'
+ f(X,4) :- 6 =< X. [rule 3]
+
+ There are two sources of inefficiency in this program, that we'll see
+ on one example:
+
+ ?- f(1,Y), 2 < Y. [find a Y such that Y = f(1) and 2 < Y]
+ [ we can see this is going to fail]
+
+ what does Prolog do?
+
+ f(1,Y)
+ 2 < Y ----------
+ rule 1 / \ \
+ Y = 0 / \ rule 2 \ rule 3
+ / | Y = 2 | Y = 4
+ | | |
+ 1 < 3 3 <= 1 6 <= 1
+ 2 < 0 1 < 6 2 < 4
+ | 2 < 2 NO
+ | NO
+ 2 < 0
+ NO
+
+ There is really no point in trying rule 2 and rule 3 because since X < 3, we
+ know that rule 2 and rule 3 will fail. Basically, the three rules are mututally
+ exclusive. We know that. Prolog doesn't.
+
+ So, we can "cut" the backtracking by using the '!' operator:
+
+ f(X,0) :- X < 3, !.
+ f(X,2) :- 3 <= X, X < 6, !.
+ f(X,4) :- 6 <= X.
+
+
+ The new execution looks like:
+
+ f(1,Y)
+ 2 < Y
+ rule 1 /
+ Y = 0 /
+ /
+ |
+ 1 < 3
+ 2 < 0
+ |
+ CUT
+ |
+ 2 < 0
+ NO
+
+ Lessons: cuts can be used to prevent Prolog from going into branches
+ of the search tree that we know, due to our understanding and
+ knowledge of the problem, will not succedd anyway.
+
+ - There are many more things possible with cuts and using them well is
+ an art. A program with no cuts at all will run orders of magnitude
+ slower than an equivalent program with a few '!' thrown in.
+
+
+-------------------------- Accumulators ---------------------------
+
+ - There are cases in which you want to add an argument to a predicate
+ just to keep track of useful information
+
+Example: List Reverse:
+----------------------
+
+We will now write a predicate:
+
+ rev(X,Y)
+
+that is true if the list Y is the reverse of the list X.
+To do so, we will use an accumulator that tracks the elements seen so far
+in X.
+
+ rev(X,Y) :- acc_rev(X,Y,[]).
+
+The third parameter is the "accumulator". We will "push" elements into it
+in the order they appear in X. Thus, when we have pushed all the elements,
+the third parameter is the "reversed" version of X.
+
+ acc_rev([],Y,Y). %base case
+ acc_rev([H|T],Y,SoFar) :- acc_rev(T,Y,[H|SoFar]). %recursive case
+
+
+ ?- rev([1,2,3],Y).
+ Y = [3,2,1]
+ Yes
+
+ ?- rev(X,[3,2,1]).
+ X = 1,2,3
+ Yes
+
+The nice thing about predicates, is one can go forwards or backwards! Its
+completely symmetric...
+
+
+
+
+Example: Finding all solutions:
+-------------------------------
+
+Suppose we have a predicate foo(X), defined:
+
+ foo(a).
+ foo(b).
+ foo(c).
+ foo(d).
+
+and say we want to find all the terms X such that foo(X) is true.
+We will use an accumulator to define a predicate:
+
+ allfoos(L)
+
+that is true for a list of terms iff every term in the list satisfies foo.
+
+
+ allfoos(L) :- listallfoos(L,[]).
+
+listallfoos is a helper predicate, whose second argument is an accumulator
+that "tracks" which terms satisfying foo are already known. We shall then
+"add" those terms that satisfy foo, but are not in the "accumulator".
+
+ % recursive case
+ listallfoos([X|L],SoFar) :- foo(X),
+ not(isin(X,SoFar)),
+ append(SoFar,[X],NewSoFar),
+ listallfoos(L,NewSoFar).
+ % base case
+ listallfoos([],_).
+
+ ?- allfoos(A).
+ must prove listalllfoos(A,[]).
+ unifies with listallfoos([X|L],[])
+ must prove four things: foo(X)
+ not(isin(X,[])
+ append([],[X],NewSoFar)
+ listallfoos(L,NewSoFar)
+ foo(a) true (X is bound to a)
+ not(isin(a,[])) true
+ append([],[a],NewSoFar) true with NewSoFar=[a]
+ must prove listallfoos(L,[a])
+ unifies with liastallfoos([Y|L'],[a])
+ must prove four things: foo(Y)
+ not(isin(Y,[a]).
+ append([a],[Y],NewSoFar')
+ listallfoos(L',NewSoFar')
+ foo(a) true
+ not(isin(a,[a])) false BACKTRACK
+ foo(b) true (Y is bound to b)
+ not(isin(b,[b])) true
+ append([a],[b],NewSoFar') true with NewSoFar' = [a,b]
+ must prove listallfoos(L',[a,b])
+ unifies with listallfoos([Z|L''],[a,b])
+ must prove four things: foo(Z)
+ not(isin(Z,[a,b])
+ one can see that will fail BACKTRACK
+ unifies with listallfoos([],[a,b]).
+ therefore: L' unifies with []
+ therefore: [Y|L'] unifies with [b]
+ therefore L unifies with [b]
+ therefore [X|L] unifies with [a,b]
+ therefore A unifies with [a,b]
+ therefore allfoos([a,b])
+
+If you try this code, and hit ';', you'll get multiple answers
+Try to figure out why (using the "trace" mode)
+Solution: add a cut
+
+ listallfoos_cut([X|L],SoFar) :-
+ foo(X),
+ not(isin(X,SoFar)),
+ append(SoFar,[X],NewSoFar),
+ listallfoos(L,NewSoFar),!.
+
+ listallfoos_cut([],_).
+
+What happens when you flip order of base case and recursion ?
+
+---------------------------- Puzzle Solving ----------------------------
+
+We now have a good feel for what Prolog programs look like. Lets finish, by
+seeing how succinctly and elegantly prolog allows us to write code to solve
+tricky logical puzzles.
+
+
+Towers of Hanoi:
+---------------
+
+ | | |
+ =|= | |
+ ===|=== | |
+ =====|===== | |
+ =======|======= | |
+ --------------------------------------------------
+ Peg 1 Peg 2 Peg 3
+
+Puzzle: There are three pegs. On the first one, there is a stack of rings
+of decreasing radius (that forms a tower).
+In each step, you are allowed to move the top ring from one peg to another, but
+only if the rings in the new peg form a conical tower -- i.e. as long as
+the sequences of radii from top to bottom is increasing (as shown in the
+figure).
+
+ - Goal: Find the sequence of moves (move top ring from from peg X to peg Y)
+ that moves the tower from peg 1 to peg 3.
+ - The basic action is to move 1 disk, with printing
+
+ move(A,B) :-
+ nl, write ('Move topdisk from '),
+ write(A), write(' to '), write(B).
+
+ - the main predicate is transfer(N,A,B,X):
+ represents "Move N disks from peg A to peg B by using peg X as a helper"
+ - base case:
+ transfer(1,A,B,X) :- move(A,B).
+ Better written as: transfer(1,A,B,_) :- move(A,B).
+
+ - inductive case:
+ transfer(N,A,B,X) :-
+ transfer the top N-1 disks to X
+ transfer the (bottom) disk from A to B
+ transfer the top N-1 disks from X to B
+
+ transfer(N,A,B,X) :-
+ M is N-1,
+ transfer(M,A,X,B),
+ move(A,B),
+ transfer(M,X,B,A).
+
+Lets see how these work -- lets name the pegs using atoms: peg1, peg2,
+peg3. Here's the sequence of moves to transfer a tower of size 3 across
+(you can try this at home!).
+
+
+ ?- transfer(3,peg1,peg3,peg2).
+ Move topdisk from peg1 to peg3
+ Move topdisk from peg1 to peg2
+ Move topdisk from peg3 to peg2
+ Move topdisk from peg1 to peg3
+ Move topdisk from peg2 to peg1
+ Move topdisk from peg2 to peg3
+ Move topdisk from peg1 to peg3
+
+
+
+
+Farmer/ Wolf / Goat / Cabbage:
+------------------------------
+
+ *West* *East*
+
+ Goat | | Goat eats cabbage if no farmer
+ Wolf | river | Wolf eats goat if no farmer
+ Cabbage | | Only one spot on the boat(farmer+1)
+
+Configure the "state" of the program as a list with the location of the
+four objects (farmer, wolf, goat, cabbage). There are two locations: West (w)
+and East (e).
+
+ initial state: [w,w,w,w]
+
+ desired state: [e,e,e,e]
+
+There are four kinds of moves:
+ with the cabbage, (move_cabbage)
+ with the goat, (move_goat)
+ with the wolf, (move_wolf)
+ with nothing. (move_nothing)
+
+Here is how the "state" changes with a given move:
+
+For instance, [w,w,w,w] ---"move wolf"--> [e,e,w,w]
+
+We encode this as:
+
+ move([w,w,w,w],move_wolf,[e,e,w,w]).
+
+ (this just says that the state transformation above is true)
+
+We could write all the possible moves as facts, but there would be a lot. However,
+it is clear that when the farmer and wolf move, the goat and the cabbage do not
+move, so a more general fact is:
+
+ move([w,w,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_wolf,[e,e,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]).
+ move([e,e,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_wolf,[w,w,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]).
+
+therefore, a more general goal is:
+
+ move([X,X,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_wolf,[Y,Y,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y)
+
+where we have:
+ change(e,w).
+ change(w,e).
+
+In addition to ensuring that X and Y are different, this predicate ensures
+that they cannot be any random atom -- they must be either "e" or "w".
+
+Now we can just write the whole program:
+
+ move([X,X,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_wolf,[Y,Y,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y).
+ move([X,P_Wolf,X,P_Cabbage],move_goat,[Y,P_Wolf,Y,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y).
+ move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,X],move_cabbage,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,Y]) :- change(X,Y).
+ move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_nothing,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y).
+
+At this point we have encoded all the possible moves. But there is nothing about
+moves being safe or unsafe. We need a safe predicate that takes a state as input and
+is true if the state is sage (nobody eats nobody).
+
+ "if at least one of the goat or the wolf is on the same bank as the farmer, AND
+ at least one of the goat or cabbage is on the same bank as the farmer,
+ then we're safe"
+
+We define the one_equal(X,Y,Z) predicate that returns true if at least one
+of Y or Z is equal to X:
+
+ one_equal(X,X,_).
+ one_equal(X,_,X).
+
+then we can have:
+
+ safe([P_Farmer,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :-
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Goat,P_Wolf),
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Goat,P_Cabbage).
+
+this encodes the logical statement we made above.
+
+A solution is defined as a sequence of moves such that we are either:
+-- in the target configuration, all on the east bank, or,
+-- in a state from which there is a single move, which takes us into
+a safe state, from which we can get to the target configuration.
+
+ solution([e,e,e,e],[]).
+ solution(State,[FirstMove|RemainingMoves]) :-
+ move(State,FirstMove,NextState),
+ safe(NextState),
+ solution(NextState,RemainingMoves).
+
+The program is complete.
+
+Example run:
+
+If you just type solution([w,w,w,w],X), we get into an infinite loop as there are
+infinitely solutions. So:
+
+ ?- length(X,7), solution([w,w,w,w],X).
+
+ X = [goat, nothing, wolf, goat, cabbage, nothing, goat]
+
+In fact, 7 steps is the shortest solution.
+
+ ?- length(X,12), solution([w,w,w,w],X). (needs an odd number of moves)
+ No
+
+ ?- length(X,13423), solution([w,w,w,w],X).
+ [goat, goat, goat, goat, goat, goat, goat, ....., +7 steps] is one of the solutions
diff --git a/links.md b/links.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2e2f2d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/links.md
@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+---
+title: Resources
+headerImg: sea.jpg
+---
+
+## Text
+
+There is **no text** for CSE 130. We will be using the
+lecture notes, and other course materials such as aticles,
+web sites, tutorials, etc. will be made available on
+this site as appropriate.
+
+Below you can find a list of books and online resources
+that explore various class topics in more depth.
+
+## Lambda Calculus
+
+- [Types and Programming Languages](https://books.google.com/books/about/Types_and_Programming_Languages.html?id=ti6zoAC9Ph8C) by Benjamin Pierce
+
+## Haskell
+
+### Books
+
+- [Haskell Programming from First Principles](http://haskellbook.com) by Christopher Allen and Julie Moronuki
+- [Programming in Haskell](http://www.cs.nott.ac.uk/~gmh/book.html) by Graham Hutton
+- [Real World Haskell](http://book.realworldhaskell.org/) by Bryan O' Sullivan, John Goerzen, and Don Stewart
+- [The Haskell School of Expression](http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/hudak/SOE/) by Paul Hudak
+- [Learn You a Haskell](http://learnyouahaskell.com/) by Miran Lipovača
+- [Haskell Wiki Book](http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Haskell)
+
+### Other Resources
+
+- [Haskell-Lang](http://haskell-lang.org)
+- [Getting started with Haskell](https://haskell-lang.org/get-started)
+- [What I Wish I Knew When Learning Haskell](http://dev.stephendiehl.com/hask/)
+- [Haskell Cheat Sheet](http://cheatsheet.codeslower.com/CheatSheet.pdf)
+- [Haskell Pitfalls](http://users.jyu.fi/~sapekiis/haskell-pitfalls/)
+- A Simple editor-independent [mini-ide](https://github.com/ndmitchell/ghcid#readme)
+- API Search Engines:
+ [Hoogle](http://haskell.org/hoogle)
+ [Hayoo](http://holumbus.fh-wedel.de/hayoo/hayoo.html)
+
+### IDE Support
+
+- I recommend [VSCode](https://github.com/haskell/haskell-language-server#visual-studio-code)
+- Other editors [Emacs, Vim etc.](https://github.com/haskell/haskell-language-server#configuring-your-editor)
+
+## Prolog
+
+- [Tutorial 1](/static/raw/prolog_tutorial.pdf)
+- [Tutorial 2](http://kti.ms.mff.cuni.cz/~bartak/prolog/learning.html)
+
+## Fun Articles
+
+- [PL Dictionary](http://www.cs.washington.edu/education/courses/cse341/04au/341dict.html) by Dan Grossman
+- [The Humble Programmer](http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ewd03xx/EWD340.PDF) by Edsger Dijkstra
+- [Can Your Programming Language Do This?](http://www.joelonsoftware.com/items/2006/08/01.html) by Joel Spolsky
+- [Closures in C++](http://herbsutter.wordpress.com/2008/03/29/trip-report-februarymarch-2008-iso-c-standards-meeting/)
+- [MapReduce](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MapReduce)
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/site.hs b/site.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3b356bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/site.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
+{-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}
+import Data.Monoid (mappend)
+import Data.List
+import Hakyll
+import Text.Pandoc
+import Text.Pandoc.Walk (walk)
+-- import qualified Data.Map as M
+
+main :: IO ()
+main = hakyll $ do
+ match "static/*/*" $ do route idRoute
+ compile copyFileCompiler
+ match (fromList tops) $ crunchWithCtx siteCtx
+ match "lectures/*" $ crunchWithCtxCustom "lecture" postCtx
+ match "assignments/*" $ crunchWithCtx postCtx
+ match "discussions/*" $ crunchWithCtx postCtx
+ match "templates/*" $ compile templateCompiler
+
+crunchWithCtx ctx = do
+ route $ setExtension "html"
+ compile $ pandocCompiler
+ >>= loadAndApplyTemplate "templates/page.html" ctx
+ >>= loadAndApplyTemplate "templates/default.html" ctx
+ >>= relativizeUrls
+
+crunchWithCtxCustom mode ctx = do
+ route $ setExtension "html"
+ compile $ pandocCompilerWithTransform
+ defaultHakyllReaderOptions
+ defaultHakyllWriterOptions
+ (walk (toggleMode mode . haskellizeBlock) . walk haskellizeInline)
+ >>= loadAndApplyTemplate "templates/page.html" ctx
+ >>= loadAndApplyTemplate "templates/default.html" ctx
+ >>= relativizeUrls
+
+-- | Treat an ordered list with uppercase roman numerals as a map:
+-- in each item, the first paragraph is the key, and the second is the value;
+-- pick the value with key `mode` and discard all other items
+-- toggleMode :: String -> Block -> Block
+toggleMode mode (OrderedList (_, UpperRoman, _) items) = select items
+ where
+ select ([Para [Str key], payload] : rest) =
+ if key == mode then payload else select rest
+ select _ = Null
+toggleMode _ b = b
+
+-- | Make inline code Haskell by default
+haskellizeInline :: Inline -> Inline
+haskellizeInline (Code (ident, [], kvs) str) = Code (ident, ["haskell"], kvs) str
+haskellizeInline i = i
+
+-- | Make code blocks Haskell by default
+haskellizeBlock :: Block -> Block
+haskellizeBlock (CodeBlock (ident, [], kvs) str) = CodeBlock (ident, ["haskell"], kvs) str
+haskellizeBlock b = b
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+postCtx :: Context String
+postCtx =
+ dateField "date" "%B %e, %Y" `mappend`
+ -- constField "headerImg" "Eiffel.jpg" `mappend`
+ siteCtx
+
+siteCtx :: Context String
+siteCtx =
+ constField "cssUrl" "https://ucsd-cse230.github.io/sp20" `mappend`
+ constField "baseUrl" "https://ucsd-cse130.github.io/wi24" `mappend`
+ constField "site_name" "cse130" `mappend`
+ constField "site_description" "UCSD CSE 130" `mappend`
+ constField "site_username" "Ranjit Jhala" `mappend`
+ constField "twitter_username" "ranjitjhala" `mappend`
+ constField "github_username" "ranjitjhala" `mappend`
+ constField "google_username" "rjhala@ucsd.edu" `mappend`
+ constField "google_userid" "u/0/104385825850161331469" `mappend`
+ constField "piazza_classid" "class/lr1zj9yl963y9" `mappend`
+ constField "canvasUrl" "https://canvas.ucsd.edu/courses/52295" `mappend`
+ defaultContext
+
+tops =
+ [ "index.md"
+ , "grades.md"
+ , "lectures.md"
+ , "links.md"
+ , "assignments.md"
+ , "calendar.md"
+ , "contact.md"
+ ]
+
+fac :: Int -> Int
+fac 0 = 1
+fac n = n * fac (n-1)
diff --git a/stack.yaml b/stack.yaml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4dea8f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/stack.yaml
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+resolver: lts-20.1
+
+flags: {}
+
+packages:
+ - '.'
+
+extra-deps: []
+
+allow-newer: true
+
diff --git a/static/arith/LICENSE b/static/arith/LICENSE
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a525d89
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/LICENSE
@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+Copyright (c) 2016 Ranjit Jhala
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining
+a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the
+"Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including
+without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish,
+distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to
+permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to
+the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included
+in all copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND,
+EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF
+MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT.
+IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
+CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT,
+TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE
+SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.
diff --git a/static/arith/Makefile b/static/arith/Makefile
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88d7a3f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/Makefile
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+STACK=stack
+
+UNAME := $(shell uname)
+ifeq ($(UNAME), Linux)
+ FORMAT=aout
+else
+ifeq ($(UNAME), Darwin)
+ FORMAT=macho
+endif
+endif
+
+COURSE=cs130s
+ASGN=hw1
+
+test: clean
+ $(STACK) test
+
+bin:
+ $(STACK) build
+
+clean:
+ $(STACK) clean
+
+distclean: clean
+ rm -rf .stack-work
+
+tags:
+ hasktags -x -c lib/
+
+turnin:
+ # rm -rf .stack-work
+ rm -rf $(ASGN).tgz
+ tar -zcvf ../$(ASGN).tgz --exclude .stack-work --exclude .git ../$(ASGN)
+ mv ../$(ASGN).tgz .
+ turnin -c $(COURSE) ./$(ASGN).tgz
+
diff --git a/static/arith/README.md b/static/arith/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b2474c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,567 @@
+---
+title: A Tutorial On Parsing with Alex and Happy
+date: 2018-05-12
+headerImg: books.jpg
+---
+
+In this note we consider an invaluable programming tool, the
+*parser generator*. The problem that we want to solve
+is: how do we **parse strings**, that is, convert
+(unstructured) strings, the lowest-level representation of a
+program text, into (highly structured) representations like
+expressions, statements, functions *etc* which can then be
+compiled or interpreted.
+
+Of course, the problem is much more general and arises in
+pretty much every large scale system, how do you convert
+raw data strings, into structured objects that can be
+manipulated by the rest of the system.
+
+Of course, one can imagine various convoluted algorithms
+for extracting structure from strings. Indeed, you may well
+think that the conversion routine depends heavily on the
+*target* of the conversion! However, it turns out that we
+can design a small *domain-specific language* that describes
+a large number of the kinds of target structures, and we
+will use a *parser generator* that will automatically
+convert the structure description into a parsing function!
+
+# An Arithmetic Interpreter
+
+As a running example, let us build a small interpreter for
+a language of arithmetic expressions, described by the type
+
+```haskell
+data Aexpr
+ = AConst Int
+ | AVar String
+ | APlus Aexpr Aexpr
+ | AMinus Aexpr Aexpr
+ | AMul Aexpr Aexpr
+ | ADiv Aexpr Aexpr
+```
+
+shown in file [Types.hs][0]. This expression language
+is quite similar to what you saw for the random-art
+assignment, and we can write a simple recursive
+evaluator for it
+
+```haskell
+eval :: Env -> Aexpr -> Value
+eval _ (AConst i) = i
+eval env (AVar x) = fromMaybe (errUnbound x) (lookup x env)
+eval env (APlus e1 e2) = eval env e1 + eval env e2
+eval env (AMinus e1 e2) = eval env e1 - eval env e2
+eval env (AMul e1 e2) = eval env e1 * eval env e2
+eval env (ADiv e1 e2) = eval env e1 `div` eval env e2
+```
+
+Here the `env` is a `[(String, Value)]` corresponding to a list
+of variables and their corresponding values. Thus, if you run the
+above, you would see something like
+
+```haskell
+λ> eval [] (APlus (AConst 2) (AConst 6))
+8
+
+λ> eval [("x", 16), ("y", 10)] (AMinus (AVar "x") (AVar "y"))
+6
+
+λ> eval [("x", 16), ("y", 10)] (AMinus (AVar "x") (AVar "z"))
+*** Exception: Error {errMsg = "Unbound variable z"}
+```
+
+Now it is rather tedious to write expressions like
+`APlus (AConst 2) (AConst 6)`, and `AMinus (AVar "x") (AVar "z")`.
+We would like to obtain a simple parsing function
+
+```haskell
+parse :: String -> Aexpr
+```
+
+that converts a string to the corresponding `Aexpr` if possible.
+For example, it would be sweet if we could get
+
+```haskell
+λ> parse "2 + 6"
+APlus (AConst 2) (AConst 6)
+λ> parse "(x - y) / 2"
+ADiv (AMinus (AVar "x") (AVar "y")) (AConst 2)
+```
+
+and so on. Lets see how to get there.
+
+# Strategy
+
+We will use a two-step strategy to convert raw strings into structured
+data.
+
+## Step 1 (Lexing) : From String to Tokens
+
+Strings are really just a list of very low-level characters.
+In the first step, we will aggregate the characters into more
+meaningful *tokens* that contain more high-level information.
+For example, we will can aggregate a sequence of numeric characters
+into an integer, and a sequence of alphanumerics (starting with a
+lower-case alphabet) into say a variable name.
+
+Thus, as a result of the lexing phase, we can convert a list of
+individual characters
+
+
+
+into a list of *tokens*
+
+
+
+### Step 2 (Parsing) : From Tokens to Tree
+
+Next, we will use a special description of the structures we
+are trying to generate called a *grammar* to convert the list
+of tokens into a tree-like representation of our final structure:
+
+```haskell
+APlus (AConst 229) (AMul (AConst 98) (AVar "x2"))
+```
+
+The actual algorithms for converting from lists of tokens to
+trees are very subtle and sophisticated. We will omit a detailed
+description and instead just look at how the structures can
+themselves be represented by grammars.
+
+Next, we get into the details of our the above strategy, by
+describing exactly what the lexer and parser (generators) do
+in terms of their input and output.
+
+# Lexers
+
+We will use the tool called `alex` to automatically obtain
+a lexer from a high-level description of what the tokens are and
+what what sequences of characters should get mapped to tokens.
+
+## Tokens
+
+The file [Lexer.x][2] describes the set of tokens needed
+to represent our simple language
+
+```haskell
+data Token
+ = NUM AlexPosn Int
+ | ID AlexPosn String
+ | PLUS AlexPosn
+ | MINUS AlexPosn
+ | MUL AlexPosn
+ | DIV AlexPosn
+ | LPAREN AlexPosn
+ | RPAREN AlexPosn
+ | EOF AlexPosn
+```
+
+Note that the first two tokens, `NUM` and `ID` also carry values with
+them, respectively `Int` and `String`; the others just have a field
+of type `AlexPosn` which, roughly speaking, is the source position
+at which that token was found.
+
+## Regular Expressions
+
+Next, we must describe the sequences of characters that get aggregated
+into a particular token. This is done using [regular expressions][7]
+defined in the file [Lexer.x][2], which has a sequence of rules
+of the form
+
+```haskell
+ [\+] { \p _ -> PLUS p }
+ [\-] { \p _ -> MINUS p }
+ [\*] { \p _ -> MUL p }
+ [\/] { \p _ -> DIV p }
+ \( { \p _ -> LPAREN p }
+ \) { \p _ -> RPAREN p }
+ $alpha [$alpha $digit \_ \']* { \p s -> ID p s }
+ $digit+ { \p s -> NUM p (read s) }
+```
+
+Each rule is of the form: `| <regexp> {hs-expr}`.
+Intuitively, each regular expression `regexp`
+describes a sequence of characters, and when
+that sequence is _matched_ in the input string,
+the corresponding Haskell expression is evaluated
+to obtain the _token_ that corresponds to the match.
+Let's see some examples,
+
+```haskell
+ [\+] { \p _ -> PLUS p }
+ [\-] { \p _ -> MINUS p }
+ [\*] { \p _ -> MUL p }
+ [\/] { \p _ -> DIV p }
+ \( { \p _ -> LPAREN p }
+ \) { \p _ -> RPAREN p }
+```
+
+- when a character `+`, `-`, `*`, `/` etc. are encountered,
+ the lexer generates the tokens `PLUS`, `MINUS`, `MUL`, `DIV`
+ etc. respectively,
+
+- `[c1 c2 ... cn]` where each `ci` is a character denotes
+ a regular expression that matches **any of** the characters
+ in the sequence. Thus, the regexp `[a-zA-Z]` indicates any
+ of the alphabets lower, or upper case and `[0-9]` denotes
+ _any of_ the numeric digits
+
+```haskell
+ [0-9]+ { \p s -> NUM p (read s) }
+```
+
+- Thus, `[0 - 9]` denotes a regexp that matches any
+ digit-character. When you take a regexp and put a
+ `+` in front of it, i.e. `e+` corresponds to
+ **one-or-more** repetitions of `e`.
+ Thus, the regexp `[0-9]+` matches a _non-empty_
+ sequence of digit characters!
+ In the Haskell expression `p` is the source position, and `s`
+ is the string corresponding to the matching characters; we return
+ the exact `Int` by computing `read s` which converts the matched
+ `String` into an `Int`.
+
+```haskell
+ [a-z A-Z] [a-z A-Z 0-9 \_ \']* { \p s -> ID p s }
+```
+
+- `e1 e2` denotes a regexp that matches any string `s`
+ that can be split into two parts `s1` and `s2`
+ (s.t. `s == s1 ++ s2`) where `s1` matches `e1` and
+ `s2` matches `e2`. That is, `e1 e2` is a **sequencing**
+ regexp that first matches `e1` and then matches `e2`.
+
+- `e*` corresponds to **zero-or-more repetitions** of `e`.
+ Thus, `[a-zA-Z][a-z A-Z 0-9 \_ \']*` is a regexp that
+ matches all strings that (1) begin with an alphabet,
+ and then have a (possibly empty)
+ sequence of alpha-numeric characters, or underscore or `'`.
+ As before, the entire matching string is bound to the
+ variable `s` and in this case the `ID p s` token is returned indicating that an identifier appeared in the input stream.
+
+We can tidy up the lexer by **naming** some common regexps nicely,
+e.g. writing
+
+```haskell
+$digit = 0-9
+$alpha = [a-zA-Z]
+```
+
+and then simplifying the rules to:
+
+```haskell
+ $alpha [$alpha $digit \_ \']* { \p s -> ID p s }
+ $digit+ { \p s -> NUM p (read s) }
+```
+
+
+## Running the Lexer
+
+We can run the lexer directly to look at the sequences
+of tokens found. The function `parseTokens` simply
+converts an input string into a buffer on which
+the actual lexer operates.
+
+```haskell
+λ> parseTokens "23 + 4 / off -"
+Right [ NUM (AlexPn 0 1 1) 23
+ , PLUS (AlexPn 3 1 4)
+ , NUM (AlexPn 5 1 6) 4
+ , DIV (AlexPn 7 1 8)
+ , ID (AlexPn 9 1 10) "off"
+ , MINUS (AlexPn 13 1 14)
+ ]
+```
+
+For each token the above shows the *position* at
+which the token was found in the input string.
+
+Note that the the lexer finds *maximal* matches, that is:
+
+```haskell
+λ> parseTokens "92zoo"
+Right [NUM (AlexPn 0 1 1) 92, ID (AlexPn 2 1 3) "zoo"]
+```
+
+Here, when it hits the `z` it knows that the number pattern has ended and
+a new variable pattern has begun. Of course, if you give it something that
+doesn't match anything, you get an exception
+
+```haskell
+λ> parseTokens "%"
+Left "lexical error at 1 line, 1 column"
+```
+
+# Parsers
+
+Next, will use the tool called `happy` to automatically obtain
+a parser from a high-level description of the target structure
+called a **grammar**. (Note: grammars are very deep area of study,
+we're going to take a very superficial look here, guided by the
+pragmatics of how to convert strings to `Aexpr` values.)
+
+## Grammars
+
+A grammar is a recursive definition of a set of trees, comprising
+
+- **Terminals** (aka _Token Names_) which describe the _leaf_ nodes
+ of the tree; here the leaf nodes will always be _tokens_ returned
+ by the lexer, so we specify the _terminals_ as:
+
+```haskell
+%token
+ TNUM { NUM _ $$ }
+ ID { ID _ $$ }
+ '+' { PLUS _ }
+ '-' { MINUS _ }
+ '*' { MUL _ }
+ '/' { DIV _ }
+ '(' { LPAREN _ }
+ ')' { RPAREN _ }
+```
+
+which says that `TNUM` and `ID` are the "terminals" for the `NUM` and `ID` tokens;
+and `'+'`, `'-'` etc are the tokens for the `PLUS`, `MINUS` etc. tokens.
+
+- **Non-terminals** which describe the _internal_
+ nodes of the tree, respectively, and are written
+ by rules of the form:
+
+```haskell
+NonTerm :
+ | Term-or-nonterm-1 ... Term-or-non-term-n { Hs-Expr }
+```
+
+ that describe the possible configuration of
+ children of each internal node, together with a Haskell
+ expression that generates a *value* that is used to
+ decorate the node. This value is computed from the
+ values decorating the respective children.
+
+For example, the following rules for non-terminals define
+the grammar for `Arith` expressions:
+
+```haskell
+Aexpr : BinExp { $1 }
+ | TNUM { AConst $1 }
+ | ID { AVar $1 }
+ | '(' Aexpr ')' { $2 }
+
+BinExp : Aexpr '*' Aexpr { AMul $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '+' Aexpr { APlus $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '-' Aexpr { AMinus $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '/' Aexpr { ADiv $1 $3 }
+```
+
+Note that the above grammar (almost) directly mimics the
+recursive type definition of the expressions. In the above
+grammar, the _two_ non-terminals are `Aexpr` and `BinExp`
+(we could call them whatever we like, we just picked the
+same name for convenience.)
+
+The rules `AExpr` define it to be one of:
+
+- a `BinExp` (which will be expressions made out of a binary-operator), or
+- a `TNUM` i.e. a concrete number, or
+- a `ID` i.e. a variable, or
+- an expression surrounded by parentheses.
+
+The terminals are the tokens we defined earlier, and each
+rule corresponds to how you would take the sub-trees (i.e.
+sub-expressions) and stitch them together to get bigger trees.
+
+The line
+
+```haskell
+%name aexpr
+```
+
+at the top tells `happy` to use the rules for
+the _non-terminal_ `AExpr` to generate a function
+`aexpr` that _parses_ a `Token` stream into an `AExpr`.
+
+Next, let us consider each of the rules in turn.
+
+```haskell
+ | TNUM { AConst $1 }
+ | ID { AVar $1 }
+```
+
+- The base-case rules for `TNUM` and `ID` state that those
+ (individual) tokens can be viewed as corresponding to `Aexpr`
+ nodes. Consider the target expression in the curly braces.
+ Here `$1` denotes the value decorating the 1st (and only!)
+ element of the corresponding non/terminal- sequence. That is,
+ for the former (respectively latter) case `$1` the `Int`
+ (respectively `String` value) associated with the token,
+ which we use to obtain the base arithmetic expressions via the
+ appropriate constructors.
+
+```haskell
+ | '(' Aexpr ')' { $2 }
+```
+
+- The last rule allows us to parse parenthesized expressions;
+ if there is a left-paren token followed by an expresssion
+ followed by a matching right-paren token, then the whole
+ sequence is an `Aexpr` node. Notice how the decorated
+ expression is simply `$2` which decorates the second
+ element of the sequence, i.e. the (sub) expression being
+ wrapped in parentheses.
+
+```haskell
+BinExp : Aexpr '*' Aexpr { AMul $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '+' Aexpr { APlus $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '-' Aexpr { AMinus $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '/' Aexpr { ADiv $1 $3 }
+```
+
+- The recursive case rules, e.g. for the `+` case says that
+ if there is a token-sequence that is parsed into an `Aexpr`
+ node, followed by a `+` token, followed by a sequence that
+ is parsed into an `Aexpr` node, then the **entire** sequence
+ can be parsed into an `Aexpr` node.
+ Here `$1` and `$3` refer to the _first_ and _third_ elements of
+ the sequence, that is, the _left_ and _right_ subexpressions.
+ The decorated value is simply the super-expression obtained by
+ applying the `APlus` constructor to the left and right
+ subexpressions. The same applies to
+
+## Running the Parser
+
+Great, lets take our parser out for a spin! First, lets build the different
+elements
+
+```bash
+$ cp src/Language/Arith/Parser0.y src/Language/Arith/Parser.y
+$ stack build
+...
+shift/reduce conflicts: 16
+...
+```
+
+and now we can load up the `ghci` shell with:
+
+```bash
+$ stack ghci
+```
+
+which puts us in a ghci shell with the parser loaded in:
+
+```haskell
+λ> evalString [] "1 + 3 + 6"
+10
+
+λ> evalString [("x", 100), ("y", 20)] "x - y"
+80
+```
+
+And lo! we have a simple calculator that also supports variables.
+
+## Precedence and Associativity
+
+Ok, looks like our calculator works fine, but lets try this
+
+```haskell
+λ> evalString [] "2 * 5 + 5"
+20
+```
+
+Huh?! you would think that the above should yield `15` as `*` has higher
+precedence than `+` , and so the above expression is really `(2 * 5) + 5`.
+Indeed, if we took the trouble to put the parentheses in, the right thing
+happens
+
+```haskell
+λ> evalString [] "(2 * 5) + 5"
+15
+```
+
+Indeed, the same issue arises with a single operator
+
+```haskell
+λ> evalString [] "2 - 1 - 1"
+2
+```
+
+What happens here is that the grammar we gave is **ambiguous**
+as there are multiple ways of parsing the string `2 * 5 + 5`, namely
+
+- `APlus (AMul (AConst 2) (AConst 5)) (AConst 5)`, or
+- `AMul (AConst 2) (APlus (AConst 5) (AConst 5))`
+
+We want the former, but `happy` gives us the latter!
+Similarly, there are multiple ways of parsing `2 - 1 - 1`, namely
+
+- `AMinus (AMinus (AConst 2) (AConst 1)) (AConst 1)`, or
+- `AMinus (AConst 2) (AMinus (AConst 1) (AConst 1))`
+
+Again, since `-` is left-associative, we want the former, but
+we get the latter! (Incidentally, this is why we got those wierd
+grumbles about `shift/reduce conflicts` when we ran `stack build`
+above ...)
+
+There are various ways of adding precedence, one is to hack the
+grammar by adding various extra non-terminals, as done here
+[Parser2.y][4]. Note how there are no conflicts if you
+use that grammar instead.
+
+However, since this is such a common problem, there is a much
+simpler solution, which is to add precedence and associativity
+annotations to the .mly file. In particular, let us use the
+modified grammar [Parser1.y][3].
+
+```haskell
+$ cp src/Language/Arith/Parser1.y src/Language/Arith/Parser.y
+$ stack build
+```
+
+check it out, no conflicts this time! The only difference between this
+grammar and the previous one are the lines
+
+```haskell
+%left '+' '-'
+%left '*' '/'
+```
+
+This means that all the operators are **left-associative**
+so `e1 - e2 - e3` is parsed as if it were `(e1 - e2) - e3`.
+Now, after doing
+
+```bash
+$ stack ghci
+```
+
+we get
+
+```haskell
+λ> evalString [] "2 - 1 - 1"
+0
+```
+
+Furthermore, we get that addition and subtraction have lower
+precedence than multiplication and division (the order of the
+annotations matters!)
+
+```haskell
+λ> evalString [] "2 * 5 + 5"
+15
+λ> evalString [] "2 + 5 * 5"
+27
+```
+
+Hence, the multiplication operator has higher precedence than the addition,
+as we have grown to expect, and all is well in the world.
+
+This concludes our brief tutorial, which should suffice for your Nano
+programming assignment. However, if you are curious, I encourage you to
+look at the documentation for [alex](https://www.haskell.org/alex/) and
+[happy](https://www.haskell.org/happy/) for more details.
+
+[0]: https://github.com/cse130-sp18/arith/blob/master/src/Language/Arith/Types.hs
+[1]: https://github.com/cse130-sp18/arith/blob/master/src/Language/Arith/Parser0.y
+[2]: https://github.com/cse130-sp18/arith/blob/master/src/Language/Arith/Lexer.x
+[3]: https://github.com/cse130-sp18/arith/blob/master/src/Language/Arith/Parser1.y
+[4]: https://github.com/cse130-sp18/arith/blob/master/src/Language/Arith/Parser2.y
+[7]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_expression
diff --git a/static/arith/Setup.hs b/static/arith/Setup.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9a994af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/Setup.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+import Distribution.Simple
+main = defaultMain
diff --git a/static/arith/arith.cabal b/static/arith/arith.cabal
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c5d595
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/arith.cabal
@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+name: arith
+version: 0.1.0.0
+synopsis: Simple demo on how to use happy/alex
+license: MIT
+license-file: LICENSE
+author: Ranjit Jhala
+maintainer: jhala@cs.ucsd.edu
+category: Language
+build-type: Simple
+extra-source-files: README.md
+cabal-version: >=1.10
+
+
+Library
+ ghc-options: -W -threaded
+ exposed-modules: Language.Arith.Types,
+ Language.Arith.Eval,
+ Language.Arith.Parser
+ Default-Extensions: OverloadedStrings
+
+ -- other-extensions:
+ build-depends: base,
+ array,
+ mtl
+
+ hs-source-dirs: src
+ default-language: Haskell2010
+ build-tools: alex, happy
+ other-modules: Language.Arith.Lexer
+
+executable nano
+ build-depends: base,
+ mtl,
+ transformers,
+ arith
+ default-language: Haskell2010
+ main-is: src/Main.hs
+ Default-Extensions: OverloadedStrings
+
+test-suite test
+ default-language: Haskell98
+ type: exitcode-stdio-1.0
+ hs-source-dirs: tests
+ ghc-options: -threaded
+ Default-Extensions: OverloadedStrings
+ main-is: Test.hs
+ build-depends: base,
+ directory,
+ filepath,
+ tasty,
+ tasty-hunit,
+ arith
+ other-modules: Common
diff --git a/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Eval.hs b/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Eval.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b9f8d6c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Eval.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,72 @@
+{-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}
+{-# LANGUAGE ExtendedDefaultRules #-}
+
+module Language.Arith.Eval
+ (
+ -- * Run a file, string or expr
+ evalFile
+ , evalString
+ , evalExpr
+
+ -- * Convert string to AST
+ , parse
+ -- * Convert string to Tokens
+ , tokens)
+ where
+
+import Control.Exception (catch)
+import Language.Arith.Types
+import Language.Arith.Lexer ( Token )
+import Language.Arith.Parser
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+evalFile :: FilePath -> IO ()
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+evalFile f = runFile f `catch` exitError
+
+runFile :: FilePath -> IO ()
+runFile f = do
+ str <- readFile f
+ let n = evalString [] str
+ putStrLn ("Result = " ++ show n)
+
+exitError :: Error -> IO ()
+exitError (Error msg) = putStrLn ("Error: " ++ msg)
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+evalString :: Env -> String -> Value
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+evalString env s = evalExpr env (parseAexpr s)
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+evalExpr :: Env -> Aexpr -> Value
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+evalExpr = eval
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+-- | `parse s` returns the Expr representation of the String s
+--
+-- >>> parse "123"
+-- AConst 123
+--
+-- >>> parse "foo"
+-- AVar "foo"
+--
+-- >>> parse "x + y"
+-- APlus (AVar "x") (AVar "y")
+--
+-- >>> parse "10 - 2 - 2"
+-- AMinus (AMinus (AConst 10) (AConst 2)) (AConst 2)
+--
+-- >>> parse "2 + 10 * 3"
+-- APlus (AConst 2) (AMul (AConst 10) (AConst 3))
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+parse :: String -> Aexpr
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+parse = parseAexpr
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+tokens :: String -> Either String [Token]
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+tokens = parseTokens
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Lexer.x b/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Lexer.x
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c765c90
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Lexer.x
@@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
+{
+{-# LANGUAGE FlexibleContexts #-}
+
+module Language.Arith.Lexer (
+ Token(..),
+ scanTokens
+) where
+
+import Control.Monad.Except
+
+}
+
+%wrapper "posn"
+
+$digit = 0-9
+$alpha = [a-zA-Z]
+$eol = [\n]
+$hex = [$digit a-f A-F]
+
+tokens :-
+
+ -- Whitespace insensitive
+ $eol ;
+ $white+ ;
+
+ -- Comments
+ "#".* ;
+
+ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ \+ { \p _ -> PLUS p }
+ \- { \p _ -> MINUS p }
+ \* { \p _ -> MUL p }
+ \/ { \p _ -> DIV p }
+ \( { \p _ -> LPAREN p }
+ \) { \p _ -> RPAREN p }
+ $alpha [$alpha $digit \_ \']* { \p s -> ID p s }
+ $digit+ { \p s -> NUM p (read s) }
+ 0x $hex+ { \p s -> NUM p (read s) }
+
+ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+{
+
+data Token
+ = NUM AlexPosn Int
+ | ID AlexPosn String
+ | PLUS AlexPosn
+ | MINUS AlexPosn
+ | MUL AlexPosn
+ | DIV AlexPosn
+ | LPAREN AlexPosn
+ | RPAREN AlexPosn
+ | EOF AlexPosn
+ deriving (Eq,Show)
+
+
+getLineNum :: AlexPosn -> Int
+getLineNum (AlexPn _ lineNum _) = lineNum
+
+getColumnNum :: AlexPosn -> Int
+getColumnNum (AlexPn _ _ colNum) = colNum
+
+scanTokens :: String -> Except String [Token]
+scanTokens str = go (alexStartPos,'\n',[],str)
+ where
+ go inp@(pos,_,_,str) =
+ case alexScan inp 0 of
+ AlexEOF -> return []
+ AlexError ((AlexPn _ line column),_,_,_) -> throwError $ "lexical error at " ++ (show line) ++ " line, " ++ (show column) ++ " column"
+ AlexSkip inp' _ -> go inp'
+ AlexToken inp' len act -> do
+ res <- go inp'
+ let rest = act pos (take len str)
+ return (rest : res)
+
+}
diff --git a/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Parser.y b/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Parser.y
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2944f1d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Parser.y
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+{
+{-# LANGUAGE GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving #-}
+{-# LANGUAGE PartialTypeSignatures #-}
+
+module Language.Arith.Parser (
+ parseAexpr
+ , parseTokens
+ ) where
+
+import Language.Arith.Lexer
+import Language.Arith.Types hiding (Arith (..))
+import Control.Monad.Except
+import Control.Exception
+}
+
+-- Entry point
+%name aexpr
+
+-- Lexer structure
+%tokentype { Token }
+
+-- Parser monad
+%monad { Except String } { (>>=) } { return }
+%error { parseError }
+
+-- Token Names
+%token
+ TNUM { NUM _ $$ }
+ ID { ID _ $$ }
+ '+' { PLUS _ }
+ '-' { MINUS _ }
+ '*' { MUL _ }
+ '/' { DIV _ }
+ '(' { LPAREN _ }
+ ')' { RPAREN _ }
+
+-- Operators
+%left '+' '-'
+%left '*' '/'
+%%
+
+Aexpr : TNUM { AConst $1 }
+ | ID { AVar $1 }
+ | '(' Aexpr ')' { $2 }
+ | Aexpr '+' Aexpr { APlus $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '-' Aexpr { AMinus $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '*' Aexpr { AMul $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '/' Aexpr { ADiv $1 $3 }
+
+
+
+{
+
+parseError :: [Token] -> Except String a
+parseError (l:ls) = throwError (show l)
+parseError [] = throwError "Unexpected end of Input"
+
+
+parseAexpr :: String -> Aexpr
+parseAexpr s = case parseAexpr' s of
+ Left msg -> throw (Error ("parse error:" ++ msg))
+ Right e -> e
+
+parseAexpr' input = runExcept $ do
+ tokenStream <- scanTokens input
+ aexpr tokenStream
+
+parseTokens :: String -> Either String [Token]
+parseTokens = runExcept . scanTokens
+
+}
diff --git a/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Parser0.y b/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Parser0.y
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8dbf0f2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Parser0.y
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+{
+{-# LANGUAGE GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving #-}
+{-# LANGUAGE PartialTypeSignatures #-}
+
+module Language.Arith.Parser (
+ parseAexpr
+ , parseTokens
+ ) where
+
+import Language.Arith.Lexer
+import Language.Arith.Types hiding (Arith (..))
+import Control.Monad.Except
+import Control.Exception
+}
+
+-- Entry point
+%name aexpr
+
+-- Lexer structure
+%tokentype { Token }
+
+-- Parser monad
+%monad { Except String } { (>>=) } { return }
+%error { parseError }
+
+-- Token Names
+%token
+ TNUM { NUM _ $$ }
+ ID { ID _ $$ }
+ '+' { PLUS _ }
+ '-' { MINUS _ }
+ '*' { MUL _ }
+ '/' { DIV _ }
+ '(' { LPAREN _ }
+ ')' { RPAREN _ }
+
+-- Operators
+-- %left '+' '-'
+-- %left '*' '/'
+%%
+
+Aexpr : BinExp { $1 }
+ | TNUM { AConst $1 }
+ | ID { AVar $1 }
+ | '(' Aexpr ')' { $2 }
+
+BinExp : Aexpr '+' Aexpr { APlus $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '-' Aexpr { AMinus $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '*' Aexpr { AMul $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '/' Aexpr { ADiv $1 $3 }
+
+{
+
+parseError :: [Token] -> Except String a
+parseError (l:ls) = throwError (show l)
+parseError [] = throwError "Unexpected end of Input"
+
+
+parseAexpr :: String -> Aexpr
+parseAexpr s = case parseAexpr' s of
+ Left msg -> throw (Error ("parse error:" ++ msg))
+ Right e -> e
+
+parseAexpr' input = runExcept $ do
+ tokenStream <- scanTokens input
+ aexpr tokenStream
+
+parseTokens :: String -> Either String [Token]
+parseTokens = runExcept . scanTokens
+
+}
diff --git a/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Parser1.y b/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Parser1.y
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab0d8e0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Parser1.y
@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+{
+{-# LANGUAGE GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving #-}
+{-# LANGUAGE PartialTypeSignatures #-}
+
+module Language.Arith.Parser (
+ parseAexpr
+ , parseTokens
+ ) where
+
+import Language.Arith.Lexer
+import Language.Arith.Types hiding (Arith (..))
+import Control.Monad.Except
+import Control.Exception
+}
+
+-- Entry point
+%name aexpr
+
+-- Lexer structure
+%tokentype { Token }
+
+-- Parser monad
+%monad { Except String } { (>>=) } { return }
+%error { parseError }
+
+-- Token Names
+%token
+ TNUM { NUM _ $$ }
+ ID { ID _ $$ }
+ '+' { PLUS _ }
+ '-' { MINUS _ }
+ '*' { MUL _ }
+ '/' { DIV _ }
+ '(' { LPAREN _ }
+ ')' { RPAREN _ }
+
+-- Operators
+%left '+' '-'
+%left '*' '/'
+%%
+
+Aexpr : BinExp { $1 }
+ | TNUM { AConst $1 }
+ | ID { AVar $1 }
+ | '(' Aexpr ')' { $2 }
+
+BinExp : Aexpr '+' Aexpr { APlus $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '-' Aexpr { AMinus $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '*' Aexpr { AMul $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '/' Aexpr { ADiv $1 $3 }
+
+{
+
+parseError :: [Token] -> Except String a
+parseError (l:ls) = throwError (show l)
+parseError [] = throwError "Unexpected end of Input"
+
+
+parseAexpr :: String -> Aexpr
+parseAexpr s = case parseAexpr' s of
+ Left msg -> throw (Error ("parse error:" ++ msg))
+ Right e -> e
+
+parseAexpr' input = runExcept $ do
+ tokenStream <- scanTokens input
+ aexpr tokenStream
+
+parseTokens :: String -> Either String [Token]
+parseTokens = runExcept . scanTokens
+
+}
diff --git a/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Parser2.y b/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Parser2.y
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0cbe841
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Parser2.y
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+{
+{-# LANGUAGE GeneralizedNewtypeDeriving #-}
+{-# LANGUAGE PartialTypeSignatures #-}
+
+module Language.Arith.Parser (
+ parseAexpr
+ , parseTokens
+ ) where
+
+import Language.Arith.Lexer
+import Language.Arith.Types hiding (Arith (..))
+import Control.Monad.Except
+import Control.Exception
+}
+
+-- Entry point
+%name aexpr
+
+-- Lexer structure
+%tokentype { Token }
+
+-- Parser monad
+%monad { Except String } { (>>=) } { return }
+%error { parseError }
+
+-- Token Names
+%token
+ TNUM { NUM _ $$ }
+ ID { ID _ $$ }
+ '+' { PLUS _ }
+ '-' { MINUS _ }
+ '*' { MUL _ }
+ '/' { DIV _ }
+ '(' { LPAREN _ }
+ ')' { RPAREN _ }
+
+%%
+
+-- SUM-OF-PRODUCT
+
+-- (2 * 5 * 3) + (10 * 7)
+
+-- ((((((10) + (20)) + (30 * 49 * 41)))) - (29 * 80))
+
+-- Aexpr -> (((10 + 20) + ((30 * 49) * 41) - (29 * 80) )
+
+Aexpr : Aexpr '+' Aexpr2 { APlus $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr '-' Aexpr2 { AMinus $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr2 { $1 }
+
+Aexpr2 : Aexpr2 '*' Aexpr3 { AMul $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr2 '/' Aexpr3 { ADiv $1 $3 }
+ | Aexpr3 { $1 }
+
+Aexpr3 : TNUM { AConst $1 }
+ | ID { AVar $1 }
+ | '(' Aexpr ')' { $2 }
+
+{
+
+parseError :: [Token] -> Except String a
+parseError (l:ls) = throwError (show l)
+parseError [] = throwError "Unexpected end of Input"
+
+
+parseAexpr :: String -> Aexpr
+parseAexpr s = case parseAexpr' s of
+ Left msg -> throw (Error ("parse error:" ++ msg))
+ Right e -> e
+
+parseAexpr' input = runExcept $ do
+ tokenStream <- scanTokens input
+ aexpr tokenStream
+
+parseTokens :: String -> Either String [Token]
+parseTokens = runExcept . scanTokens
+
+}
diff --git a/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Types.hs b/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Types.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a3b3ca9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/src/Language/Arith/Types.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+module Language.Arith.Types where
+
+import Control.Exception
+import Data.Typeable
+import qualified Data.Maybe as Mb
+
+data Error = Error {errMsg :: String}
+ deriving (Show, Typeable)
+
+instance Exception Error
+
+data Aexpr
+ = AConst Int
+ | AVar Id
+ | APlus Aexpr Aexpr
+ | AMinus Aexpr Aexpr
+ | AMul Aexpr Aexpr
+ | ADiv Aexpr Aexpr
+ deriving (Eq, Show)
+
+type Id = String
+
+type Env = [(Id, Int)]
+
+type Value = Int
+
+eval :: Env -> Aexpr -> Value
+eval _ (AConst i) = i
+eval env (AVar x) = case lookup x env of
+ Nothing -> errUnbound x
+ Just val -> val
+eval env (APlus e1 e2) = eval env e1 + eval env e2
+eval env (AMinus e1 e2) = eval env e1 - eval env e2
+eval env (AMul e1 e2) = eval env e1 * eval env e2
+eval env (ADiv e1 e2) = eval env e1 `div` eval env e2
+
+myLookup :: Id -> [(Id, Int)] -> Maybe Int
+myLookup x [] = Nothing
+myLookup x ((k,v):rest)
+ | x == k = Just v
+ | otherwise = myLookup x rest
+
+-- >>> lookup "cot" [("cat", 10), ("dog", 20)]
+-- Nothing
+
+-- data Maybe a = Nothing | Just a
+
+errUnbound :: String -> a
+errUnbound x = throw (Error ("Unbound variable " ++ x))
+
+-- >>> eval [("x", 100)] (APlus (APlus (AVar "x") (AVar "y")) (AConst 10))
+-- Error {errMsg = "Unbound variable y"}
+
+-- >>> "2 + 7"
+
+-- data Maybe val = Nothing | Just val
+
+
+
+-- data Either e a = Left e | Right a
+
+bob :: [ Either String Int ]
+bob = [ Left "thing", Right 67 ]
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/static/arith/src/Main.hs b/static/arith/src/Main.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..40711f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/src/Main.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+import Language.Arith.Eval
+import System.Environment
+
+main :: IO ()
+main = do
+ putStrLn "Hello, world!"
+ f:_ <- getArgs
+ evalFile f
diff --git a/static/arith/stack.yaml b/static/arith/stack.yaml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ebfcdd4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/stack.yaml
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+resolver: lts-18.13
+compiler: ghc-8.10.7
+allow-newer: true
+packages:
+- '.'
+
diff --git a/static/arith/stack.yaml.lock b/static/arith/stack.yaml.lock
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..14fcf76
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/stack.yaml.lock
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+# This file was autogenerated by Stack.
+# You should not edit this file by hand.
+# For more information, please see the documentation at:
+# https://docs.haskellstack.org/en/stable/lock_files
+
+packages: []
+snapshots:
+- completed:
+ size: 586268
+ url: https://raw.githubusercontent.com/commercialhaskell/stackage-snapshots/master/lts/18/13.yaml
+ sha256: d9e658a22cfe8d87a64fdf219885f942fef5fe2bcb156a9800174911c5da2443
+ original: lts-18.13
diff --git a/static/arith/stack.yaml.orig b/static/arith/stack.yaml.orig
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3bbb22e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/stack.yaml.orig
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+# For more information, see: http://docs.haskellstack.org/en/stable/yaml_configuration.html
+
+# Specifies the GHC version and set of packages available (e.g., lts-3.5, nightly-2015-09-21, ghc-7.10.2)
+resolver: lts-10.0
+
+# Local packages, usually specified by relative directory name
+packages:
+- '.'
+
+# Packages to be pulled from upstream that are not in the resolver (e.g., acme-missiles-0.3)
+extra-deps:
+- clock-0.7.2
+
+# Override default flag values for local packages and extra-deps
+flags: {}
+
+# Extra package databases containing global packages
+extra-package-dbs: []
+
+# Control whether we use the GHC we find on the path
+# system-ghc: true
+
+# Require a specific version of stack, using version ranges
+# require-stack-version: -any # Default
+# require-stack-version: >= 1.0.0
+
+# Override the architecture used by stack, especially useful on Windows
+# arch: i386
+# arch: x86_64
+
+# Extra directories used by stack for building
+# extra-include-dirs: [/path/to/dir]
+# extra-lib-dirs: [/path/to/dir]
+
+# Allow a newer minor version of GHC than the snapshot specifies
+# compiler-check: newer-minor
diff --git a/static/arith/static/img/info_parser.001.jpg b/static/arith/static/img/info_parser.001.jpg
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new file mode 100644
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diff --git a/static/arith/tests/Common.hs b/static/arith/tests/Common.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0dc99a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/tests/Common.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+
+{-# LANGUAGE ScopedTypeVariables #-}
+
+module Common where
+
+import Data.IORef
+import Test.Tasty
+import Test.Tasty.HUnit
+import System.Exit
+import Control.Exception
+
+type Score = IORef (Int, Int)
+
+runTests :: [Score -> TestTree] -> IO ()
+runTests groups = do
+ sc <- initScore
+ defaultMain (tests sc groups) `catch` (\(e :: ExitCode) -> do
+ (n, tot) <- readIORef sc
+ putStrLn ("OVERALL SCORE = " ++ show n ++ " / "++ show tot)
+ throwIO e)
+
+tests :: Score -> [Score -> TestTree] -> TestTree
+tests x gs = testGroup "Tests" [ g x | g <- gs ]
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+-- | Construct a single test case
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+mkTest' :: (Show b, Eq b) => Score -> (a -> IO b) -> a -> b -> String -> TestTree
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+mkTest' sc f x r name = scoreTest' sc (f, x, r, 1, name)
+
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+scoreTest' :: (Show b, Eq b) => Score -> (a -> IO b, a, b, Int, String) -> TestTree
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+scoreTest' sc (f, x, expR, points, name) =
+ testCase name $ do
+ updateTotal sc points
+ actR <- f x
+ if actR == expR
+ then updateCurrent sc points
+ else assertFailure "Wrong Result"
+
+updateTotal :: Score -> Int -> IO ()
+updateTotal sc n = modifyIORef sc (\(x, y) -> (x, y + n))
+
+updateCurrent :: Score -> Int -> IO ()
+updateCurrent sc n = modifyIORef sc (\(x, y) -> (x + n, y))
+
+initScore :: IO Score
+initScore = newIORef (0, 0)
diff --git a/static/arith/tests/Test.hs b/static/arith/tests/Test.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7b17729
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/arith/tests/Test.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+{-# LANGUAGE OverloadedStrings #-}
+
+import Control.Exception
+import Test.Tasty
+import Common
+import Data.List (isInfixOf)
+import Language.Arith.Types
+import Language.Arith.Eval
+
+main :: IO ()
+main = runTests [ unit ]
+
+unit :: Score -> TestTree
+unit sc = testGroup "Arith"
+ [ scoreTest ( parse
+ , "123\n\t"
+ , AConst 123
+ , 1
+ , "Number: 123" )
+ , scoreTest ( parse
+ , "foo"
+ , AVar "foo"
+ , 1
+ , "Var: 'foo'")
+ , scoreTest ( parse
+ , "x + y"
+ , APlus (AVar "x") (AVar "y")
+ , 1
+ , "Plus: x + y" )
+ , scoreTest ( parse
+ , "10 - 2 - 2"
+ , AMinus (AMinus (AConst 10) (AConst 2)) (AConst 2)
+ , 1
+ , "Minus: left-assoc" )
+ , scoreTest ( parse
+ , "2 + 10 * 3"
+ , APlus (AConst 2) (AMul (AConst 10) (AConst 3))
+ , 1
+ , "Mult: binds tighter than plus" )
+ ]
+ where
+ scoreTest :: (Show b, Eq b) => (a -> b, a, b, Int, String) -> TestTree
+ scoreTest (f, x, r, n, msg) = scoreTest' sc (return . f, x, r, n, msg)
+
+ failTest :: (Show b, Eq b) => (a -> b, a, String, Int, String) -> TestTree
+ failTest (f, x, err, n, msg) = scoreTest' sc (expectError err (return . f), x, True, n, msg)
+
+expectError :: (Show b) => String -> (a -> IO b) -> a -> IO Bool
+expectError err f x = do { r <- f x; print r; return False }
+ `catch`
+ (return . isInfixOf err . errMsg)
+
diff --git a/static/code/README.md b/static/code/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ea77158
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+## README
+
+
+Code files for CSE 230
diff --git a/static/code/cse130-code.cabal b/static/code/cse130-code.cabal
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c01b9bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/cse130-code.cabal
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+cabal-version: 1.12
+
+-- This file has been generated from package.yaml by hpack version 0.33.0.
+--
+-- see: https://github.com/sol/hpack
+--
+-- hash: ae32a1be1aae20589c6fe444c2a63e4b62a69ccf82ac749602b0688bee9681b4
+
+name: cse130-code
+version: 0.1.0.0
+homepage: https://github.com/ucsd-cse130/wi21#readme
+bug-reports: https://github.com/ucsd-cse130/wi21/issues
+author: Ranjit Jhala
+maintainer: jhala@cs.ucsd.edu
+copyright: 2020 Ranjit Jhala
+license: MIT
+build-type: Simple
+extra-source-files:
+ README.md
+
+source-repository head
+ type: git
+ location: https://github.com/ucsd-cse130/wi21
+
+library
+ other-modules:
+ Paths_cse130_code
+ ghc-options: -Wall -fwarn-tabs
+
+ hs-source-dirs:
+ src
+ build-depends:
+ QuickCheck
+ , base >=4.7 && <5
+ , containers
+ , directory
+ , filepath
+ , mtl
+ , process
+ , unordered-containers
+ default-language: Haskell2010
diff --git a/static/code/hie.yaml b/static/code/hie.yaml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..46b71df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/hie.yaml
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+cradle:
+ cabal:
+ - path: "src"
+ component: "lib:cse130-code"
diff --git a/static/code/src/blank.hs b/static/code/src/blank.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..71cb874
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/src/blank.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+module Lec_2_17_22 where
+
+inc x = x + 1
diff --git a/static/code/src/lec_1_11_22.hs b/static/code/src/lec_1_11_22.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ea458ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/src/lec_1_11_22.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
+inc :: Int -> Int
+inc x = x + 1
+
+
+
+{-
+let FIX = ...
+
+let STEP = \rec -> \n -> ITE (ISZ n) ZERO (ADD n (rec (DEC n)))
+
+let SUM = FIX STEP
+
+eval ex_sum_two:
+
+ SUM TWO
+ =*> STEP SUM TWO
+ =*> ITE (ISZ TWO) ZERO (ADD TWO (SUM (DEC TWO)))
+ =*> ADD TWO (SUM (DEC TWO))
+ =*> ADD TWO (SUM ONE)
+ =*> ADD TWO (ADD ONE (SUM ZERO))
+ =*> ADD TWO (ADD ONE ZERO)
+
+
+
+
+
+let SUM = \n -> ITE (ISZ n) ZERO (ADD n (SUM (DEC n)))
+
+
+let SUM = \n -> FST (n
+ (\p -> PAIR (ADD (FST p) (SND p)) (ADD (SND p) ONE))
+ (PAIR ZERO ZERO)))
+
+def sum(n):
+
+ (res,i) = (0, 0)
+
+ repeat n times:
+
+ return res
+
+-}
diff --git a/static/code/src/lec_1_18_22.hs b/static/code/src/lec_1_18_22.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9ec0cd0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/src/lec_1_18_22.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+module Lec_1_18_22 where
+
+
+pat :: Integer -> Integer -> Integer -> Integer
+-- pat = \x -> \y -> \z -> x * (y + z)
+-- pat x = \y -> \z -> x * (y + z)
+-- pat x y = \z -> x * (y + z)
+-- pat x y z = x * (y + z)
+
+-- >>> pat 10 20 30
+-- 500
+
+pat x y z = x * (y + z)
+
+weirdo :: Int
+weirdo = inc 100
+
+-- this is a comment
+{- this is also a comment -}
+
+-- >>> 2 + 2
+-- 4
+
+-- weirdo = inc 100 = 100 + 1 = 101
+-- >>> weirdo
+-- 101
+
+
+
+-- >>> pat 90 68 12
+-- 7200
+
+
+
+inc :: Num a => a -> a
+inc x = x + 1
+
+-- >>> inc 10.5
+-- 11.5
+
+exBool :: Bool
+exBool = True
+
+exChar :: Char
+exChar = 'c'
+
+
+ex1 :: Bool
+ex1 = True
+
+ex2 :: Int
+ex2 = 4 + 5
+
+ex3 :: Double
+ex3 = 4.1 + 5.2
+
+-- quiz1 :: (Ord a, Num a) => a -> a -> Bool
+quiz1 :: Int -> Int -> Bool
+quiz1 x y = (x + y) > 0
+
+{-
+(A) Int (B) Bool (C) "Num" (D) "Fractional" (E) Error!
+
+
+Env |- e1 :: Bool Env |- e2 :: T Env |- e3 :: T
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+ Env |- if e1 then e2 else e3 :: T
+
+-}
+
+quiz = if True then 4.3 else 4.1
+
+isPos :: Int -> Bool
+isPos n = n > 0
+
+-- >>> isPos (2+4)
+-- True
+
+-- >>> isPos (2-4)
+-- False
+
+
+-- isPos (2 + 4) == isPos 6 == 6 > 0 == True
+
+-- isPos (2 - 4) == isPos (-2) == -2 > 0 == False
+
+adder :: Int -> Int -> Int
+adder = \x -> \y -> x + y
+
+
+bloop :: Int -> Int
+bloop = adder 10
+
+-- >>> adder 10 20 == 10 + 20 == 30
+
+-- >>> ((adder 10) 20) == ((\y -> 10 + y) 20) == 10 + 20 == 30
+
+-- "currying"
+
+myMax :: Int -> Int -> Int
+myMax x y = if x > y then x else y
+
+-- >>> myMax 100 1
+-- 100
+
+sumTo :: Int -> Int
+-- sumTo 0 = 0
+-- sumTo n = n + sumTo (n-1)
+
+-- sumTo n = if n <= 0 then 0 else n + sumTo (n-1)
+
+{- EXAMPLE OF SUBSTITUTING EQUALS FOR EQUALS
+
+sumTo 5
+== 5 + sumTo (5 - 1)
+== 5 + sumTo 4
+== 5 + (4 + sumTo (4-1))
+== 5 + (4 + sumTo 3)
+== 5 + (4 + (3 + sumTo (3-1)))
+== 5 + (4 + (3 + sumTo 2))
+== 5 + (4 + (3 + (2 + sumTo (2-1))))
+== 5 + (4 + (3 + (2 + sumTo 1)))
+== 5 + (4 + (3 + (2 + (1 + sumTo (1 - 1))))
+== 5 + (4 + (3 + (2 + (1 + sumTo 0))))
+== 5 + (4 + (3 + (2 + (1 + 0))))
+== ... == 15
+
+-}
+
+sumTo n
+ | n <= 0 = 0
+ | otherwise = n + sumTo (n-1)
+
+-- >>> sumTo 3
+-- 6
+
+-- >>> sumTo 1
+-- /Users/rjhala/teaching/130-wi22/static/code/src/lec_1_18_22.hs:107:1-11: Non-exhaustive patterns in function sumTo
diff --git a/static/code/src/lec_1_20_22.hs b/static/code/src/lec_1_20_22.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca35adb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/src/lec_1_20_22.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,224 @@
+module Lec_1_20_22 where
+
+sumTo :: Int -> Int
+-- sumTo n = if n <= 0 then 0 else n + sumTo (n-1)
+
+-- sumTo 0 = 0
+-- sumTo n = n + sumTo (n-1)
+
+sumTo n
+ | n <= 0 = 0
+ | otherwise = n + sumTo (n-1)
+
+charA :: Char
+charA = 'a'
+
+pair0 :: (Char, Int)
+pair0 = (charA, 22)
+
+pair1 :: (Char, Integer, Double)
+pair1 = (charA, 22, 5.6)
+
+fst3 :: (a, b, c) -> a
+fst3 tup = case tup of
+ (v, _, _) -> v
+
+snd3 :: (a, b, c) -> b
+snd3 tup = case tup of
+ (_, v, _) -> v
+
+thd3 :: (a, b, c) -> c
+thd3 tup = case tup of
+ (_, _, v) -> v
+
+-- >>> thd3 pair1
+-- 5.6
+
+
+-- oops :: [Int]
+-- oops = [1, 2, 'c']
+
+sillyList :: [Integer]
+sillyList = [1, 2, 3, 4]
+
+sillyList' :: [Integer]
+sillyList' = 1 : (2 : (3 : (4 : [])))
+
+-- >>> sillyList == sillyList'
+-- True
+
+
+
+
+tup3 :: ((Integer, Double), Bool)
+tup3 = ((7, 5.2), True)
+
+tup3' :: (Integer, (Double, Bool))
+tup3' = (7, (5.2, True))
+
+
+{-
+PAIR
+FST
+SND
+
+-}
+-- >>> tup3 == tup3'
+-- Couldn't match type ‘Integer’ with ‘(Integer, Double)’
+-- Expected type: ((Integer, Double), Bool)
+-- Actual type: (Integer, (Double, Bool))
+
+-- (A) True
+-- (B) False
+-- (C) I will not answer that question! (compile-time-error)
+-- (D) Crash! (run-time error)
+
+
+
+
+-- >>> otherwise
+-- True
+
+
+{- EXAMPLE OF SUBSTITUTING EQUALS FOR EQUALS
+
+sumTo 3
+== 5 + sumTo (5 - 1)
+== 3 + sumTo 2
+== 3 + 2 + sumTo 1
+== 3 + 2 + 1 + sumTo 0
+== 3 + 2 + 1 + 0
+== 6
+
+-}
+
+
+
+-- >>> copy3 "cat"
+-- ["cat","cat","cat"]
+
+-- >>> copy3 0
+-- [0,0,0]
+
+copy3 :: a -> [a]
+copy3 x = [x, x, x]
+
+
+-- >>> clone 0 "cat"
+-- []
+
+-- >>> clone 1 "cat"
+-- ["cat"]
+
+-- >>> clone 2 "cat"
+-- >>> clone 3 "dog"
+-- ["dog","dog","dog"]
+
+-- >>> clone 4 100
+-- [100,100,100,100]
+
+-- clone :: Int -> a -> [a]
+clone :: Int -> a -> [a]
+clone n cat
+ | n <= 0 = []
+ | otherwise = cat:clone (n-1) cat
+
+-- clone 3 "dog" ==> "dog" : "dog" : dog : []
+
+-- RANGE
+
+-- ENGLISH: range i j == [i, i+1, ... , j]
+
+-- >>> range 0 3
+-- /Users/rjhala/teaching/130-wi22/static/code/src/lec_1_20_22.hs:(136,1)-(139,19): Non-exhaustive patterns in function range
+
+-- TESTS
+range :: Int -> Int -> [Int]
+range i j
+ | i <= j = i : range (i+1) j
+ | otherwise = []
+
+{-
+
+ range 0 3
+ => 0 : (range 1 3)
+ => 0 : (1 : range 2 3)
+ => 0 : (1 : (2 : range 3 3))
+ => 0 : (1 : (2 : 3 : range 4 3))
+ => 0 : (1 : (2 : 3 : [] ))
+
+-}
+
+
+{-
+
+[e1,e2,e3,e4] == e1:e2:e3:e4:[]
+
+
+Is
+ [ 10 ]
+
+the same as
+
+ 10:[]
+
+
+
+
+-}
+
+
+firstElem :: [Int] -> Int
+firstElem [] = 0
+firstElem (x:_) = x
+
+-- firstElem xs = case xs of
+-- [] -> 0
+-- h : _ -> h
+
+{- -}
+
+-- -- SOL
+-- firstElem :: [Int] -> Int
+-- firstElem list = case list of
+-- [] -> 0
+-- x1:_ -> x1
+
+-- mystery l = case l of
+-- [] -> 0
+-- _ : as -> 1 + mystery as
+
+mystery :: [Int] -> Int
+mystery [] = 0
+mystery (a: as) = a + mystery as
+
+{-
+foo bar baz
+
+((foo bar) baz)
+
+
+
+(mystery _) : as
+
+mystery (_ : as)
+
+-}
+
+-- >>> mystery [10, 20, 30]
+-- 60
+
+-- mys (10: 20: 30 : [])
+-- => 10 + mys (20: 30 : [])
+-- => 10 + (20 + mys (30 : []) )
+-- => 10 + (20 + (30 + (mys [])))
+-- => 10 + (20 + (30 + (0))))
+-- => 60
+
+data Day = Mon | Tue | Sun
+
+dayToInt :: Day -> Int
+dayToInt d = case d of
+ Mon -> 0
+ Tue -> 1
+ Sun -> 2
diff --git a/static/code/src/lec_1_27_22.hs b/static/code/src/lec_1_27_22.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fd96da4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/src/lec_1_27_22.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,169 @@
+module Lec_1_27_22 where
+
+import Text.Printf
+
+string1 :: [Char]
+string1 = "cat"
+
+string2 :: String
+string2 = ['c', 'a', 't']
+
+-- >>> [1,2,3] ++ [4,5,6]
+-- [1,2,3,4,5,6]
+
+-- >>> string1 ++ "horse" ++ string2
+-- "cathorsecat"
+
+data Date = MkDate
+ { mm :: Int
+ , dd :: Int
+ , yy :: Int
+ }
+ deriving (Show)
+
+{-
+struct Date {
+ int mm;
+ int dd;
+ int yyyy;
+};
+
+deadlineDate.mm
+
+-}
+
+-- >>> deadlineDate
+-- MkDate {mm = 1, dd = 28, yy = 2022}
+
+
+data Time = MkTime
+ Int -- hour
+ Int -- min
+ Int -- sec
+
+
+getHour :: Time -> Int
+getHour t = case t of
+ MkTime h _ _ -> h
+
+
+
+deadlineDate :: Date
+deadlineDate = MkDate 1 28 2022
+
+deadlineTime :: Time
+deadlineTime = MkTime 11 59 59
+
+-- foo :: Date
+-- foo = extendDateByOne deadlineTime
+
+-- (mon, day, year)
+
+extendDateByOne :: Date -> Date
+extendDateByOne = undefined
+
+-- monthDays :: [(Int, Int)]
+-- monthDays = [(1, 31), (2, 28), (3, 31)]
+
+-- >>> putStrLn (docHtml doc)
+
+doc :: [Para]
+doc = [ MkHeading 1 "Notes from 130" -- Level 1 heading
+ , MkPlain "There are two types of languages:" -- Plain text
+ , MkList True [ "those people complain about" -- Ordered list
+ , "those no one uses"]
+ ]
+
+docHtml :: [Para] -> String
+docHtml ps = case ps of
+ [] -> ""
+ pa : pas -> paraHtml pa ++ "\n" ++ docHtml pas
+
+paraHtml :: Para -> String
+paraHtml p = case p of
+ MkHeading n s -> headingHtml n s
+ MkPlain s -> "<p>" ++ s ++ "</p>"
+ MkList ord items -> listHtml ord items
+
+listHtml :: Bool -> [String] -> String
+listHtml isOrd strs = printf "<%s>%s</%s>" listTag contents listTag
+ where
+ listTag = if isOrd then "ol" else "ul"
+ contents = concat [ "<li>" ++ str ++ "</li>" | str <- strs ]
+ -- [ "<li>" ++ str ++ "</li>" for str in strs ]
+
+myList :: [Integer]
+myList = [1..10]
+
+-- >>> ["<li>" ++ str ++ "</li>" | str <- ["cat", "dog"] ]
+-- ["<li>cat</li>","<li>dog</li>"]
+
+
+-- >>> myList
+-- [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
+
+headingHtml :: Int -> String -> String
+headingHtml level str = "<" ++ hdr ++ ">" ++ str ++ "</" ++ hdr ++ ">"
+ where
+ hdr = levelLabel level
+
+levelLabel :: Int -> String
+levelLabel i = "h" ++ show i
+{-
+
+<h1>Notes from 130</h1>
+<p>"There are two types of languages:"</p>
+<ol>
+<li>"those people complain about"</li>
+<li>"those no one uses"</li>
+</ol>
+
+-}
+
+-- >>> doc
+-- [MkHeading 1 "Notes from 130",MkPlain "There are two types of languages:",MkList True ["those people complain about","those no one uses"]]
+
+
+
+data Para
+ = PHead Heading
+ | PPlain Plain
+ | PList ParaList
+ deriving (Show)
+
+data Heading = MkHeading Int String deriving(Show)
+data Plain = MkPlain String deriving(Show)
+data ParaList = MkList Bool [String] deriving(Show)
+
+{-
+
+List<Paragraph> doc
+
+string paraHtml(para p) {
+ if (p instanceof Heading) {
+ ...
+ } else if (p instsance)
+ instanceOf(p) {
+ ...
+ }
+}
+
+class Paragraph {
+}
+
+class Heading extends Para {
+ int level;
+ string text;
+}
+class PlainText extends Para {
+ string text;
+}
+class ParaList extends Para {
+ bool isOrdered;
+ List<String> items;
+}
+
+
+
+
+-}
diff --git a/static/code/src/lec_2_15_22.hs b/static/code/src/lec_2_15_22.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..556615f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/src/lec_2_15_22.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,218 @@
+module Lec_2_8_22 where
+
+import Text.Printf
+import qualified Text.Printf as Printf
+import Data.Char (toUpper)
+import Control.Concurrent (yield)
+
+import Prelude hiding (foldr)
+
+-- >>> foo
+-- [2,3,4]
+
+addAdjacent :: [Int] -> Int
+addAdjacent xs = undefined
+
+{-
+ [1,2,3,4,5]
+ [0+1, 1+2, 2+3, 3+4, 4+5 ]
+
+-}
+
+len :: [a] -> Int
+len [] = 0
+len (_:xs) = 1 + len xs
+
+myLen :: [a] -> Int
+myLen = foldr (\_ r -> 1 + r) 0
+
+-- sumList [] = 0
+-- sumList (x:xs) = x + sumList xs
+
+sumTR :: [Int] -> Int
+sumTR = loop 0
+ where
+ loop res [] = res
+ loop res (x:xs) = loop (res + x) xs
+
+-- lenTR = loop 0
+-- where
+-- loop res [] = res
+-- loop res (x:xs) = loop (res + 1) xs
+
+lenTR = loop (\res x -> res + 1) 0
+
+sumTR' = loop (+) 0
+
+concatTR = loop (++) ""
+
+-- concatTR = loop ""
+-- where
+-- loop res [] = res
+-- loop res (x:xs) = loop (res ++ x) xs
+
+
+loop op res [] = res
+loop op res (x:xs) = loop op (op res x) xs
+
+append = (++)
+
+plus = (+)
+
+concatList = foldr append ""
+sumList = foldr plus 0
+longest = foldr (max. length) 0
+
+-- (\x -> e x) == e
+-- >>> sumList [1,2,3,4,5]
+-- 15
+
+concatList :: [String] -> String
+
+-- >>> concatList ["this", "that", "cat", "in", "hat"]
+-- "thisthatcatinhat"
+
+-- concatList [] = ""
+-- concatList (x:xs) = x ++ concatList xs
+
+longest :: [String] -> Int
+-- longest [] = 0
+-- longest (x:xs) = max (length x) (longest xs)
+
+
+inc x = x + 1
+
+bar y = inc (inc (inc y))
+
+bar' = inc . inc . inc
+-- >>> bar' 10
+-- 13
+
+-- foo x = gobble (gibble (baz (bar x)))
+-- foo = gobble . gibble . baz . bar
+
+
+longer :: String -> String -> String
+longer w1 w2 = if length w1 > length w2 then w1 else w2
+
+foldr:: (a -> b -> b) -> b -> [a] -> b
+foldr op b [] = b
+foldr op b (x:xs) = op x (foldr op b xs)
+
+-- >>> myLen [1,2,3,4]
+-- 4
+
+
+
+{-
+
+
+
+-}
+
+quiz = foldr (:) [] [1,2,3,4]
+
+-- >>> quiz
+-- [1,2,3,4]
+
+{-
+
+foldr op b (x1 : x2 : x3 : x4 : x5 : [])
+
+=> op x1 (foldr op b (x2:x3:x4:x5:[]))
+=> op x1 (op x2 (foldr op b (x3:x4:x5:[])))
+=> op x1 (op x2 (op x3 (foldr op b (x4:x5:[]))))
+=> op x1 (op x2 (op x3 (op x4 (foldr op b (x5:[])))))
+=> op x1 (op x2 (op x3 (op x4 (op x5 (foldr op b [])))))
+
+=> x1 `op` (x2 `op` (x3 `op` (x4 `op` (x5 `op` b))))
+
+-}
+
+
+-- >>> concatList ["cat", "dog", "horse"]
+
+-- >>> longest ["cat", "dog", "horse"]
+-- 5
+
+-- "horse"
+-- "catdoghorse"
+
+-- ==> "cat_dog_horse"
+
+{-
+foo [] = 0
+foo (x:xs) = 1 + foo xs
+
+foo [] = 0
+foo (x:xs) = x + foo xs
+
+foo [] = 0
+foo (x:xs) = (length x) `max` (foo xs)
+
+
+foo [] = ""
+foo (x:xs) = x ++ foo xs
+
+
+concatList = foo (++) ""
+
+-}
+
+plus :: Num a => a -> a -> a
+plus x y = x + y
+
+-- >>> 1 `plus` 2
+-- 3
+
+
+
+rev = foldl (\res x -> x : res) []
+
+buiz = rev [1,2,3,4]
+
+--- >>> buiz
+-- [4,3,2,1]
+
+{-
+
+loop [] [1,2,3,4]
+=> loop [1] [2,3,4]
+=> loop [2,1] [3,4]
+=> loop [3, 2,1] [4]
+=> loop [4, 3, 2, 1] []
+=> [4, 3, 2, 1]
+
+loop op res [x1,x2,x3]
+==> loop (op res x1) [x2, x3]
+==> loop (op (op res x1) x2) [x3]
+==> loop (op (op (op res x1) x2) x3) []
+==> (op (op (op res x1) x2) x3)
+
+-}
+
+adda' (h:t) = h : adda (h:t)
+
+adda (x1:x2:rest) = (x1 + x2) : adda (x2:rest)
+adda _ = []
+
+-- >>> adda' [1,2,3]
+-- [1,3,5]
+
+{-
+
+addAdj (1:2:3:[])
+ => 3 : addAdj (2:3:[])
+ => 3 : 5 : addAdj (3:[])
+ => 3 : 5 : []
+
+
+
+[1,3,5]
+
+addAdj cur [] = []
+addAdj cur [x] = (cur + x) : addAdj x xs
+
+
+
+-}
diff --git a/static/code/src/lec_2_17_22.hs b/static/code/src/lec_2_17_22.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..12182bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/src/lec_2_17_22.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,218 @@
+module Lec_2_17_22 where
+
+import qualified Data.Map as M
+
+import Prelude hiding (lookup)
+
+inc :: Int -> Int
+inc x = x + 1
+
+
+{-
+e ::= n
+ | e1 + e2
+ | e1 - e2
+ | e1 * e2
+ | ( e )
+ | x, y, z, ...
+
+ | LET x = e1 IN e2
+-}
+data Expr
+ = ENum Int
+ | EBin BOp Expr Expr
+ | EVar Id
+ | ELet Id Expr Expr
+ deriving (Show)
+
+
+
+
+type Id = String
+
+type Value = Int
+
+data BOp = Add | Sub | Mul deriving (Show)
+
+type Env = [Bind]
+
+-- type Env = M.Map Id Value
+
+
+
+-- (4 + 12) - 5
+e0 :: Expr
+e0 = EBin Sub (EBin Add (ENum 4) (ENum 12)) (ENum 5)
+
+-- >>> eval (("x", 2000) : env) e1
+-- 2001
+
+-- (x + 1)
+e1 :: Expr
+e1 = EBin Add (EVar "x") (ENum 1)
+
+-- (4 + a) - 5
+e2 :: Expr
+e2 = EBin Sub (EBin Add (ENum 4) (EVar "a")) (ENum 5)
+
+eval :: Env -> Expr -> Value
+eval env e = case e of
+ EVar x -> lookup x env
+ ENum n -> n
+ EBin o ex ex' -> evalOp o (eval env ex) (eval env ex')
+ ELet x e1 e2 -> eval env' e2
+ where
+ env' = (x := xval) : env
+ xval = eval env e1
+{-
+
+ let x = 10
+ in
+ let x = x + 1
+ in
+ x
+
+
+
+
+ -- env
+let x = e1
+in -- eval ( (x := (eval env e1)) : env ) e2
+ e2
+
+let x = 0
+in
+ -- [ "x" := 0, ...]
+ (x + 1)
+
+let x = 0
+in
+ let y = 100
+ in -- [ "y" := 100, "x" := 0, ...]
+ x + y
+
+
+-}
+
+
+
+
+lookup :: Id -> Env -> Value
+lookup x env = case env of
+ [] -> error ("variable not found: " ++ x)
+ (y := v) : t -> if x == y then v else lookup x t
+
+
+data Bind = Id := Value
+
+envA :: Env
+envA = []
+envB :: [Bind]
+envB = ["x" := 0 , "y" := 9]
+envC :: [Bind]
+envC = ["x" := 9 , "y" := 0]
+envD :: [Bind]
+envD = ["x" := 9 , "y" := 10 , "z" := 666]
+envE :: [Bind]
+envE = [ "y" := 10, "x" := 42, "z" := 666, "x" := 99 ]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+-- e1 == (x + 1)
+
+-- >>> eval envE e1
+-- 43
+
+
+{-
+env := [ "x" := 0, "y" := 12, ...]
+
+eval env (x + 1)
+ ==> (eval env x) + (eval env 1)
+ ==> 0 + 1
+ ==> 1
+
+-}
+
+
+evalOp :: BOp -> Value -> Value -> Value
+evalOp o v1 v2 = case o of
+ Add -> v1 + v2
+ Sub -> v1 - v2
+ Mul -> v1 * v2
+
+{-
+ What is the type of `evalOp` ?
+
+ evalOp :: BOp -> Value -> Value -> Value
+
+-}
+
+-- >>> eval expr
+-- 11
+
+bob :: Int
+bob = let ten = 10
+ in
+ let x = ten * ten
+ in
+ x * 3
+
+eBob :: Expr
+eBob = ELet "ten" (ENum 10)
+ (ELet "x" (EBin Mul (EVar "ten") (EVar "ten"))
+ (EBin Mul (EVar "x") (ENum 3)))
+
+-- >>> eval [] eBob
+-- 300
+
+
+bob' :: [Int]
+bob' = [ x * 3, x * 4 , x * 5]
+ where
+ x = ten * ten
+ ten = 10
+
+{-
+
+ ((10 - 2) - 2)
+
+
+ (10 - (2 - 2))
+
+ (1 + (2 * 3))
+
+ ((1 + 2) * 3)
+
+ 1 + 2 * 3
+
+ EBin Add (ENum 1) (EBin Add (ENum 2) (ENum 3))
+
+ EBin Mul (EBin Add (ENum 1) (ENum 2) (ENum 3))
+
+-}
+
+-- >>> dummy
+-- 101
+
+dummy :: Int
+dummy = -- []
+ let x = 0
+ in -- ["x" := 0]
+ let x = 100
+ in -- ["x" := 100, "x" := 0]
+ x + 1
+
+crummy :: Int
+crummy = -- []
+ let x = 0
+ in -- ["x" := 0]
+ (let x = 100
+ in -- ["x" := 100, "x" := 0]
+ x + 1
+ )
+ + -- ["x" := 0]
+ x
diff --git a/static/code/src/lec_2_1_22.hs b/static/code/src/lec_2_1_22.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dfab52f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/src/lec_2_1_22.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,215 @@
+module Lec_2_3_22 where
+import Test.QuickCheck (InfiniteList)
+
+data Nat
+ = Zero
+ | OnePlus Nat
+
+data List a
+ = Nil
+ | Cons a (List a)
+ deriving (Show)
+
+len :: List a -> Int
+len Nil = 0
+len (Cons x xs) = 1 + len xs
+
+lenTR :: List a -> Int
+lenTR l = loop 0 l
+ where
+ loop res Nil = res
+ loop res (Cons _ t) = loop (res+1) t
+
+{-
+
+def len(l):
+ res = 0
+ while true:
+ if l == Nil:
+ return res
+ else:
+ (res, l) = (res + 1, tail(l))
+ return res
+
+-}
+
+
+-- >>> [1,2,3] ++ [5,6,7]
+-- [1,2,3,4,5,6,7]
+
+l_123 :: List Int
+l_123 = Cons 1 (Cons 2 (Cons 3 Nil))
+
+l_456 :: List Int
+l_456 = Cons 4 (Cons 5 (Cons 6 Nil))
+
+l_123456 :: List Int
+l_123456 = Cons 1 (Cons 2 (Cons 3 (Cons 4 (Cons 5 (Cons 6 Nil))) ))
+
+append :: List a -> List a -> List a
+append Nil ys = ys
+append (Cons x xs) ys = Cons x (append xs ys)
+
+rev :: List a -> List a
+rev l = case l of
+ Nil -> Nil
+ Cons h t -> append (rev t) (Cons h Nil)
+
+-- >>> rev l_123
+-- Cons 3 (Cons 2 (Cons 1 Nil))
+
+-- append l_123 l_456
+-- (A) Nil
+-- (B) l_123
+-- (C) l_456 <<<
+-- (D) l_123456
+
+
+-- append (Cons 2 (Cons 3 Nil)) l_456
+-- ==> Cons 2 (append (Cons 3 Nil) l_456)
+-- ==> Cons 2 (Cons 3 (append Nil l456))
+-- ==> Cons 2 (Cons 3 l456)
+-- >>> append (Cons 3 Nil) l_456
+-- Cons 3 (Cons 4 (Cons 5 (Cons 6 Nil)))
+
+
+
+-- Cons 1 (Cons 2 (Cons 3 (Cons 4 (Cons 5 (Cons 6 Nil))) ))
+
+
+-- >>> Cons "cat" (Cons "dog" Nil)
+-- Cons "cat" (Cons "dog" Nil)
+
+
+
+-- (4.0 + 2.9) * (3.78 - 5.92)
+
+e0 :: Expr
+e0 = EBin Mul
+ (EBin Add
+ (ENum 4.0)
+ (ENum 2.9)
+ )
+ (EBin Sub
+ (ENum 3.78)
+ (ENum 5.92)
+ )
+
+calc :: Expr -> Double
+calc e = case e of
+ ENum x -> x
+ EBin Add e1 e2 -> calc e1 + calc e2
+ EBin Sub e1 e2 -> calc e1 - calc e2
+ EBin Mul e1 e2 -> calc e1 * calc e2
+
+-- >>> calc e0
+-- -14.766000000000002
+
+-- type Op = Double -> Double -> Double
+
+data Op
+ = Add
+ | Sub
+ | Mul
+ deriving (Show)
+
+data Expr
+ = ENum Double
+ | EBin Op Expr Expr
+ deriving (Show)
+
+
+data Tree a = Leaf | Node a (Tree a) (Tree a)
+ deriving (Show)
+
+myTree :: Tree Int
+myTree =
+ Node 1 (Node 2 (Node 3 Leaf Leaf) Leaf)
+ (Node 4 Leaf Leaf)
+
+-- >>> height myTree
+-- 3
+
+
+height :: Tree a -> Int
+height t = case t of
+ Leaf -> 0
+ Node _ l r -> 1 + larger (height l) (height r)
+
+larger :: Int -> Int -> Int
+larger x y = if x >= y then x else y
+
+----
+
+{-
+
+<sumTo 3>
+==> 3 + < sumTo 2 >
+==> 3 + < 2 + <sumTo 1> >
+==> 3 + < 2 + < 1 + < sumTo 0 > > >
+==> 3 + < 2 + < 1 + < 0 > > >
+
+def sumTo(n):
+
+ (res, 0) = (0, 0)
+
+ while true:
+ if (i <= n):
+ (res, i) = (res + i, i + 1)
+ else
+ break
+
+ return res
+
+
+
+sumTo n = loop (0, 0)
+ where
+ loop (res, i) =
+ if (i <= n):
+ -- (res, i) = (res + i, i + 1)
+ loop (res + i, i + 1)
+ else
+ res
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+-}
+
+sumTo' :: Int -> Int
+sumTo' 0 = 0
+sumTo' n = n + sumTo' (n - 1)
+
+sumTo :: Int -> Int
+sumTo n = loop (0, 0)
+ where
+ loop (res, i)
+ | i <= n = loop (res + i, i + 1)
+ | otherwise = res
+
+-- >>> sumTo 5
+-- ==> loop (0, 0)
+-- ==> loop (0, 1)
+-- ==> loop (1, 2)
+-- ==> loop (3, 3)
+-- ==> loop (6, 4)
+-- ==> loop (10, 5)
+-- ==> loop (15, 6)
+-- ==> 15
+
+fac :: Int -> Int
+fac n = if n <= 0 then 1 else n * fac (n-1)
+
+facTR :: Int -> Int
+facTR n = loop (1, 1)
+ where
+ loop (res, i)
+ | i <= n = loop (res * i, i + 1)
+ | otherwise = res
+
+-- >>> facTR 5
+-- 120
diff --git a/static/code/src/lec_2_22_22.hs b/static/code/src/lec_2_22_22.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6508dc2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/src/lec_2_22_22.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,455 @@
+{-# OPTIONS_GHC -Wno-unrecognised-pragmas #-}
+{-# HLINT ignore "Use camelCase" #-}
+module Lec_2_17_22 where
+
+import qualified Data.Map as M
+
+import Prelude hiding (lookup)
+
+inc :: Int -> Int
+inc x = x + 1
+
+
+{-
+e ::= n
+ | e1 + e2
+ | e1 - e2
+ | e1 * e2
+ | ( e )
+ | x, y, z, ...
+
+ | LET x = e1 IN e2
+-}
+
+type Id = String
+data Expr
+ = ENum Int -- ^ n
+ | EBin BOp Expr Expr -- ^ e1 `op` e2
+ | EVar Id -- ^ x, y, z, ...
+ | ELet Id Expr Expr -- ^ let x = e1 in e2
+
+ | ELam Id Expr -- ^ \x -> e
+ | EApp Expr Expr -- ^ (e1 e2)
+ deriving (Show)
+
+data Value
+ = VInt Int
+ | VClosure Id Expr Env -- ^ <param, body, frozen-env>
+ deriving (Show)
+
+data BOp = Add | Sub | Mul deriving (Show)
+
+type Env = [Bind]
+
+
+{-
+let incr = \x -> x + 1
+in
+ incr 10
+-}
+
+ex_incr :: Expr
+ex_incr = ELet "incr" (ELam "x" (EBin Add (EVar "x") (ENum 1)))
+ (EApp (EVar "incr") (ENum 10) )
+
+
+
+
+
+-- type Env = M.Map Id Value
+
+
+
+-- (4 + 12) - 5
+e0 :: Expr
+e0 = EBin Sub (EBin Add (ENum 4) (ENum 12)) (ENum 5)
+
+-- >>> eval (("x", 2000) : env) e1
+-- 2001
+
+-- (x + 1)
+e1 :: Expr
+e1 = EBin Add (EVar "x") (ENum 1)
+
+-- (4 + a) - 5
+e2 :: Expr
+e2 = EBin Sub (EBin Add (ENum 4) (EVar "a")) (ENum 5)
+
+-- >>> eval [] ex_10
+-- 100
+
+
+eval :: Env -> Expr -> Value
+eval env e = case e of
+ EVar x -> lookup x env
+ ENum n -> VInt n
+ EBin o ex ex' -> evalOp o (eval env ex) (eval env ex')
+ ELet x ex1 ex2 -> eval env' ex2
+ where
+ env' = (x := xval) : env
+ xval = eval env ex1
+ ELam x body -> VClosure x body env
+ EApp eFun eArg -> eval (x := vArg : frozEnv) eBody
+ where
+ VClosure x eBody frozEnv = eval env eFun
+ vArg = eval env eArg
+
+
+
+{-
+ -- env
+let c = 1
+in -- (c:=1: env)
+ let inc = \x -> x + c
+ in -- [inc := <x, x+c, (c:=1 : env)>, c:=1, env]
+ let c = 100
+ in -- [c := 100, inc := <x, x+c, (c:=1 : env)>, c:=1, env]
+ inc 10
+ eval [x:=10, c:=1 , env)] (x + c)
+
+ let inc = \x -> x + c
+ in
+ let c = 1
+ in
+ inc 10
+
+
+-}
+
+ex_inc_c :: Expr
+ex_inc_c =
+ ELet "c" (ENum 1)
+ (ELet "inc" (ELam "x" (EBin Add (EVar "x") (EVar "c")))
+ (ELet "c" (ENum 100)
+ (
+ EApp (EVar "inc") (EVar "c")
+ )
+ )
+ )
+
+-- >>> eval [] ex_add
+-- VInt 1130
+
+-- >>> eval [] (ELam "x" (ELam "y" (EBin Add (EVar "x") (EVar "y"))))
+
+-- >>> let env1 = ["add" := VClosure "x" (ELam "y" (EBin Add (EVar "x") (EVar "y"))) [] ]
+-- >>> let v_add10 = VClosure "y" (EBin Add (EVar "x") (EVar "y")) ["x" := VInt 10]
+-- >>> let env2 = "add10" := v_add10 : env1
+-- >>> let v_add20 = VClosure "y" (EBin Add (EVar "x") (EVar "y")) ["x" := VInt 20]
+-- >>> let env3 = "add20" := v_add20 : env2
+-- >>> eval env3 (EApp (EVar "add10") (ENum 100))
+-- >>> eval env3 (EApp (EVar "add20") (ENum 1000))
+-- VInt 110
+-- VInt 1020
+
+
+ex_add :: Expr
+ex_add = -- []
+ ELet "add" (ELam "x" (ELam "y" (EBin Add (EVar "x") (EVar "y"))))
+ ( -- env1
+ ELet "add10" (EApp (EVar "add") (ENum 10))
+ ( -- env2
+ ELet "add20" (EApp (EVar "add") (ENum 20))
+ ( -- env3
+ EBin Add (EApp (EVar "add10") (ENum 100)) (EApp (EVar "add20") (ENum 1000))
+ )
+ )
+ )
+
+{-
+
+let add = \x y -> x + y
+ add10 = add 10
+ twice = \f x -> f (f x)
+in
+ twice add10 100
+
+-}
+
+-- >>> eval [] ex_twice
+-- VInt 120
+
+ex_twice :: Expr
+ex_twice =
+ ELet "add" (ELam "x" (ELam "y" (EBin Add (EVar "x") (EVar "y"))))
+ (
+ ELet "add10" (EApp (EVar "add") (ENum 10))
+ (
+ ELet "twice" (ELam "f" (ELam "x" (EApp (EVar "f") (EApp (EVar "f") (EVar "x")))))
+ (
+ EApp (EApp (EVar "twice") (EVar "add10")) (ENum 100)
+ )
+ )
+ )
+
+
+
+-- >>> eval [] ex_inc_c
+-- VInt 101
+
+
+
+-- \x -> x + 1
+ex_inc_fun :: Expr
+ex_inc_fun = ELam "x" (EBin Add (EVar "x") (ENum 1))
+
+ex_incr' :: Expr
+ex_incr' = ELet "incr" ex_inc_fun
+ (EApp (EVar "incr") (ENum 2))
+
+-- let incr = (\x -> x + 1) in incr 26
+
+-- >>> eval [] ex_incr'
+-- VInt 3
+
+{-
+
+ eval env (e1 e2)
+
+ eval env e1 ===> VFun "x" eBody
+
+ eval env e2 ===> v2
+
+ eval ["x" := v2] eBody
+
+
+-}
+
+
+
+{-
+
+ let x = 10
+ in
+ let x = x + 1
+ in
+ x
+
+
+
+
+ -- env
+let x = e1
+in -- eval ( (x := (eval env e1)) : env ) e2
+ e2
+
+let x = 0
+in
+ -- [ "x" := 0, ...]
+ (x + 1)
+
+let x = 0
+in
+ let y = 100
+ in -- [ "y" := 100, "x" := 0, ...]
+ x + y
+
+
+-}
+
+{-
+ -- ENV
+let x = 10
+in -- (x := 10) : ENV
+ x * y
+
+
+ eval env expr
+
+
+
+
+ -- [ (x := 100) ]
+let y = (let x = 2 in x) + x
+in -- [ (y := 102), (x := 100)]
+ let x = 3
+ in -- [ (x := 3), (y := 102), (x := 100)]
+ x + y
+
+== 105
+
+
+
+ let x = 3
+ in
+ x + ((let x = 2 in x) + x)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+-}
+
+ex_10 :: Expr
+ex_10 = ELet "x" (ENum 10)
+ (EBin Mul (EVar "x") (EVar "y"))
+
+-- >>> eval [("y" := 2)] ex_10
+-- 20
+
+
+
+
+
+
+lookup :: Id -> Env -> Value
+lookup x env = case env of
+ [] -> error ("Variable not found: " ++ x)
+ (y := v) : t -> if x == y then v else lookup x t
+
+
+data Bind = Id := Value deriving (Show)
+
+-- envA :: Env
+-- envA = []
+
+-- envB :: [Bind]
+-- envB = ["x" := 0 , "y" := 9]
+
+-- envC :: [Bind]
+-- envC = ["x" := 9 , "y" := 0]
+
+-- envD :: [Bind]
+-- envD = ["x" := 9 , "y" := 10 , "z" := 666]
+
+-- envE :: [Bind]
+-- envE = [ "y" := 10, "x" := 42, "z" := 666, "x" := 99 ]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+-- e1 == (x + 1)
+
+-- >>> eval envE e1
+-- 43
+
+
+{-
+env := [ "x" := 0, "y" := 12, ...]
+
+eval env (x + 1)
+ ==> (eval env x) + (eval env 1)
+ ==> 0 + 1
+ ==> 1
+
+-}
+
+-- >>> (\x -> x + 1) - 6
+
+
+evalOp :: BOp -> Value -> Value -> Value
+evalOp Add (VInt v1) (VInt v2) = VInt (v1 + v2)
+evalOp Sub (VInt v1) (VInt v2) = VInt (v1 - v2)
+evalOp Mul (VInt v1) (VInt v2) = VInt (v1 * v2)
+evalOp _ _ _ = error "Oh no, a type error!"
+
+{-
+ What is the type of `evalOp` ?
+
+ evalOp :: BOp -> Value -> Value -> Value
+
+-}
+
+-- >>> eval expr
+-- 11
+
+bob :: Int
+bob = let ten = 10
+ in
+ let x = ten * ten
+ in
+ x * 3
+
+eBob :: Expr
+eBob = ELet "ten" (ENum 10)
+ (ELet "x" (EBin Mul (EVar "ten") (EVar "ten"))
+ (EBin Mul (EVar "x") (ENum 3)))
+
+-- >>> eval [] eBob
+-- 300
+
+
+bob' :: [Int]
+bob' = [ x * 3, x * 4 , x * 5]
+ where
+ x = ten * ten
+ ten = 10
+
+{-
+
+ ((10 - 2) - 2)
+
+
+ (10 - (2 - 2))
+
+ (1 + (2 * 3))
+
+ ((1 + 2) * 3)
+
+ 1 + 2 * 3
+
+ EBin Add (ENum 1) (EBin Add (ENum 2) (ENum 3))
+
+ EBin Mul (EBin Add (ENum 1) (ENum 2) (ENum 3))
+
+-}
+
+-- >>> dummy
+-- 101
+
+dummy :: Int
+dummy = -- []
+ let x = 0
+ in -- ["x" := 0]
+ let x = 100
+ in -- ["x" := 100, "x" := 0]
+ x + 1
+
+crummy :: Int
+crummy = -- []
+ let x = 0
+ in -- ["x" := 0]
+ (let x = 100
+ in -- ["x" := 100, "x" := 0]
+ x + 1
+ )
+ + -- ["x" := 0]
+ x
+
+{-
+
+ [1,3,3,3]
+ [4,3,2]
+----------
+ [6,6,6]
+ [9,9,9,0]
+
+
+pipe :: [a -> a] -> (a -> a)
+
+pipe [] = ???
+pipe fs = foldl' f base fs
+ where
+ f acc elem = elem acc
+ base = first (reverse fs)
+
+foldl' op b [x1,x2,x3]
+ ==> foldl' op (op b x1) [x2, x3]
+ ==> foldl' op (op (op b x1) x2) [x3]
+ ==> foldl' op (op (op (op b x1) x2) x3) []
+
+ ==> (op (op (op b f1) f2) f3)
+
+ base :: a -> a
+
+
+pipe [f1,f2,f3] = foldl' f f3 [f1,f2,f3]
+
+fs = [f1,f2,f3]
+base = f3
+
+-}
diff --git a/static/code/src/lec_2_3_22.hs b/static/code/src/lec_2_3_22.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5279cc3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/src/lec_2_3_22.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,196 @@
+module Lec_2_1_22 where
+
+import Text.Printf
+import qualified Text.Printf as Printf
+
+string1 :: [Char]
+string1 = "cat"
+
+string2 :: String
+string2 = ['c', 'a', 't']
+
+-- >>> [1,2,3] ++ [4,5,6]
+-- [1,2,3,4,5,6]
+
+-- >>> string1 ++ "horse" ++ string2
+-- "cathorsecat"
+
+-- >>> dd (MkDate 2 1 2022)
+-- 1
+
+data Date = MkDate
+ { mm :: Int
+ , dd :: Int
+ , yy :: Int
+ }
+ deriving (Show)
+
+
+
+doc :: [Para]
+doc = [ PHeading 1 "I am the title"
+ , PText "This is some text"
+ , PList False ["fapple", "coffee"]
+ ]
+
+para1 :: Para
+para1 = PHeading 1 "I am the title"
+para2 :: Para
+para2 = PText "This is some text"
+para3 :: Para
+para3 = PList False ["fapple", "coffee"]
+
+
+-- >>> paraHtml para2
+-- "<h1>I am the title</h1>"
+
+-- >>> paraHtml para2
+-- "<p>This is some text</p>"
+
+-- >>> paraHtml para3
+-- "list case: please fill in"
+
+paraHtml :: Para -> String
+paraHtml(PText s) = Printf.printf "<p>%s</p>" s
+paraHtml(PHeading n s) = Printf.printf "<h%d>%s</h%d>" n s n
+paraHtml(PList b ss) = "list case: please fill in"
+
+data Para
+ = PText String
+ | PHeading Int String
+ | PList Bool [String]
+ deriving (Show)
+
+bools :: [Bool]
+bools = [True, False]
+
+{-
+
+if eCond then eThen else eElse
+
+case eCond of
+ True -> eThen
+ False -> eElse
+
+-}
+
+quiz :: Integer
+quiz = case PText "Hey there!" of
+ PText str -> 1
+ PHeading lvl _ -> 2
+ PList ord _ -> 3
+{-
+p = PText "Hey there!"
+
+
+
+-}
+
+-- >>> paraHtml ()
+
+-- (A) squiggles will appear in EDITOR
+-- (B) run-time crash
+-- (C) just fine but do nothing for Plist
+
+{-
+struct Date {
+ int mm;
+ int dd;
+ int yyyy;
+};
+
+deadlineDate.mm
+
+-}
+
+-- >>> deadlineDate
+-- MkDate {mm = 1, dd = 28, yy = 2022}
+
+
+data Time = MkTime
+ Int -- hour
+ Int -- min
+ Int -- sec
+
+
+
+data Nat
+ = Zero
+ | OnePlus Nat
+ deriving (Show)
+
+zero :: Nat
+zero = Zero
+one :: Nat
+one = OnePlus zero
+two :: Nat
+two = OnePlus one
+
+{-
+toInt two
+ ==> toInt (OnePlus one)
+ ==> toInt (OnePlus one)
+ ==> 1 + toInt one
+ ==> 1 + toInt (OnePlus Zero)
+ ==> 1 + (1 + toInt Zero)
+ ==> 1 + (1 + 0)
+ ==> 2
+-}
+
+
+toInt :: Nat -> Int
+toInt n = case n of
+ Zero -> 0
+ OnePlus nat -> 1 + toInt nat
+
+-- toInt Zero = 0
+-- toInt (OnePlus n) = 1 + toInt n
+
+
+
+
+add :: Nat -> Nat -> Nat
+add Zero m = m
+-- add (OnePlus n) m = OnePlus (add n m)
+add (OnePlus n) m = add n (OnePlus m)
+
+
+sub :: Nat -> Nat -> Nat
+sub Zero _ = Zero
+sub n Zero = n
+sub (OnePlus n) (OnePlus m) = sub n m
+
+
+----
+
+
+-- (4.0 + 2.9) * (3.78 - 5.92)
+
+e0 :: Expr
+e0 = EMul
+ (EAdd
+ (ENum 4.0)
+ (ENum 2.9)
+ )
+ (ESub
+ (ENum 3.78)
+ (ENum 5.92)
+ )
+
+calc :: Expr -> Double
+calc e = case e of
+ ENum x -> x
+ EAdd e1 e2 -> calc e1 + calc e2
+ ESub e1 e2 -> calc e1 - calc e2
+ EMul e1 e2 -> calc e1 * calc e2
+
+-- >>> calc e0
+-- -14.766000000000002
+
+
+data Expr
+ = ENum Double
+ | EAdd Expr Expr
+ | ESub Expr Expr
+ | EMul Expr Expr
+ deriving (Show)
diff --git a/static/code/src/lec_2_8_22.hs b/static/code/src/lec_2_8_22.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b07421
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/src/lec_2_8_22.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,296 @@
+module Lec_2_8_22 where
+
+import Text.Printf
+import qualified Text.Printf as Printf
+import Data.Char (toUpper)
+
+
+incr :: Int -> Int
+incr x = x + 1
+
+silly :: Int -> Int
+silly = incr
+
+{-
+\a -> f a
+-}
+data List a = Nil | Cons a (List a) deriving (Show)
+
+exList :: List Int
+exList = Cons 1 (Cons 2 (Cons 3 (Cons 4 Nil)))
+
+addList :: List Int -> Int
+addList Nil = 0
+addList (Cons h t) = h + addList t
+
+addListTR :: List Int -> Int
+addListTR l = loop 0 l
+ where
+ loop :: Int -> List Int -> Int
+ loop res Nil = res
+ loop res (Cons h t) = loop (res + h) t
+
+rev :: [a] -> [a]
+rev [] = []
+rev (x:xs) = rev xs ++ [x]
+
+op :: [a] -> a -> [a]
+op res x = x : res
+
+revTR :: [a] -> [a]
+revTR = loop []
+ where
+ loop res [] = res
+ loop res (x:xs) = loop (x:res) xs
+-- >>> revTR [1,2,3,4]
+-- [4,3,2,1]
+
+{-
+loop [] [1,2,3,4]
+ => loop (1:[]) [2,3,4]
+ => loop (2:(1:[])) [3,4]
+ => loop (3:(2:(1:[]))) [4]
+ => loop (4:(3:(2:(1:[])))) []
+ => (4:(3:(2:(1:[]))))
+ => [4,3,2,1]
+
+
+def rev(l):
+ res
+
+-}
+
+-- >>> rev [1,2,3,4]
+-- [4,3,2,1]
+
+
+-- >>> addListTR exList
+-- 10
+
+-- >>> evens []
+-- []
+-- >>> evens [1,2,3,4]
+-- [2, 4]
+
+evens :: [Int] -> [Int]
+evens [] = []
+evens (x:xs) = if even x
+ then x : evens xs
+ else evens xs
+
+shorties :: [String] -> [String]
+shorties [] = []
+shorties (x:xs) = if short x
+ then x : shorties xs
+ else shorties xs
+
+myFilter :: (s -> Bool) -> [s] -> [s]
+myFilter cond [] = []
+myFilter cond (x:xs)
+ | cond x = x : myFilter cond xs
+ | otherwise = myFilter cond xs
+
+shorties' :: [String] -> [String]
+shorties' = myFilter short
+
+evens' :: [Int] -> [Int]
+evens' = myFilter even
+
+-- >>> evens' [1,2,3,4,45]
+-- [2,4]
+
+{-
+bob [] = []
+bob (x:xs) = if even x
+ then x : bob xs
+ else bob xs
+
+bob [] = []
+bob (x:xs) = if short x
+ then x : bob xs
+ else bob xs
+
+
+
+10 * (29 + 30) == pat 10 29 30
+56 * (91 + 4) == pat 56 91 4
+
+pat x y z = x * (y + z)
+
+
+-}
+
+
+
+
+-- >>> shorties ["here", "is", "a", "list", "of", "words"]
+-- ["is","a","of"]
+
+
+
+short :: String -> Bool
+short x = length x <= 2
+
+-- mod x 2 is True if x is "even"
+
+
+
+-- >>> veryMad :: ["i", "am", "very", "hungry"]
+-- ["I", "AM", "VERY", "HUNGRY"]
+
+veryMad :: [String] -> [String]
+veryMad [] = []
+veryMad (x:xs) = strUpper x : veryMad xs
+
+strUpper :: [Char] -> [Char]
+strUpper [] = []
+strUpper (c:cs) = toUpper c : strUpper cs
+
+veryMad' :: [String] -> [String]
+veryMad' = map strUpper
+
+strUpper' :: [Char] -> [Char]
+strUpper' = map toUpper
+
+squares' :: [Int] -> [Int]
+squares' = map (\x -> x*x)
+
+
+-- PORT OF Midterm SP 15 Q1
+
+data Option a = None | Some a deriving (Show)
+
+find :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> Option a
+find f xs = case xs of
+ [] -> None
+ x:xs' -> if f x
+ then Some x
+ else find f xs'
+
+
+xs0 :: [Integer]
+xs0 = [2,4,8,16,32]
+
+ansD :: Option Integer
+ansD = let f x = x > 10
+ in
+ find f xs0
+
+ansE :: Option Integer
+ansE = let f x = x `mod` 2 == 1
+ in
+ find f xs0
+
+-- PORT OF Midterm SP 15 Q2
+
+data Set a = MkSet [a] deriving (Show)
+
+empty :: Set a
+empty = MkSet []
+
+member :: Int -> Set Int -> Bool
+member x s = case s of
+ MkSet [] -> False
+ MkSet (h:t) -> h == x || member x (MkSet t)
+
+add :: Int -> Set Int -> Set Int
+add x s = case s of { MkSet as -> MkSet (x:as) }
+
+del :: Int -> Set Int -> Set Int
+del x s = case s of { MkSet ns -> MkSet (myFilter neq ns) }
+ where
+ neq y = x /= y
+
+-- >>> let s0 = empty
+-- >>> let s1 = add 1 s0
+-- >>> let s2 = add 2 s1
+-- >>> let s3 = del 1 s2
+-- >>> (s0, s1, s2, s3)
+-- (MkSet [],MkSet [1],MkSet [2,1],MkSet [2])
+
+-- (false, true)
+
+
+-- >>> ansE
+-- None
+
+
+
+-- >>> ans
+-- Some 16
+
+{-
+
+type ’a option = None | Some of ’a
+
+
+(d)
+
+
+
+
+
+let ans =
+ let x =0 in
+ let a1 = let x = 1 in
+fun y z -> [x;y;z]
+in
+let a2 = let x = 100 in
+a1 x
+in a2 x
+
+
+>>> squares [1,2,3,4,5]
+[1,4,9,16,25]
+
+
+foo [] = []
+foo (x:xs) = strUpper x : foo xs
+
+foo [] = []
+foo (x:xs) = toUpper x : foo xs
+-}
+
+foo :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]
+foo conv [] = []
+foo conv (x:xs) = conv x : foo conv xs
+
+
+-- >>> stringify [1,2,3]
+-- ["1","2","3"]
+
+stringify :: [Int] -> [String]
+stringify = map show
+
+
+{-
+
+let ISEMPTY = \xs -> xs (\x y z -> FALSE) TRUE
+
+l0 = FALSE
+
+l1 = PAIR ONE l0
+
+ISEMPTY l0
+
+=*> ISEMPTY FALSE
+
+=*> FALSE (\x y z -> FALSE) TRUE
+
+=*> TRUE
+
+ISEMPTY l1
+
+=*> ISEMPTY (PAIR ONE l0)
+
+=*> (PAIR ONE l0) (\x y -> FALSE) TRUE
+
+=*> (\b -> b ONE l0) (\x y z -> FALSE) TRUE
+
+=*> ((\x y z -> FALSE) ONE l0) TRUE
+
+=*> FALSE
+
+let PAIR x y = \b -> b x y
+
+-}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/static/code/src/lec_3_1_22.hs b/static/code/src/lec_3_1_22.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..18e4cc8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/src/lec_3_1_22.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,97 @@
+{-# OPTIONS_GHC -Wno-unrecognised-pragmas #-}
+{-# HLINT ignore "Use camelCase" #-}
+
+module Lec_3_1_22 where
+
+import qualified Data.Map as M
+
+import Prelude hiding ( lookup)
+
+inc :: Num a => a -> a
+inc x = x + 1
+
+(===) :: p1 -> p2 -> Bool
+(===) x y = False
+
+
+instance Num Bool where
+ True + _ = True
+ _ + True = True
+ _ + _ = False
+
+-- >>> True * True
+-- /Users/rjhala/teaching/130-wi22/static/code/src/lec_3_1_22.hs:17:10-17: No instance nor default method for class operation *
+
+
+bar :: Eq a => a -> a -> Bool
+bar x y = x == y
+
+
+data Jhala = This | That deriving (Eq, Ord)
+
+
+-- instance Eq Jhala where
+-- This == This = True
+-- That == That = True
+-- _ == _ = False
+
+instance Show Jhala where
+ show This = "jhala::this"
+ show That = "jhala::that"
+
+-- >>> This == That
+-- False
+
+
+
+-- >>> False + False
+-- False
+
+
+data Env k v
+ = Def v -- default value `v` to be used for "missing" keys
+ | Bind k v (Env k v) -- bind key `k` to the value `v`
+ deriving (Show)
+
+{-
+
+data Tree k v
+ = Leaf
+ | Node k v (Tree k v) (Tree k v)
+ deriving (Show)
+
+
+ k -> v
+
+ L R
+
+-}
+
+
+v1 :: Int
+v1 = 45
+
+v2 :: Double
+v2 = 4.5
+
+-- >>> v1 + v2
+-- Couldn't match expected type ‘Int’ with actual type ‘Double’
+
+{-
+
+ (+)
+ (<=)
+ (==)
+ show
+-}
+
+foo = (+)
+
+
+exEnv :: Env String Int
+exEnv = Bind "dog" 20 (Bind "cat" 10 (Def 0))
+
+get :: Eq k => k -> Env k v -> v
+get key env = case env of
+ Def v -> v
+ Bind k v env' -> if key == k then v else get key env'
diff --git a/static/code/src/lec_3_3_22.hs b/static/code/src/lec_3_3_22.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fdda496
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/src/lec_3_3_22.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,184 @@
+{-# OPTIONS_GHC -Wno-unrecognised-pragmas #-}
+{-# HLINT ignore "Use camelCase" #-}
+{-# HLINT ignore "Eta reduce" #-}
+{-# LANGUAGE TypeSynonymInstances #-}
+{-# LANGUAGE FlexibleInstances #-}
+{-# LANGUAGE UndecidableInstances #-}
+{-# LANGUAGE DeriveFunctor #-}
+
+module Lec_3_3_22 where
+
+import qualified Data.Map as M
+
+import Prelude hiding ( lookup)
+
+data Env k v
+ = Def v -- default value `v` to be used for "missing" keys
+ | Bind k v (Env k v) -- bind key `k` to the value `v`
+ deriving (Show, Functor)
+
+---
+
+emp :: v -> Env k v
+emp v = Def v
+
+set :: k -> v -> Env k v -> Env k v
+set key val table = Bind key val table
+
+get :: Eq k => k -> Env k v -> v
+get key t = case t of
+ Def v -> v
+ Bind k v env -> if key == k then v else get key env
+---
+
+-- >>> quiz
+-- 2.0
+
+quiz :: Double
+quiz = read "2"
+
+menu :: Env String Int
+menu = set "sandwich" 10 (set "burrito" 11 (set "burger" 15 (emp 0)))
+
+menu_descr :: Env String ([String], Int)
+menu_descr = set "sandwich" (["bacon", "lettuce", "tomato"], 10)
+ (set "burrito" (["bean", "cheese"], 11)
+ (set "burger" (["impossible", "cheese"], 15)
+ (emp ([], 0))
+ )
+ )
+
+
+data Tree a = Leaf | Node a (Tree a) (Tree a) deriving (Show, Functor)
+
+tree0 :: Tree Int
+tree0 = Node 2 (Node 1 Leaf Leaf) (Node 3 Leaf Leaf)
+
+class Mappable t where
+ mymap :: (a -> b) -> t a -> t b
+
+instance Mappable [] where
+ mymap = map
+
+-- instance Functor Tree where
+-- fmap = mymap
+instance Mappable Tree where
+ mymap f t = case t of
+ Leaf -> Leaf
+ Node a l r -> Node (f a) (mymap f l) (mymap f r)
+
+-- instance Functor (Env k) where
+-- fmap = mymap
+
+instance Mappable (Env k) where
+ mymap = mapEnv
+
+-- >>> fmap fst menu_descr
+-- Bind "sandwich" ["bacon","lettuce","tomato"] (Bind "burrito" ["bean","cheese"] (Bind "burger" ["impossible","cheese"] (Def [])))
+
+
+
+-- >>> :k Mappable
+-- Mappable :: (* -> *) -> Constraint
+
+-- mapList :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]
+-- mapEnv :: (a -> b) -> Env k a -> Env k b
+
+
+
+mapEnv :: (t -> v) -> Env k t -> Env k v
+mapEnv f env = case env of
+ Def x0 -> Def (f x0)
+ Bind k v env' -> Bind k (f v) (mapEnv f env')
+
+convert_menu :: Env String ([String], Int) -> Env String Int
+convert_menu = mapEnv snd
+
+bump :: Env String Int -> Env String Int
+bump = mapEnv (+ 1)
+
+-- { "sandwich" : 10, "burrito" : 11, "burger" : 15, "default" : 0 }
+
+-- >>> jval [menu_descr, menu_descr]
+-- JArr [JObj [("sandwich",JObj [("fst",JArr [JStr "bacon",JStr "lettuce",JStr "tomato"]),("snd",JNum 10.0)]),("burrito",JObj [("fst",JArr [JStr "bean",JStr "cheese"]),("snd",JNum 11.0)]),("burger",JObj [("fst",JArr [JStr "impossible",JStr "cheese"]),("snd",JNum 15.0)]),("default",JObj [("fst",JArr []),("snd",JNum 0.0)])],JObj [("sandwich",JObj [("fst",JArr [JStr "bacon",JStr "lettuce",JStr "tomato"]),("snd",JNum 10.0)]),("burrito",JObj [("fst",JArr [JStr "bean",JStr "cheese"]),("snd",JNum 11.0)]),("burger",JObj [("fst",JArr [JStr "impossible",JStr "cheese"]),("snd",JNum 15.0)]),("default",JObj [("fst",JArr []),("snd",JNum 0.0)])]]
+
+class JSON a where
+ jval :: a -> JVal
+
+-- >>> jval [1,2,3,4]
+-- JArr [JNum 1.0,JNum 2.0,JNum 3.0,JNum 4.0]
+
+instance JSON Double where
+ jval n = JNum n
+
+instance JSON Int where
+ jval n = JNum (fromIntegral n)
+instance JSON Integer where
+ jval n = JNum (fromIntegral n)
+
+
+-- >>> [ x + y | (x, y) <- [(1,2),(3,4),(5,6)] ]
+-- [3,7,11]
+
+
+instance {-# Overlapping #-} JSON String where
+ jval s = JStr s
+
+instance JSON a => JSON [a] where
+ jval xs = JArr [ jval x | x <- xs ]
+ -- [ jval(x) for x in xs ]
+instance (JSON a, JSON b) => JSON (a, b) where
+ jval (x, y) = JObj [ ("fst", jval x), ("snd", jval y)]
+instance (JSON a, JSON b, JSON c) => JSON (a, b, c) where
+ jval (x, y, z) = JObj [ ("fst", jval x), ("snd", jval y), ("thd", jval z)]
+
+instance JSON a => JSON (Env String a) where
+ jval env = JObj [ (k, jval v) | (k, v) <- elems env]
+ -- = JObj (map (\(k, v) -> (k, jval v)) (elems env))
+
+elems :: Env String a -> [(String, a)]
+elems (Def v) = [("default", v)]
+elems (Bind k v rest) = (k, v) : elems rest
+
+-- [ f x | x <- xs ] is the same as `map f xs`
+
+-- >>> get "coffee" menu
+-- 0
+
+data JVal
+ = JStr String
+ | JNum Double
+ | JBool Bool
+ | JObj [(String, JVal)]
+ | JArr [JVal]
+ deriving (Eq, Ord, Show)
+
+js1 :: JVal
+js1 =
+ JObj [("name", JStr "Ranjit")
+ ,("age", JNum 41.0)
+ ,("likes", JArr [ JStr "guacamole", JStr "coffee", JStr "bacon"])
+ ,("hates", JArr [ JStr "waiting" , JStr "grapefruit"])
+ ,("lunches", JArr [ JObj [("day", JStr "monday")
+ ,("loc", JStr "zanzibar")]
+ , JObj [("day", JStr "tuesday")
+ ,("loc", JStr "farmers market")]
+ , JObj [("day", JStr "wednesday")
+ ,("loc", JStr "hare krishna")]
+ , JObj [("day", JStr "thursday")
+ ,("loc", JStr "faculty club")]
+ , JObj [("day", JStr "friday")
+ ,("loc", JStr "coffee cart")]
+ ])
+ ]
+
+
+
+data Result a = Err String | Ok a
+
+{- Exercise: Write a Functor instance for Result -}
+
+-- instance Functor Result where
+-- fmap f r = case r of
+-- Err s -> _
+-- Ok a -> _
diff --git a/static/code/src/lec_3_8_22.hs b/static/code/src/lec_3_8_22.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b4c0d6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/src/lec_3_8_22.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,329 @@
+{-# OPTIONS_GHC -Wno-unrecognised-pragmas #-}
+{-# HLINT ignore "Use camelCase" #-}
+{-# HLINT ignore "Eta reduce" #-}
+{-# LANGUAGE TypeSynonymInstances #-}
+{-# LANGUAGE FlexibleInstances #-}
+{-# LANGUAGE UndecidableInstances #-}
+{-# LANGUAGE DeriveFunctor #-}
+
+module Lec_3_8_22 where
+
+import Prelude hiding (lookup)
+
+
+{-
+
+class Functor f where
+ fmap :: (a -> b) -> f a -> f b
+
+-}
+
+
+{- Exercise: Write a Functor instance for Result -}
+
+mapResult :: (a -> b) -> Result a -> Result b
+mapResult f ra = case ra of
+ Err str -> Err str
+ Val a -> Val (f a)
+
+-- >>> mapResult (\n -> n + 10) (Val 0)
+-- Val 10
+
+
+{-
+
+(a) Err "oh no!"
+(b) 10
+(c) Type error
+(d) Pattern match fail
+
+
+-}
+
+data Expr
+ = Num Int
+ | Add Expr Expr
+ | Div Expr Expr
+ | Try Expr Expr
+ deriving (Show)
+
+eval_ :: Expr -> Int
+eval_ (Num n) = n
+eval_ (Add e1 e2) = eval_ e1 + eval_ e2
+eval_ (Div e1 e2) = eval_ e1 `div` eval_ e2
+eval_ _ = error "OH NO!!!"
+
+
+boo = 1 == (3 / 3)
+
+one = 1
+
+eval :: Expr -> Result Int
+
+eval (Num n) = return n
+
+eval (Add e1 e2) = do v1 <- eval e1
+ v2 <- eval e2
+ return (v1 + v2)
+
+eval (Div e1 e2) = do v1 <- eval e1
+ v2 <- eval e2
+ if v2 == 0
+ then Err ("oops, DBZ in: " ++ show e2)
+ else return (v1 `div` v2)
+
+eval (Try e1 e2) = eval e1
+ `handle`
+ (\_ -> eval e2)
+
+
+-- evalA :: Expr -> Result Int
+
+-- evalA (Num n) = pure n
+-- evalA (Add e1 e2) = (+) <$> eval e1 <*> eval e2
+-- evalA ()
+-- -- eval (Div e1 e2) = do v1 <- eval e1
+-- -- v2 <- eval e2
+-- -- if v2 == 0
+-- -- then Err ("oops, DBZ in: " ++ show e2)
+-- -- else return (v1 `div` v2)
+
+-- eval (Try e1 e2) = eval e1
+-- `handle`
+-- (\_ -> eval e2)
+
+handle :: Result a -> (String -> Result a) -> Result a
+handle res h = case res of
+ Val v -> Val v
+ Err str -> h str
+
+data Result a = Err String | Val a deriving (Eq, Show)
+data List a = Emp | Con a (List a) deriving (Eq, Show)
+
+instance Functor List where
+ fmap f Emp = Emp
+ fmap f (Con x xs) = Con (f x) (fmap f xs)
+
+instance Monad List where
+ -- return :: a -> m a
+ return = returnList
+
+ -- (>>=) :: m a -> (a -> m b) -> m b
+ (>>=) = ffList
+
+returnList :: a -> List a
+returnList x = Con x Emp
+
+-- >>> mMap (\n -> n * 10) (Con 10 (Con 20 Emp))
+-- Con 100 (Con 200 Emp)
+
+mMap :: Monad m => (t -> b) -> m t -> m b
+mMap f xs = do
+ x <- xs
+ return (f x)
+
+-- >>> mFilter (\n -> n > 10) [1,2,3,56,78,100, 2]
+-- [56,78,100]
+
+mFilter :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> [a]
+mFilter f xs = do
+ x <- xs
+ if f x then return x else []
+
+-- >>> [x1,x2,x3] >>= f ====> [x1] ++ [ ] ++ [x3]
+
+silly xs ys = do
+ x <- xs
+ y <- ys
+ return (x * y)
+
+{-
+def silly(xs, ys):
+ for x in xs:
+ for y in ys:
+ yield (x * y)
+
+-}
+
+-- >>> silly [] []
+-- []
+
+-- >>> silly [1,2,3] []
+-- []
+
+-- >>> silly [] [10,20,30]
+-- []
+
+-- >>> silly [1,2,3] [10, 20, 30]
+-- [10,20,30,20,40,60,30,60,90]
+
+
+-- >>> silly (Err "1") (Err "2")
+-- Err "1"
+
+-- >>> silly (Err "1") (Val 10)
+-- Err "1"
+
+-- >>> silly (Val 42) (Err "2")
+-- Err "2"
+
+-- >>> silly (Val 42) (Val 10)
+-- Val 420
+
+
+
+
+
+
+foo :: List b -> List b
+foo cs = do
+ c <- cs
+ Con c (Con c Emp)
+
+-- >>> foo (Con 'c' (Con 'a' (Con 't' Emp)))
+-- Con 'c' (Con 'c' (Con 'a' (Con 'a' (Con 't' (Con 't' Emp)))))
+
+-- >>> ffList [x1, x2, x3] doStuff ==> doStuff x1 ++ doStuff x2 ++ doStuff x3
+
+ffList :: List a -> (a -> List b) -> List b
+ffList l doStuff = case l of
+ Emp -> Emp
+ Con x xs -> append thing1 thing2
+ where
+ thing1 = doStuff x
+ thing2 = ffList xs doStuff
+
+append :: List b -> List b -> List b
+append Emp ys = ys
+append (Con x xs) ys = Con x (append xs ys)
+
+
+ -- -- (>>=) :: Result a -> (a -> Result b) -> Result b
+ -- (>>=) r doStuff =
+ -- case r of
+ -- Err s -> Err s
+ -- Val v -> doStuff v
+
+{-
+ e1 >>= \v1 ->
+ e2 >>= \v2 ->
+ e3 >>= \v3 ->
+ e4
+
+do {v1 <- e1;
+ v2 <- e2;
+ v3 <- e3;
+ e4
+ }
+
+-}
+
+{-
+
+class Monad m where
+ return :: a -> m a
+ (>>=) :: m a -> (a -> m b) -> m b
+
+-}
+
+instance Monad Result where
+ -- return :: a -> Result a
+ return x = Val x
+
+ -- (>>=) :: Result a -> (a -> Result b) -> Result b
+ (>>=) r doStuff =
+ case r of
+ Err s -> Err s
+ Val v -> doStuff v
+
+
+
+
+
+ex0 :: Expr
+ex0 = Add (Num 10) (Num 5)
+
+ex1 :: Expr
+ex1 = Div ex0 (Num 3)
+
+ex2 :: Expr
+ex2 = Add (Num 5) (Num (-5))
+
+ex3 :: Expr
+ex3 = Div ex1 ex2
+
+ex4 :: Expr
+ex4 = Try ex3 (Num 59)
+
+-- >>> eval ex0
+-- Val 15
+-- >>> eval ex1
+-- Val 5
+
+-- >>> eval ex2
+-- Val 0
+
+-- >>> eval ex3
+-- Err "oops, DBZ in: Add (Num 5) (Num (-5))"
+--
+
+-- >>> eval ex4
+-- Val 59
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+instance Functor Result where
+ fmap = mapResult
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+{-
+
+map :: (a -> b) -> [a] -> [b]
+map2 :: (a1 -> a2 -> b) -> [a1] -> [a2] -> [b]
+map3 :: (a1 -> a2 -> a3 -> b) -> [a1] -> [a2] -> [a3] -> [b]
+
+class Applicative f where
+ pure :: a -> m a
+ (<*>) :: f (a -> b) -> f a -> f b
+
+-}
+
+instance Applicative List where
+
+instance Applicative Result where
+ pure = Val
+ f <*> x = case (f, x) of
+ (Val ff, Val xx) -> Val (ff xx)
+ (Err msg, _) -> Err msg
+ (_, Err msg) -> Err msg
+
+{-
+ build [x] = Leaf x
+
+ build [10,20,3,123,1,12,3,1,14,14,4,2,452, 45] = Node x l r
+ x = 10
+ ls = all elems in xs < x
+ rs = all elems in xs > x
+ l = build ls
+ r = build rs
+ -- (ls, rs) = split [20,3,123,1,12,3,1,14,14,4,2,452,45]
+
+ split [20,3,123,1,12,3,1,14,14,4,2,452,45]
+ = ([20,3,123,1,12,3], [1,14,14,4,2,452,45])
+-}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/static/code/src/main.hs b/static/code/src/main.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..188c419
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/src/main.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+
+
+
+main :: IO ()
+main = putStrLn "Hello, 130!"
+IO
+-- type Recipe a = IO a
+
+-- main :: Recipe (
+
+main :: IO ()
+main = combine sayHello sayBye
+
+combine :: () -> IO () -> IO ()
+
+hellos = [sayHello, sayBye]
+hell2 = (sayHello, sayBye)
+
+sayHello :: IO ()
+sayHello = putStrLn "Hello hello, world!"
+
+sayBye :: IO ()
+sayBye = putStrLn "Bye Bye, world!"
diff --git a/static/code/stack.yaml b/static/code/stack.yaml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ebfcdd4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/code/stack.yaml
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+resolver: lts-18.13
+compiler: ghc-8.10.7
+allow-newer: true
+packages:
+- '.'
+
diff --git a/static/css/bootstrap.css b/static/css/bootstrap.css
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c6f3d21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/css/bootstrap.css
@@ -0,0 +1,6332 @@
+/*!
+ * Bootstrap v3.3.1 (http://getbootstrap.com)
+ * Copyright 2011-2014 Twitter, Inc.
+ * Licensed under MIT (https://github.com/twbs/bootstrap/blob/master/LICENSE)
+ */
+
+/*! normalize.css v3.0.2 | MIT License | git.io/normalize */
+html {
+ font-family: sans-serif;
+ -webkit-text-size-adjust: 100%;
+ -ms-text-size-adjust: 100%;
+}
+body {
+ margin: 0;
+}
+article,
+aside,
+details,
+figcaption,
+figure,
+footer,
+header,
+hgroup,
+main,
+menu,
+nav,
+section,
+summary {
+ display: block;
+}
+audio,
+canvas,
+progress,
+video {
+ display: inline-block;
+ vertical-align: baseline;
+}
+audio:not([controls]) {
+ display: none;
+ height: 0;
+}
+[hidden],
+template {
+ display: none;
+}
+a {
+ background-color: transparent;
+}
+a:active,
+a:hover {
+ outline: 0;
+}
+abbr[title] {
+ border-bottom: 1px dotted;
+}
+b,
+strong {
+ font-weight: bold;
+}
+dfn {
+ font-style: italic;
+}
+h1 {
+ margin: .67em 0;
+ font-size: 2em;
+}
+mark {
+ color: #000;
+ background: #ff0;
+}
+small {
+ font-size: 80%;
+}
+sub,
+sup {
+ position: relative;
+ font-size: 75%;
+ line-height: 0;
+ vertical-align: baseline;
+}
+sup {
+ top: -.5em;
+}
+sub {
+ bottom: -.25em;
+}
+img {
+ border: 0;
+}
+svg:not(:root) {
+ overflow: hidden;
+}
+figure {
+ margin: 1em 40px;
+}
+hr {
+ height: 0;
+ -webkit-box-sizing: content-box;
+ -moz-box-sizing: content-box;
+ box-sizing: content-box;
+}
+pre {
+ overflow: auto;
+}
+code,
+kbd,
+pre,
+samp {
+ font-family: monospace, monospace;
+ font-size: 1em;
+}
+button,
+input,
+optgroup,
+select,
+textarea {
+ margin: 0;
+ font: inherit;
+ color: inherit;
+}
+button {
+ overflow: visible;
+}
+button,
+select {
+ text-transform: none;
+}
+button,
+html input[type="button"],
+input[type="reset"],
+input[type="submit"] {
+ -webkit-appearance: button;
+ cursor: pointer;
+}
+button[disabled],
+html input[disabled] {
+ cursor: default;
+}
+button::-moz-focus-inner,
+input::-moz-focus-inner {
+ padding: 0;
+ border: 0;
+}
+input {
+ line-height: normal;
+}
+input[type="checkbox"],
+input[type="radio"] {
+ -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;
+ -moz-box-sizing: border-box;
+ box-sizing: border-box;
+ padding: 0;
+}
+input[type="number"]::-webkit-inner-spin-button,
+input[type="number"]::-webkit-outer-spin-button {
+ height: auto;
+}
+input[type="search"] {
+ -webkit-box-sizing: content-box;
+ -moz-box-sizing: content-box;
+ box-sizing: content-box;
+ -webkit-appearance: textfield;
+}
+input[type="search"]::-webkit-search-cancel-button,
+input[type="search"]::-webkit-search-decoration {
+ -webkit-appearance: none;
+}
+fieldset {
+ padding: .35em .625em .75em;
+ margin: 0 2px;
+ border: 1px solid #c0c0c0;
+}
+legend {
+ padding: 0;
+ border: 0;
+}
+textarea {
+ overflow: auto;
+}
+optgroup {
+ font-weight: bold;
+}
+table {
+ border-spacing: 0;
+ border-collapse: collapse;
+}
+td,
+th {
+ padding: 0;
+}
+/*! Source: https://github.com/h5bp/html5-boilerplate/blob/master/src/css/main.css */
+@media print {
+ *,
+ *:before,
+ *:after {
+ color: #000 !important;
+ text-shadow: none !important;
+ background: transparent !important;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: none !important;
+ box-shadow: none !important;
+ }
+ a,
+ a:visited {
+ text-decoration: underline;
+ }
+ a[href]:after {
+ content: " (" attr(href) ")";
+ }
+ abbr[title]:after {
+ content: " (" attr(title) ")";
+ }
+ a[href^="#"]:after,
+ a[href^="javascript:"]:after {
+ content: "";
+ }
+ pre,
+ blockquote {
+ border: 1px solid #999;
+
+ page-break-inside: avoid;
+ }
+ thead {
+ display: table-header-group;
+ }
+ tr,
+ img {
+ page-break-inside: avoid;
+ }
+ img {
+ max-width: 100% !important;
+ }
+ p,
+ h2,
+ h3 {
+ orphans: 3;
+ widows: 3;
+ }
+ h2,
+ h3 {
+ page-break-after: avoid;
+ }
+ select {
+ background: #fff !important;
+ }
+ .navbar {
+ display: none;
+ }
+ .btn > .caret,
+ .dropup > .btn > .caret {
+ border-top-color: #000 !important;
+ }
+ .label {
+ border: 1px solid #000;
+ }
+ .table {
+ border-collapse: collapse !important;
+ }
+ .table td,
+ .table th {
+ background-color: #fff !important;
+ }
+ .table-bordered th,
+ .table-bordered td {
+ border: 1px solid #ddd !important;
+ }
+}
+@font-face {
+ font-family: 'Glyphicons Halflings';
+
+ src: url('../fonts/glyphicons-halflings-regular.eot');
+ src: url('../fonts/glyphicons-halflings-regular.eot?#iefix') format('embedded-opentype'), url('../fonts/glyphicons-halflings-regular.woff') format('woff'), url('../fonts/glyphicons-halflings-regular.ttf') format('truetype'), url('../fonts/glyphicons-halflings-regular.svg#glyphicons_halflingsregular') format('svg');
+}
+.glyphicon {
+ position: relative;
+ top: 1px;
+ display: inline-block;
+ font-family: 'Glyphicons Halflings';
+ font-style: normal;
+ font-weight: normal;
+ line-height: 1;
+
+ -webkit-font-smoothing: antialiased;
+ -moz-osx-font-smoothing: grayscale;
+}
+.glyphicon-asterisk:before {
+ content: "\2a";
+}
+.glyphicon-plus:before {
+ content: "\2b";
+}
+.glyphicon-euro:before,
+.glyphicon-eur:before {
+ content: "\20ac";
+}
+.glyphicon-minus:before {
+ content: "\2212";
+}
+.glyphicon-cloud:before {
+ content: "\2601";
+}
+.glyphicon-envelope:before {
+ content: "\2709";
+}
+.glyphicon-pencil:before {
+ content: "\270f";
+}
+.glyphicon-glass:before {
+ content: "\e001";
+}
+.glyphicon-music:before {
+ content: "\e002";
+}
+.glyphicon-search:before {
+ content: "\e003";
+}
+.glyphicon-heart:before {
+ content: "\e005";
+}
+.glyphicon-star:before {
+ content: "\e006";
+}
+.glyphicon-star-empty:before {
+ content: "\e007";
+}
+.glyphicon-user:before {
+ content: "\e008";
+}
+.glyphicon-film:before {
+ content: "\e009";
+}
+.glyphicon-th-large:before {
+ content: "\e010";
+}
+.glyphicon-th:before {
+ content: "\e011";
+}
+.glyphicon-th-list:before {
+ content: "\e012";
+}
+.glyphicon-ok:before {
+ content: "\e013";
+}
+.glyphicon-remove:before {
+ content: "\e014";
+}
+.glyphicon-zoom-in:before {
+ content: "\e015";
+}
+.glyphicon-zoom-out:before {
+ content: "\e016";
+}
+.glyphicon-off:before {
+ content: "\e017";
+}
+.glyphicon-signal:before {
+ content: "\e018";
+}
+.glyphicon-cog:before {
+ content: "\e019";
+}
+.glyphicon-trash:before {
+ content: "\e020";
+}
+.glyphicon-home:before {
+ content: "\e021";
+}
+.glyphicon-file:before {
+ content: "\e022";
+}
+.glyphicon-time:before {
+ content: "\e023";
+}
+.glyphicon-road:before {
+ content: "\e024";
+}
+.glyphicon-download-alt:before {
+ content: "\e025";
+}
+.glyphicon-download:before {
+ content: "\e026";
+}
+.glyphicon-upload:before {
+ content: "\e027";
+}
+.glyphicon-inbox:before {
+ content: "\e028";
+}
+.glyphicon-play-circle:before {
+ content: "\e029";
+}
+.glyphicon-repeat:before {
+ content: "\e030";
+}
+.glyphicon-refresh:before {
+ content: "\e031";
+}
+.glyphicon-list-alt:before {
+ content: "\e032";
+}
+.glyphicon-lock:before {
+ content: "\e033";
+}
+.glyphicon-flag:before {
+ content: "\e034";
+}
+.glyphicon-headphones:before {
+ content: "\e035";
+}
+.glyphicon-volume-off:before {
+ content: "\e036";
+}
+.glyphicon-volume-down:before {
+ content: "\e037";
+}
+.glyphicon-volume-up:before {
+ content: "\e038";
+}
+.glyphicon-qrcode:before {
+ content: "\e039";
+}
+.glyphicon-barcode:before {
+ content: "\e040";
+}
+.glyphicon-tag:before {
+ content: "\e041";
+}
+.glyphicon-tags:before {
+ content: "\e042";
+}
+.glyphicon-book:before {
+ content: "\e043";
+}
+.glyphicon-bookmark:before {
+ content: "\e044";
+}
+.glyphicon-print:before {
+ content: "\e045";
+}
+.glyphicon-camera:before {
+ content: "\e046";
+}
+.glyphicon-font:before {
+ content: "\e047";
+}
+.glyphicon-bold:before {
+ content: "\e048";
+}
+.glyphicon-italic:before {
+ content: "\e049";
+}
+.glyphicon-text-height:before {
+ content: "\e050";
+}
+.glyphicon-text-width:before {
+ content: "\e051";
+}
+.glyphicon-align-left:before {
+ content: "\e052";
+}
+.glyphicon-align-center:before {
+ content: "\e053";
+}
+.glyphicon-align-right:before {
+ content: "\e054";
+}
+.glyphicon-align-justify:before {
+ content: "\e055";
+}
+.glyphicon-list:before {
+ content: "\e056";
+}
+.glyphicon-indent-left:before {
+ content: "\e057";
+}
+.glyphicon-indent-right:before {
+ content: "\e058";
+}
+.glyphicon-facetime-video:before {
+ content: "\e059";
+}
+.glyphicon-picture:before {
+ content: "\e060";
+}
+.glyphicon-map-marker:before {
+ content: "\e062";
+}
+.glyphicon-adjust:before {
+ content: "\e063";
+}
+.glyphicon-tint:before {
+ content: "\e064";
+}
+.glyphicon-edit:before {
+ content: "\e065";
+}
+.glyphicon-share:before {
+ content: "\e066";
+}
+.glyphicon-check:before {
+ content: "\e067";
+}
+.glyphicon-move:before {
+ content: "\e068";
+}
+.glyphicon-step-backward:before {
+ content: "\e069";
+}
+.glyphicon-fast-backward:before {
+ content: "\e070";
+}
+.glyphicon-backward:before {
+ content: "\e071";
+}
+.glyphicon-play:before {
+ content: "\e072";
+}
+.glyphicon-pause:before {
+ content: "\e073";
+}
+.glyphicon-stop:before {
+ content: "\e074";
+}
+.glyphicon-forward:before {
+ content: "\e075";
+}
+.glyphicon-fast-forward:before {
+ content: "\e076";
+}
+.glyphicon-step-forward:before {
+ content: "\e077";
+}
+.glyphicon-eject:before {
+ content: "\e078";
+}
+.glyphicon-chevron-left:before {
+ content: "\e079";
+}
+.glyphicon-chevron-right:before {
+ content: "\e080";
+}
+.glyphicon-plus-sign:before {
+ content: "\e081";
+}
+.glyphicon-minus-sign:before {
+ content: "\e082";
+}
+.glyphicon-remove-sign:before {
+ content: "\e083";
+}
+.glyphicon-ok-sign:before {
+ content: "\e084";
+}
+.glyphicon-question-sign:before {
+ content: "\e085";
+}
+.glyphicon-info-sign:before {
+ content: "\e086";
+}
+.glyphicon-screenshot:before {
+ content: "\e087";
+}
+.glyphicon-remove-circle:before {
+ content: "\e088";
+}
+.glyphicon-ok-circle:before {
+ content: "\e089";
+}
+.glyphicon-ban-circle:before {
+ content: "\e090";
+}
+.glyphicon-arrow-left:before {
+ content: "\e091";
+}
+.glyphicon-arrow-right:before {
+ content: "\e092";
+}
+.glyphicon-arrow-up:before {
+ content: "\e093";
+}
+.glyphicon-arrow-down:before {
+ content: "\e094";
+}
+.glyphicon-share-alt:before {
+ content: "\e095";
+}
+.glyphicon-resize-full:before {
+ content: "\e096";
+}
+.glyphicon-resize-small:before {
+ content: "\e097";
+}
+.glyphicon-exclamation-sign:before {
+ content: "\e101";
+}
+.glyphicon-gift:before {
+ content: "\e102";
+}
+.glyphicon-leaf:before {
+ content: "\e103";
+}
+.glyphicon-fire:before {
+ content: "\e104";
+}
+.glyphicon-eye-open:before {
+ content: "\e105";
+}
+.glyphicon-eye-close:before {
+ content: "\e106";
+}
+.glyphicon-warning-sign:before {
+ content: "\e107";
+}
+.glyphicon-plane:before {
+ content: "\e108";
+}
+.glyphicon-calendar:before {
+ content: "\e109";
+}
+.glyphicon-random:before {
+ content: "\e110";
+}
+.glyphicon-comment:before {
+ content: "\e111";
+}
+.glyphicon-magnet:before {
+ content: "\e112";
+}
+.glyphicon-chevron-up:before {
+ content: "\e113";
+}
+.glyphicon-chevron-down:before {
+ content: "\e114";
+}
+.glyphicon-retweet:before {
+ content: "\e115";
+}
+.glyphicon-shopping-cart:before {
+ content: "\e116";
+}
+.glyphicon-folder-close:before {
+ content: "\e117";
+}
+.glyphicon-folder-open:before {
+ content: "\e118";
+}
+.glyphicon-resize-vertical:before {
+ content: "\e119";
+}
+.glyphicon-resize-horizontal:before {
+ content: "\e120";
+}
+.glyphicon-hdd:before {
+ content: "\e121";
+}
+.glyphicon-bullhorn:before {
+ content: "\e122";
+}
+.glyphicon-bell:before {
+ content: "\e123";
+}
+.glyphicon-certificate:before {
+ content: "\e124";
+}
+.glyphicon-thumbs-up:before {
+ content: "\e125";
+}
+.glyphicon-thumbs-down:before {
+ content: "\e126";
+}
+.glyphicon-hand-right:before {
+ content: "\e127";
+}
+.glyphicon-hand-left:before {
+ content: "\e128";
+}
+.glyphicon-hand-up:before {
+ content: "\e129";
+}
+.glyphicon-hand-down:before {
+ content: "\e130";
+}
+.glyphicon-circle-arrow-right:before {
+ content: "\e131";
+}
+.glyphicon-circle-arrow-left:before {
+ content: "\e132";
+}
+.glyphicon-circle-arrow-up:before {
+ content: "\e133";
+}
+.glyphicon-circle-arrow-down:before {
+ content: "\e134";
+}
+.glyphicon-globe:before {
+ content: "\e135";
+}
+.glyphicon-wrench:before {
+ content: "\e136";
+}
+.glyphicon-tasks:before {
+ content: "\e137";
+}
+.glyphicon-filter:before {
+ content: "\e138";
+}
+.glyphicon-briefcase:before {
+ content: "\e139";
+}
+.glyphicon-fullscreen:before {
+ content: "\e140";
+}
+.glyphicon-dashboard:before {
+ content: "\e141";
+}
+.glyphicon-paperclip:before {
+ content: "\e142";
+}
+.glyphicon-heart-empty:before {
+ content: "\e143";
+}
+.glyphicon-link:before {
+ content: "\e144";
+}
+.glyphicon-phone:before {
+ content: "\e145";
+}
+.glyphicon-pushpin:before {
+ content: "\e146";
+}
+.glyphicon-usd:before {
+ content: "\e148";
+}
+.glyphicon-gbp:before {
+ content: "\e149";
+}
+.glyphicon-sort:before {
+ content: "\e150";
+}
+.glyphicon-sort-by-alphabet:before {
+ content: "\e151";
+}
+.glyphicon-sort-by-alphabet-alt:before {
+ content: "\e152";
+}
+.glyphicon-sort-by-order:before {
+ content: "\e153";
+}
+.glyphicon-sort-by-order-alt:before {
+ content: "\e154";
+}
+.glyphicon-sort-by-attributes:before {
+ content: "\e155";
+}
+.glyphicon-sort-by-attributes-alt:before {
+ content: "\e156";
+}
+.glyphicon-unchecked:before {
+ content: "\e157";
+}
+.glyphicon-expand:before {
+ content: "\e158";
+}
+.glyphicon-collapse-down:before {
+ content: "\e159";
+}
+.glyphicon-collapse-up:before {
+ content: "\e160";
+}
+.glyphicon-log-in:before {
+ content: "\e161";
+}
+.glyphicon-flash:before {
+ content: "\e162";
+}
+.glyphicon-log-out:before {
+ content: "\e163";
+}
+.glyphicon-new-window:before {
+ content: "\e164";
+}
+.glyphicon-record:before {
+ content: "\e165";
+}
+.glyphicon-save:before {
+ content: "\e166";
+}
+.glyphicon-open:before {
+ content: "\e167";
+}
+.glyphicon-saved:before {
+ content: "\e168";
+}
+.glyphicon-import:before {
+ content: "\e169";
+}
+.glyphicon-export:before {
+ content: "\e170";
+}
+.glyphicon-send:before {
+ content: "\e171";
+}
+.glyphicon-floppy-disk:before {
+ content: "\e172";
+}
+.glyphicon-floppy-saved:before {
+ content: "\e173";
+}
+.glyphicon-floppy-remove:before {
+ content: "\e174";
+}
+.glyphicon-floppy-save:before {
+ content: "\e175";
+}
+.glyphicon-floppy-open:before {
+ content: "\e176";
+}
+.glyphicon-credit-card:before {
+ content: "\e177";
+}
+.glyphicon-transfer:before {
+ content: "\e178";
+}
+.glyphicon-cutlery:before {
+ content: "\e179";
+}
+.glyphicon-header:before {
+ content: "\e180";
+}
+.glyphicon-compressed:before {
+ content: "\e181";
+}
+.glyphicon-earphone:before {
+ content: "\e182";
+}
+.glyphicon-phone-alt:before {
+ content: "\e183";
+}
+.glyphicon-tower:before {
+ content: "\e184";
+}
+.glyphicon-stats:before {
+ content: "\e185";
+}
+.glyphicon-sd-video:before {
+ content: "\e186";
+}
+.glyphicon-hd-video:before {
+ content: "\e187";
+}
+.glyphicon-subtitles:before {
+ content: "\e188";
+}
+.glyphicon-sound-stereo:before {
+ content: "\e189";
+}
+.glyphicon-sound-dolby:before {
+ content: "\e190";
+}
+.glyphicon-sound-5-1:before {
+ content: "\e191";
+}
+.glyphicon-sound-6-1:before {
+ content: "\e192";
+}
+.glyphicon-sound-7-1:before {
+ content: "\e193";
+}
+.glyphicon-copyright-mark:before {
+ content: "\e194";
+}
+.glyphicon-registration-mark:before {
+ content: "\e195";
+}
+.glyphicon-cloud-download:before {
+ content: "\e197";
+}
+.glyphicon-cloud-upload:before {
+ content: "\e198";
+}
+.glyphicon-tree-conifer:before {
+ content: "\e199";
+}
+.glyphicon-tree-deciduous:before {
+ content: "\e200";
+}
+* {
+ -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;
+ -moz-box-sizing: border-box;
+ box-sizing: border-box;
+}
+*:before,
+*:after {
+ -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;
+ -moz-box-sizing: border-box;
+ box-sizing: border-box;
+}
+html {
+ font-size: 10px;
+
+ -webkit-tap-highlight-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0);
+}
+body {
+ font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;
+ font-size: 14px;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+ color: #333;
+ background-color: #fff;
+}
+input,
+button,
+select,
+textarea {
+ font-family: inherit;
+ font-size: inherit;
+ line-height: inherit;
+}
+a {
+ color: #337ab7;
+ text-decoration: none;
+}
+a:hover,
+a:focus {
+ color: #23527c;
+ text-decoration: underline;
+}
+a:focus {
+ outline: thin dotted;
+ outline: 5px auto -webkit-focus-ring-color;
+ outline-offset: -2px;
+}
+figure {
+ margin: 0;
+}
+img {
+ vertical-align: middle;
+}
+.img-responsive,
+.thumbnail > img,
+.thumbnail a > img,
+.carousel-inner > .item > img,
+.carousel-inner > .item > a > img {
+ display: block;
+ max-width: 100%;
+ height: auto;
+}
+.img-rounded {
+ border-radius: 6px;
+}
+.img-thumbnail {
+ display: inline-block;
+ max-width: 100%;
+ height: auto;
+ padding: 4px;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+ background-color: #fff;
+ border: 1px solid #ddd;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+ -webkit-transition: all .2s ease-in-out;
+ -o-transition: all .2s ease-in-out;
+ transition: all .2s ease-in-out;
+}
+.img-circle {
+ border-radius: 50%;
+}
+hr {
+ margin-top: 20px;
+ margin-bottom: 20px;
+ border: 0;
+ border-top: 1px solid #eee;
+}
+.sr-only {
+ position: absolute;
+ width: 1px;
+ height: 1px;
+ padding: 0;
+ margin: -1px;
+ overflow: hidden;
+ clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0);
+ border: 0;
+}
+.sr-only-focusable:active,
+.sr-only-focusable:focus {
+ position: static;
+ width: auto;
+ height: auto;
+ margin: 0;
+ overflow: visible;
+ clip: auto;
+}
+h1,
+h2,
+h3,
+h4,
+h5,
+h6,
+.h1,
+.h2,
+.h3,
+.h4,
+.h5,
+.h6 {
+ font-family: inherit;
+ font-weight: 500;
+ line-height: 1.1;
+ color: inherit;
+}
+h1 small,
+h2 small,
+h3 small,
+h4 small,
+h5 small,
+h6 small,
+.h1 small,
+.h2 small,
+.h3 small,
+.h4 small,
+.h5 small,
+.h6 small,
+h1 .small,
+h2 .small,
+h3 .small,
+h4 .small,
+h5 .small,
+h6 .small,
+.h1 .small,
+.h2 .small,
+.h3 .small,
+.h4 .small,
+.h5 .small,
+.h6 .small {
+ font-weight: normal;
+ line-height: 1;
+ color: #777;
+}
+h1,
+.h1,
+h2,
+.h2,
+h3,
+.h3 {
+ margin-top: 20px;
+ margin-bottom: 10px;
+}
+h1 small,
+.h1 small,
+h2 small,
+.h2 small,
+h3 small,
+.h3 small,
+h1 .small,
+.h1 .small,
+h2 .small,
+.h2 .small,
+h3 .small,
+.h3 .small {
+ font-size: 65%;
+}
+h4,
+.h4,
+h5,
+.h5,
+h6,
+.h6 {
+ margin-top: 10px;
+ margin-bottom: 10px;
+}
+h4 small,
+.h4 small,
+h5 small,
+.h5 small,
+h6 small,
+.h6 small,
+h4 .small,
+.h4 .small,
+h5 .small,
+.h5 .small,
+h6 .small,
+.h6 .small {
+ font-size: 75%;
+}
+h1,
+.h1 {
+ font-size: 36px;
+}
+h2,
+.h2 {
+ font-size: 30px;
+}
+h3,
+.h3 {
+ font-size: 24px;
+}
+h4,
+.h4 {
+ font-size: 18px;
+}
+h5,
+.h5 {
+ font-size: 14px;
+}
+h6,
+.h6 {
+ font-size: 12px;
+}
+p {
+ margin: 0 0 10px;
+}
+.lead {
+ margin-bottom: 20px;
+ font-size: 16px;
+ font-weight: 300;
+ line-height: 1.4;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .lead {
+ font-size: 21px;
+ }
+}
+small,
+.small {
+ font-size: 85%;
+}
+mark,
+.mark {
+ padding: .2em;
+ background-color: #fcf8e3;
+}
+.text-left {
+ text-align: left;
+}
+.text-right {
+ text-align: right;
+}
+.text-center {
+ text-align: center;
+}
+.text-justify {
+ text-align: justify;
+}
+.text-nowrap {
+ white-space: nowrap;
+}
+.text-lowercase {
+ text-transform: lowercase;
+}
+.text-uppercase {
+ text-transform: uppercase;
+}
+.text-capitalize {
+ text-transform: capitalize;
+}
+.text-muted {
+ color: #777;
+}
+.text-primary {
+ color: #337ab7;
+}
+a.text-primary:hover {
+ color: #286090;
+}
+.text-success {
+ color: #3c763d;
+}
+a.text-success:hover {
+ color: #2b542c;
+}
+.text-info {
+ color: #31708f;
+}
+a.text-info:hover {
+ color: #245269;
+}
+.text-warning {
+ color: #8a6d3b;
+}
+a.text-warning:hover {
+ color: #66512c;
+}
+.text-danger {
+ color: #a94442;
+}
+a.text-danger:hover {
+ color: #843534;
+}
+.bg-primary {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #337ab7;
+}
+a.bg-primary:hover {
+ background-color: #286090;
+}
+.bg-success {
+ background-color: #dff0d8;
+}
+a.bg-success:hover {
+ background-color: #c1e2b3;
+}
+.bg-info {
+ background-color: #d9edf7;
+}
+a.bg-info:hover {
+ background-color: #afd9ee;
+}
+.bg-warning {
+ background-color: #fcf8e3;
+}
+a.bg-warning:hover {
+ background-color: #f7ecb5;
+}
+.bg-danger {
+ background-color: #f2dede;
+}
+a.bg-danger:hover {
+ background-color: #e4b9b9;
+}
+.page-header {
+ padding-bottom: 9px;
+ margin: 40px 0 20px;
+ border-bottom: 1px solid #eee;
+}
+ul,
+ol {
+ margin-top: 0;
+ margin-bottom: 10px;
+}
+ul ul,
+ol ul,
+ul ol,
+ol ol {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+}
+.list-unstyled {
+ padding-left: 0;
+ list-style: none;
+}
+.list-inline {
+ padding-left: 0;
+ margin-left: -5px;
+ list-style: none;
+}
+.list-inline > li {
+ display: inline-block;
+ padding-right: 5px;
+ padding-left: 5px;
+}
+dl {
+ margin-top: 0;
+ margin-bottom: 20px;
+}
+dt,
+dd {
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+}
+dt {
+ font-weight: bold;
+}
+dd {
+ margin-left: 0;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .dl-horizontal dt {
+ float: left;
+ width: 160px;
+ overflow: hidden;
+ clear: left;
+ text-align: right;
+ text-overflow: ellipsis;
+ white-space: nowrap;
+ }
+ .dl-horizontal dd {
+ margin-left: 180px;
+ }
+}
+abbr[title],
+abbr[data-original-title] {
+ cursor: help;
+ border-bottom: 1px dotted #777;
+}
+.initialism {
+ font-size: 90%;
+ text-transform: uppercase;
+}
+blockquote {
+ padding: 10px 20px;
+ margin: 0 0 20px;
+ font-size: 17.5px;
+ border-left: 5px solid #eee;
+}
+blockquote p:last-child,
+blockquote ul:last-child,
+blockquote ol:last-child {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+}
+blockquote footer,
+blockquote small,
+blockquote .small {
+ display: block;
+ font-size: 80%;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+ color: #777;
+}
+blockquote footer:before,
+blockquote small:before,
+blockquote .small:before {
+ content: '\2014 \00A0';
+}
+.blockquote-reverse,
+blockquote.pull-right {
+ padding-right: 15px;
+ padding-left: 0;
+ text-align: right;
+ border-right: 5px solid #eee;
+ border-left: 0;
+}
+.blockquote-reverse footer:before,
+blockquote.pull-right footer:before,
+.blockquote-reverse small:before,
+blockquote.pull-right small:before,
+.blockquote-reverse .small:before,
+blockquote.pull-right .small:before {
+ content: '';
+}
+.blockquote-reverse footer:after,
+blockquote.pull-right footer:after,
+.blockquote-reverse small:after,
+blockquote.pull-right small:after,
+.blockquote-reverse .small:after,
+blockquote.pull-right .small:after {
+ content: '\00A0 \2014';
+}
+address {
+ margin-bottom: 20px;
+ font-style: normal;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+}
+code,
+kbd,
+pre,
+samp {
+ font-family: Menlo, Monaco, Consolas, "Courier New", monospace;
+}
+code {
+ padding: 2px 4px;
+ font-size: 90%;
+ color: #c7254e;
+ background-color: #f9f2f4;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+}
+kbd {
+ padding: 2px 4px;
+ font-size: 90%;
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #333;
+ border-radius: 3px;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 -1px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, .25);
+ box-shadow: inset 0 -1px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, .25);
+}
+kbd kbd {
+ padding: 0;
+ font-size: 100%;
+ font-weight: bold;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: none;
+ box-shadow: none;
+}
+pre {
+ display: block;
+ padding: 9.5px;
+ margin: 0 0 10px;
+ font-size: 13px;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+ color: #333;
+ word-break: break-all;
+ word-wrap: break-word;
+ background-color: #f5f5f5;
+ border: 1px solid #ccc;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+}
+pre code {
+ padding: 0;
+ font-size: inherit;
+ color: inherit;
+ white-space: pre-wrap;
+ background-color: transparent;
+ border-radius: 0;
+}
+.pre-scrollable {
+ max-height: 340px;
+ overflow-y: scroll;
+}
+.container {
+ padding-right: 15px;
+ padding-left: 15px;
+ margin-right: auto;
+ margin-left: auto;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .container {
+ width: 750px;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 992px) {
+ .container {
+ width: 970px;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 1200px) {
+ .container {
+ width: 1170px;
+ }
+}
+.container-fluid {
+ padding-right: 15px;
+ padding-left: 15px;
+ margin-right: auto;
+ margin-left: auto;
+}
+.row {
+ margin-right: -15px;
+ margin-left: -15px;
+}
+.col-xs-1, .col-sm-1, .col-md-1, .col-lg-1, .col-xs-2, .col-sm-2, .col-md-2, .col-lg-2, .col-xs-3, .col-sm-3, .col-md-3, .col-lg-3, .col-xs-4, .col-sm-4, .col-md-4, .col-lg-4, .col-xs-5, .col-sm-5, .col-md-5, .col-lg-5, .col-xs-6, .col-sm-6, .col-md-6, .col-lg-6, .col-xs-7, .col-sm-7, .col-md-7, .col-lg-7, .col-xs-8, .col-sm-8, .col-md-8, .col-lg-8, .col-xs-9, .col-sm-9, .col-md-9, .col-lg-9, .col-xs-10, .col-sm-10, .col-md-10, .col-lg-10, .col-xs-11, .col-sm-11, .col-md-11, .col-lg-11, .col-xs-12, .col-sm-12, .col-md-12, .col-lg-12 {
+ position: relative;
+ min-height: 1px;
+ padding-right: 15px;
+ padding-left: 15px;
+}
+.col-xs-1, .col-xs-2, .col-xs-3, .col-xs-4, .col-xs-5, .col-xs-6, .col-xs-7, .col-xs-8, .col-xs-9, .col-xs-10, .col-xs-11, .col-xs-12 {
+ float: left;
+}
+.col-xs-12 {
+ width: 100%;
+}
+.col-xs-11 {
+ width: 91.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-10 {
+ width: 83.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-9 {
+ width: 75%;
+}
+.col-xs-8 {
+ width: 66.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-7 {
+ width: 58.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-6 {
+ width: 50%;
+}
+.col-xs-5 {
+ width: 41.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-4 {
+ width: 33.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-3 {
+ width: 25%;
+}
+.col-xs-2 {
+ width: 16.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-1 {
+ width: 8.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-pull-12 {
+ right: 100%;
+}
+.col-xs-pull-11 {
+ right: 91.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-pull-10 {
+ right: 83.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-pull-9 {
+ right: 75%;
+}
+.col-xs-pull-8 {
+ right: 66.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-pull-7 {
+ right: 58.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-pull-6 {
+ right: 50%;
+}
+.col-xs-pull-5 {
+ right: 41.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-pull-4 {
+ right: 33.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-pull-3 {
+ right: 25%;
+}
+.col-xs-pull-2 {
+ right: 16.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-pull-1 {
+ right: 8.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-pull-0 {
+ right: auto;
+}
+.col-xs-push-12 {
+ left: 100%;
+}
+.col-xs-push-11 {
+ left: 91.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-push-10 {
+ left: 83.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-push-9 {
+ left: 75%;
+}
+.col-xs-push-8 {
+ left: 66.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-push-7 {
+ left: 58.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-push-6 {
+ left: 50%;
+}
+.col-xs-push-5 {
+ left: 41.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-push-4 {
+ left: 33.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-push-3 {
+ left: 25%;
+}
+.col-xs-push-2 {
+ left: 16.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-push-1 {
+ left: 8.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-push-0 {
+ left: auto;
+}
+.col-xs-offset-12 {
+ margin-left: 100%;
+}
+.col-xs-offset-11 {
+ margin-left: 91.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-offset-10 {
+ margin-left: 83.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-offset-9 {
+ margin-left: 75%;
+}
+.col-xs-offset-8 {
+ margin-left: 66.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-offset-7 {
+ margin-left: 58.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-offset-6 {
+ margin-left: 50%;
+}
+.col-xs-offset-5 {
+ margin-left: 41.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-offset-4 {
+ margin-left: 33.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-offset-3 {
+ margin-left: 25%;
+}
+.col-xs-offset-2 {
+ margin-left: 16.66666667%;
+}
+.col-xs-offset-1 {
+ margin-left: 8.33333333%;
+}
+.col-xs-offset-0 {
+ margin-left: 0;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .col-sm-1, .col-sm-2, .col-sm-3, .col-sm-4, .col-sm-5, .col-sm-6, .col-sm-7, .col-sm-8, .col-sm-9, .col-sm-10, .col-sm-11, .col-sm-12 {
+ float: left;
+ }
+ .col-sm-12 {
+ width: 100%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-11 {
+ width: 91.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-10 {
+ width: 83.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-9 {
+ width: 75%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-8 {
+ width: 66.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-7 {
+ width: 58.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-6 {
+ width: 50%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-5 {
+ width: 41.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-4 {
+ width: 33.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-3 {
+ width: 25%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-2 {
+ width: 16.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-1 {
+ width: 8.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-pull-12 {
+ right: 100%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-pull-11 {
+ right: 91.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-pull-10 {
+ right: 83.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-pull-9 {
+ right: 75%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-pull-8 {
+ right: 66.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-pull-7 {
+ right: 58.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-pull-6 {
+ right: 50%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-pull-5 {
+ right: 41.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-pull-4 {
+ right: 33.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-pull-3 {
+ right: 25%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-pull-2 {
+ right: 16.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-pull-1 {
+ right: 8.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-pull-0 {
+ right: auto;
+ }
+ .col-sm-push-12 {
+ left: 100%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-push-11 {
+ left: 91.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-push-10 {
+ left: 83.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-push-9 {
+ left: 75%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-push-8 {
+ left: 66.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-push-7 {
+ left: 58.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-push-6 {
+ left: 50%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-push-5 {
+ left: 41.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-push-4 {
+ left: 33.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-push-3 {
+ left: 25%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-push-2 {
+ left: 16.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-push-1 {
+ left: 8.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-push-0 {
+ left: auto;
+ }
+ .col-sm-offset-12 {
+ margin-left: 100%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-offset-11 {
+ margin-left: 91.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-offset-10 {
+ margin-left: 83.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-offset-9 {
+ margin-left: 75%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-offset-8 {
+ margin-left: 66.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-offset-7 {
+ margin-left: 58.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-offset-6 {
+ margin-left: 50%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-offset-5 {
+ margin-left: 41.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-offset-4 {
+ margin-left: 33.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-offset-3 {
+ margin-left: 25%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-offset-2 {
+ margin-left: 16.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-offset-1 {
+ margin-left: 8.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-sm-offset-0 {
+ margin-left: 0;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 992px) {
+ .col-md-1, .col-md-2, .col-md-3, .col-md-4, .col-md-5, .col-md-6, .col-md-7, .col-md-8, .col-md-9, .col-md-10, .col-md-11, .col-md-12 {
+ float: left;
+ }
+ .col-md-12 {
+ width: 100%;
+ }
+ .col-md-11 {
+ width: 91.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-10 {
+ width: 83.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-9 {
+ width: 75%;
+ }
+ .col-md-8 {
+ width: 66.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-7 {
+ width: 58.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-6 {
+ width: 50%;
+ }
+ .col-md-5 {
+ width: 41.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-4 {
+ width: 33.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-3 {
+ width: 25%;
+ }
+ .col-md-2 {
+ width: 16.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-1 {
+ width: 8.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-pull-12 {
+ right: 100%;
+ }
+ .col-md-pull-11 {
+ right: 91.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-pull-10 {
+ right: 83.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-pull-9 {
+ right: 75%;
+ }
+ .col-md-pull-8 {
+ right: 66.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-pull-7 {
+ right: 58.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-pull-6 {
+ right: 50%;
+ }
+ .col-md-pull-5 {
+ right: 41.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-pull-4 {
+ right: 33.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-pull-3 {
+ right: 25%;
+ }
+ .col-md-pull-2 {
+ right: 16.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-pull-1 {
+ right: 8.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-pull-0 {
+ right: auto;
+ }
+ .col-md-push-12 {
+ left: 100%;
+ }
+ .col-md-push-11 {
+ left: 91.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-push-10 {
+ left: 83.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-push-9 {
+ left: 75%;
+ }
+ .col-md-push-8 {
+ left: 66.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-push-7 {
+ left: 58.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-push-6 {
+ left: 50%;
+ }
+ .col-md-push-5 {
+ left: 41.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-push-4 {
+ left: 33.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-push-3 {
+ left: 25%;
+ }
+ .col-md-push-2 {
+ left: 16.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-push-1 {
+ left: 8.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-push-0 {
+ left: auto;
+ }
+ .col-md-offset-12 {
+ margin-left: 100%;
+ }
+ .col-md-offset-11 {
+ margin-left: 91.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-offset-10 {
+ margin-left: 83.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-offset-9 {
+ margin-left: 75%;
+ }
+ .col-md-offset-8 {
+ margin-left: 66.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-offset-7 {
+ margin-left: 58.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-offset-6 {
+ margin-left: 50%;
+ }
+ .col-md-offset-5 {
+ margin-left: 41.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-offset-4 {
+ margin-left: 33.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-offset-3 {
+ margin-left: 25%;
+ }
+ .col-md-offset-2 {
+ margin-left: 16.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-md-offset-1 {
+ margin-left: 8.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-md-offset-0 {
+ margin-left: 0;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 1200px) {
+ .col-lg-1, .col-lg-2, .col-lg-3, .col-lg-4, .col-lg-5, .col-lg-6, .col-lg-7, .col-lg-8, .col-lg-9, .col-lg-10, .col-lg-11, .col-lg-12 {
+ float: left;
+ }
+ .col-lg-12 {
+ width: 100%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-11 {
+ width: 91.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-10 {
+ width: 83.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-9 {
+ width: 75%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-8 {
+ width: 66.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-7 {
+ width: 58.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-6 {
+ width: 50%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-5 {
+ width: 41.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-4 {
+ width: 33.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-3 {
+ width: 25%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-2 {
+ width: 16.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-1 {
+ width: 8.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-pull-12 {
+ right: 100%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-pull-11 {
+ right: 91.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-pull-10 {
+ right: 83.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-pull-9 {
+ right: 75%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-pull-8 {
+ right: 66.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-pull-7 {
+ right: 58.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-pull-6 {
+ right: 50%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-pull-5 {
+ right: 41.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-pull-4 {
+ right: 33.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-pull-3 {
+ right: 25%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-pull-2 {
+ right: 16.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-pull-1 {
+ right: 8.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-pull-0 {
+ right: auto;
+ }
+ .col-lg-push-12 {
+ left: 100%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-push-11 {
+ left: 91.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-push-10 {
+ left: 83.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-push-9 {
+ left: 75%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-push-8 {
+ left: 66.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-push-7 {
+ left: 58.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-push-6 {
+ left: 50%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-push-5 {
+ left: 41.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-push-4 {
+ left: 33.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-push-3 {
+ left: 25%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-push-2 {
+ left: 16.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-push-1 {
+ left: 8.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-push-0 {
+ left: auto;
+ }
+ .col-lg-offset-12 {
+ margin-left: 100%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-offset-11 {
+ margin-left: 91.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-offset-10 {
+ margin-left: 83.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-offset-9 {
+ margin-left: 75%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-offset-8 {
+ margin-left: 66.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-offset-7 {
+ margin-left: 58.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-offset-6 {
+ margin-left: 50%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-offset-5 {
+ margin-left: 41.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-offset-4 {
+ margin-left: 33.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-offset-3 {
+ margin-left: 25%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-offset-2 {
+ margin-left: 16.66666667%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-offset-1 {
+ margin-left: 8.33333333%;
+ }
+ .col-lg-offset-0 {
+ margin-left: 0;
+ }
+}
+table {
+ background-color: transparent;
+}
+caption {
+ padding-top: 8px;
+ padding-bottom: 8px;
+ color: #777;
+ text-align: left;
+}
+th {
+ text-align: left;
+}
+.table {
+ width: 100%;
+ max-width: 100%;
+ margin-bottom: 20px;
+}
+.table > thead > tr > th,
+.table > tbody > tr > th,
+.table > tfoot > tr > th,
+.table > thead > tr > td,
+.table > tbody > tr > td,
+.table > tfoot > tr > td {
+ padding: 8px;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+ vertical-align: top;
+ border-top: 1px solid #ddd;
+}
+.table > thead > tr > th {
+ vertical-align: bottom;
+ border-bottom: 2px solid #ddd;
+}
+.table > caption + thead > tr:first-child > th,
+.table > colgroup + thead > tr:first-child > th,
+.table > thead:first-child > tr:first-child > th,
+.table > caption + thead > tr:first-child > td,
+.table > colgroup + thead > tr:first-child > td,
+.table > thead:first-child > tr:first-child > td {
+ border-top: 0;
+}
+.table > tbody + tbody {
+ border-top: 2px solid #ddd;
+}
+.table .table {
+ background-color: #fff;
+}
+.table-condensed > thead > tr > th,
+.table-condensed > tbody > tr > th,
+.table-condensed > tfoot > tr > th,
+.table-condensed > thead > tr > td,
+.table-condensed > tbody > tr > td,
+.table-condensed > tfoot > tr > td {
+ padding: 5px;
+}
+.table-bordered {
+ border: 1px solid #ddd;
+}
+.table-bordered > thead > tr > th,
+.table-bordered > tbody > tr > th,
+.table-bordered > tfoot > tr > th,
+.table-bordered > thead > tr > td,
+.table-bordered > tbody > tr > td,
+.table-bordered > tfoot > tr > td {
+ border: 1px solid #ddd;
+}
+.table-bordered > thead > tr > th,
+.table-bordered > thead > tr > td {
+ border-bottom-width: 2px;
+}
+.table-striped > tbody > tr:nth-child(odd) {
+ background-color: #f9f9f9;
+}
+.table-hover > tbody > tr:hover {
+ background-color: #f5f5f5;
+}
+table col[class*="col-"] {
+ position: static;
+ display: table-column;
+ float: none;
+}
+table td[class*="col-"],
+table th[class*="col-"] {
+ position: static;
+ display: table-cell;
+ float: none;
+}
+.table > thead > tr > td.active,
+.table > tbody > tr > td.active,
+.table > tfoot > tr > td.active,
+.table > thead > tr > th.active,
+.table > tbody > tr > th.active,
+.table > tfoot > tr > th.active,
+.table > thead > tr.active > td,
+.table > tbody > tr.active > td,
+.table > tfoot > tr.active > td,
+.table > thead > tr.active > th,
+.table > tbody > tr.active > th,
+.table > tfoot > tr.active > th {
+ background-color: #f5f5f5;
+}
+.table-hover > tbody > tr > td.active:hover,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr > th.active:hover,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr.active:hover > td,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr:hover > .active,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr.active:hover > th {
+ background-color: #e8e8e8;
+}
+.table > thead > tr > td.success,
+.table > tbody > tr > td.success,
+.table > tfoot > tr > td.success,
+.table > thead > tr > th.success,
+.table > tbody > tr > th.success,
+.table > tfoot > tr > th.success,
+.table > thead > tr.success > td,
+.table > tbody > tr.success > td,
+.table > tfoot > tr.success > td,
+.table > thead > tr.success > th,
+.table > tbody > tr.success > th,
+.table > tfoot > tr.success > th {
+ background-color: #dff0d8;
+}
+.table-hover > tbody > tr > td.success:hover,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr > th.success:hover,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr.success:hover > td,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr:hover > .success,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr.success:hover > th {
+ background-color: #d0e9c6;
+}
+.table > thead > tr > td.info,
+.table > tbody > tr > td.info,
+.table > tfoot > tr > td.info,
+.table > thead > tr > th.info,
+.table > tbody > tr > th.info,
+.table > tfoot > tr > th.info,
+.table > thead > tr.info > td,
+.table > tbody > tr.info > td,
+.table > tfoot > tr.info > td,
+.table > thead > tr.info > th,
+.table > tbody > tr.info > th,
+.table > tfoot > tr.info > th {
+ background-color: #d9edf7;
+}
+.table-hover > tbody > tr > td.info:hover,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr > th.info:hover,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr.info:hover > td,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr:hover > .info,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr.info:hover > th {
+ background-color: #c4e3f3;
+}
+.table > thead > tr > td.warning,
+.table > tbody > tr > td.warning,
+.table > tfoot > tr > td.warning,
+.table > thead > tr > th.warning,
+.table > tbody > tr > th.warning,
+.table > tfoot > tr > th.warning,
+.table > thead > tr.warning > td,
+.table > tbody > tr.warning > td,
+.table > tfoot > tr.warning > td,
+.table > thead > tr.warning > th,
+.table > tbody > tr.warning > th,
+.table > tfoot > tr.warning > th {
+ background-color: #fcf8e3;
+}
+.table-hover > tbody > tr > td.warning:hover,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr > th.warning:hover,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr.warning:hover > td,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr:hover > .warning,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr.warning:hover > th {
+ background-color: #faf2cc;
+}
+.table > thead > tr > td.danger,
+.table > tbody > tr > td.danger,
+.table > tfoot > tr > td.danger,
+.table > thead > tr > th.danger,
+.table > tbody > tr > th.danger,
+.table > tfoot > tr > th.danger,
+.table > thead > tr.danger > td,
+.table > tbody > tr.danger > td,
+.table > tfoot > tr.danger > td,
+.table > thead > tr.danger > th,
+.table > tbody > tr.danger > th,
+.table > tfoot > tr.danger > th {
+ background-color: #f2dede;
+}
+.table-hover > tbody > tr > td.danger:hover,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr > th.danger:hover,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr.danger:hover > td,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr:hover > .danger,
+.table-hover > tbody > tr.danger:hover > th {
+ background-color: #ebcccc;
+}
+.table-responsive {
+ min-height: .01%;
+ overflow-x: auto;
+}
+@media screen and (max-width: 767px) {
+ .table-responsive {
+ width: 100%;
+ margin-bottom: 15px;
+ overflow-y: hidden;
+ -ms-overflow-style: -ms-autohiding-scrollbar;
+ border: 1px solid #ddd;
+ }
+ .table-responsive > .table {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ }
+ .table-responsive > .table > thead > tr > th,
+ .table-responsive > .table > tbody > tr > th,
+ .table-responsive > .table > tfoot > tr > th,
+ .table-responsive > .table > thead > tr > td,
+ .table-responsive > .table > tbody > tr > td,
+ .table-responsive > .table > tfoot > tr > td {
+ white-space: nowrap;
+ }
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered {
+ border: 0;
+ }
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > thead > tr > th:first-child,
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tbody > tr > th:first-child,
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr > th:first-child,
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > thead > tr > td:first-child,
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tbody > tr > td:first-child,
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr > td:first-child {
+ border-left: 0;
+ }
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > thead > tr > th:last-child,
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tbody > tr > th:last-child,
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr > th:last-child,
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > thead > tr > td:last-child,
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tbody > tr > td:last-child,
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr > td:last-child {
+ border-right: 0;
+ }
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tbody > tr:last-child > th,
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr:last-child > th,
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tbody > tr:last-child > td,
+ .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr:last-child > td {
+ border-bottom: 0;
+ }
+}
+fieldset {
+ min-width: 0;
+ padding: 0;
+ margin: 0;
+ border: 0;
+}
+legend {
+ display: block;
+ width: 100%;
+ padding: 0;
+ margin-bottom: 20px;
+ font-size: 21px;
+ line-height: inherit;
+ color: #333;
+ border: 0;
+ border-bottom: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
+}
+label {
+ display: inline-block;
+ max-width: 100%;
+ margin-bottom: 5px;
+ font-weight: bold;
+}
+input[type="search"] {
+ -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;
+ -moz-box-sizing: border-box;
+ box-sizing: border-box;
+}
+input[type="radio"],
+input[type="checkbox"] {
+ margin: 4px 0 0;
+ margin-top: 1px \9;
+ line-height: normal;
+}
+input[type="file"] {
+ display: block;
+}
+input[type="range"] {
+ display: block;
+ width: 100%;
+}
+select[multiple],
+select[size] {
+ height: auto;
+}
+input[type="file"]:focus,
+input[type="radio"]:focus,
+input[type="checkbox"]:focus {
+ outline: thin dotted;
+ outline: 5px auto -webkit-focus-ring-color;
+ outline-offset: -2px;
+}
+output {
+ display: block;
+ padding-top: 7px;
+ font-size: 14px;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+ color: #555;
+}
+.form-control {
+ display: block;
+ width: 100%;
+ height: 34px;
+ padding: 6px 12px;
+ font-size: 14px;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+ color: #555;
+ background-color: #fff;
+ background-image: none;
+ border: 1px solid #ccc;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .075);
+ box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .075);
+ -webkit-transition: border-color ease-in-out .15s, -webkit-box-shadow ease-in-out .15s;
+ -o-transition: border-color ease-in-out .15s, box-shadow ease-in-out .15s;
+ transition: border-color ease-in-out .15s, box-shadow ease-in-out .15s;
+}
+.form-control:focus {
+ border-color: #66afe9;
+ outline: 0;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0,0,0,.075), 0 0 8px rgba(102, 175, 233, .6);
+ box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0,0,0,.075), 0 0 8px rgba(102, 175, 233, .6);
+}
+.form-control::-moz-placeholder {
+ color: #999;
+ opacity: 1;
+}
+.form-control:-ms-input-placeholder {
+ color: #999;
+}
+.form-control::-webkit-input-placeholder {
+ color: #999;
+}
+.form-control[disabled],
+.form-control[readonly],
+fieldset[disabled] .form-control {
+ cursor: not-allowed;
+ background-color: #eee;
+ opacity: 1;
+}
+textarea.form-control {
+ height: auto;
+}
+input[type="search"] {
+ -webkit-appearance: none;
+}
+@media screen and (-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 0) {
+ input[type="date"],
+ input[type="time"],
+ input[type="datetime-local"],
+ input[type="month"] {
+ line-height: 34px;
+ }
+ input[type="date"].input-sm,
+ input[type="time"].input-sm,
+ input[type="datetime-local"].input-sm,
+ input[type="month"].input-sm {
+ line-height: 30px;
+ }
+ input[type="date"].input-lg,
+ input[type="time"].input-lg,
+ input[type="datetime-local"].input-lg,
+ input[type="month"].input-lg {
+ line-height: 46px;
+ }
+}
+.form-group {
+ margin-bottom: 15px;
+}
+.radio,
+.checkbox {
+ position: relative;
+ display: block;
+ margin-top: 10px;
+ margin-bottom: 10px;
+}
+.radio label,
+.checkbox label {
+ min-height: 20px;
+ padding-left: 20px;
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ font-weight: normal;
+ cursor: pointer;
+}
+.radio input[type="radio"],
+.radio-inline input[type="radio"],
+.checkbox input[type="checkbox"],
+.checkbox-inline input[type="checkbox"] {
+ position: absolute;
+ margin-top: 4px \9;
+ margin-left: -20px;
+}
+.radio + .radio,
+.checkbox + .checkbox {
+ margin-top: -5px;
+}
+.radio-inline,
+.checkbox-inline {
+ display: inline-block;
+ padding-left: 20px;
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ font-weight: normal;
+ vertical-align: middle;
+ cursor: pointer;
+}
+.radio-inline + .radio-inline,
+.checkbox-inline + .checkbox-inline {
+ margin-top: 0;
+ margin-left: 10px;
+}
+input[type="radio"][disabled],
+input[type="checkbox"][disabled],
+input[type="radio"].disabled,
+input[type="checkbox"].disabled,
+fieldset[disabled] input[type="radio"],
+fieldset[disabled] input[type="checkbox"] {
+ cursor: not-allowed;
+}
+.radio-inline.disabled,
+.checkbox-inline.disabled,
+fieldset[disabled] .radio-inline,
+fieldset[disabled] .checkbox-inline {
+ cursor: not-allowed;
+}
+.radio.disabled label,
+.checkbox.disabled label,
+fieldset[disabled] .radio label,
+fieldset[disabled] .checkbox label {
+ cursor: not-allowed;
+}
+.form-control-static {
+ padding-top: 7px;
+ padding-bottom: 7px;
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+}
+.form-control-static.input-lg,
+.form-control-static.input-sm {
+ padding-right: 0;
+ padding-left: 0;
+}
+.input-sm,
+.form-group-sm .form-control {
+ height: 30px;
+ padding: 5px 10px;
+ font-size: 12px;
+ line-height: 1.5;
+ border-radius: 3px;
+}
+select.input-sm,
+select.form-group-sm .form-control {
+ height: 30px;
+ line-height: 30px;
+}
+textarea.input-sm,
+textarea.form-group-sm .form-control,
+select[multiple].input-sm,
+select[multiple].form-group-sm .form-control {
+ height: auto;
+}
+.input-lg,
+.form-group-lg .form-control {
+ height: 46px;
+ padding: 10px 16px;
+ font-size: 18px;
+ line-height: 1.33;
+ border-radius: 6px;
+}
+select.input-lg,
+select.form-group-lg .form-control {
+ height: 46px;
+ line-height: 46px;
+}
+textarea.input-lg,
+textarea.form-group-lg .form-control,
+select[multiple].input-lg,
+select[multiple].form-group-lg .form-control {
+ height: auto;
+}
+.has-feedback {
+ position: relative;
+}
+.has-feedback .form-control {
+ padding-right: 42.5px;
+}
+.form-control-feedback {
+ position: absolute;
+ top: 0;
+ right: 0;
+ z-index: 2;
+ display: block;
+ width: 34px;
+ height: 34px;
+ line-height: 34px;
+ text-align: center;
+ pointer-events: none;
+}
+.input-lg + .form-control-feedback {
+ width: 46px;
+ height: 46px;
+ line-height: 46px;
+}
+.input-sm + .form-control-feedback {
+ width: 30px;
+ height: 30px;
+ line-height: 30px;
+}
+.has-success .help-block,
+.has-success .control-label,
+.has-success .radio,
+.has-success .checkbox,
+.has-success .radio-inline,
+.has-success .checkbox-inline,
+.has-success.radio label,
+.has-success.checkbox label,
+.has-success.radio-inline label,
+.has-success.checkbox-inline label {
+ color: #3c763d;
+}
+.has-success .form-control {
+ border-color: #3c763d;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .075);
+ box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .075);
+}
+.has-success .form-control:focus {
+ border-color: #2b542c;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .075), 0 0 6px #67b168;
+ box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .075), 0 0 6px #67b168;
+}
+.has-success .input-group-addon {
+ color: #3c763d;
+ background-color: #dff0d8;
+ border-color: #3c763d;
+}
+.has-success .form-control-feedback {
+ color: #3c763d;
+}
+.has-warning .help-block,
+.has-warning .control-label,
+.has-warning .radio,
+.has-warning .checkbox,
+.has-warning .radio-inline,
+.has-warning .checkbox-inline,
+.has-warning.radio label,
+.has-warning.checkbox label,
+.has-warning.radio-inline label,
+.has-warning.checkbox-inline label {
+ color: #8a6d3b;
+}
+.has-warning .form-control {
+ border-color: #8a6d3b;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .075);
+ box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .075);
+}
+.has-warning .form-control:focus {
+ border-color: #66512c;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .075), 0 0 6px #c0a16b;
+ box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .075), 0 0 6px #c0a16b;
+}
+.has-warning .input-group-addon {
+ color: #8a6d3b;
+ background-color: #fcf8e3;
+ border-color: #8a6d3b;
+}
+.has-warning .form-control-feedback {
+ color: #8a6d3b;
+}
+.has-error .help-block,
+.has-error .control-label,
+.has-error .radio,
+.has-error .checkbox,
+.has-error .radio-inline,
+.has-error .checkbox-inline,
+.has-error.radio label,
+.has-error.checkbox label,
+.has-error.radio-inline label,
+.has-error.checkbox-inline label {
+ color: #a94442;
+}
+.has-error .form-control {
+ border-color: #a94442;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .075);
+ box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .075);
+}
+.has-error .form-control:focus {
+ border-color: #843534;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .075), 0 0 6px #ce8483;
+ box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .075), 0 0 6px #ce8483;
+}
+.has-error .input-group-addon {
+ color: #a94442;
+ background-color: #f2dede;
+ border-color: #a94442;
+}
+.has-error .form-control-feedback {
+ color: #a94442;
+}
+.has-feedback label ~ .form-control-feedback {
+ top: 25px;
+}
+.has-feedback label.sr-only ~ .form-control-feedback {
+ top: 0;
+}
+.help-block {
+ display: block;
+ margin-top: 5px;
+ margin-bottom: 10px;
+ color: #737373;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .form-inline .form-group {
+ display: inline-block;
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ vertical-align: middle;
+ }
+ .form-inline .form-control {
+ display: inline-block;
+ width: auto;
+ vertical-align: middle;
+ }
+ .form-inline .form-control-static {
+ display: inline-block;
+ }
+ .form-inline .input-group {
+ display: inline-table;
+ vertical-align: middle;
+ }
+ .form-inline .input-group .input-group-addon,
+ .form-inline .input-group .input-group-btn,
+ .form-inline .input-group .form-control {
+ width: auto;
+ }
+ .form-inline .input-group > .form-control {
+ width: 100%;
+ }
+ .form-inline .control-label {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ vertical-align: middle;
+ }
+ .form-inline .radio,
+ .form-inline .checkbox {
+ display: inline-block;
+ margin-top: 0;
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ vertical-align: middle;
+ }
+ .form-inline .radio label,
+ .form-inline .checkbox label {
+ padding-left: 0;
+ }
+ .form-inline .radio input[type="radio"],
+ .form-inline .checkbox input[type="checkbox"] {
+ position: relative;
+ margin-left: 0;
+ }
+ .form-inline .has-feedback .form-control-feedback {
+ top: 0;
+ }
+}
+.form-horizontal .radio,
+.form-horizontal .checkbox,
+.form-horizontal .radio-inline,
+.form-horizontal .checkbox-inline {
+ padding-top: 7px;
+ margin-top: 0;
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+}
+.form-horizontal .radio,
+.form-horizontal .checkbox {
+ min-height: 27px;
+}
+.form-horizontal .form-group {
+ margin-right: -15px;
+ margin-left: -15px;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .form-horizontal .control-label {
+ padding-top: 7px;
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ text-align: right;
+ }
+}
+.form-horizontal .has-feedback .form-control-feedback {
+ right: 15px;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .form-horizontal .form-group-lg .control-label {
+ padding-top: 14.3px;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .form-horizontal .form-group-sm .control-label {
+ padding-top: 6px;
+ }
+}
+.btn {
+ display: inline-block;
+ padding: 6px 12px;
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ font-size: 14px;
+ font-weight: normal;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+ text-align: center;
+ white-space: nowrap;
+ vertical-align: middle;
+ -ms-touch-action: manipulation;
+ touch-action: manipulation;
+ cursor: pointer;
+ -webkit-user-select: none;
+ -moz-user-select: none;
+ -ms-user-select: none;
+ user-select: none;
+ background-image: none;
+ border: 1px solid transparent;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+}
+.btn:focus,
+.btn:active:focus,
+.btn.active:focus,
+.btn.focus,
+.btn:active.focus,
+.btn.active.focus {
+ outline: thin dotted;
+ outline: 5px auto -webkit-focus-ring-color;
+ outline-offset: -2px;
+}
+.btn:hover,
+.btn:focus,
+.btn.focus {
+ color: #333;
+ text-decoration: none;
+}
+.btn:active,
+.btn.active {
+ background-image: none;
+ outline: 0;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 3px 5px rgba(0, 0, 0, .125);
+ box-shadow: inset 0 3px 5px rgba(0, 0, 0, .125);
+}
+.btn.disabled,
+.btn[disabled],
+fieldset[disabled] .btn {
+ pointer-events: none;
+ cursor: not-allowed;
+ filter: alpha(opacity=65);
+ -webkit-box-shadow: none;
+ box-shadow: none;
+ opacity: .65;
+}
+.btn-default {
+ color: #333;
+ background-color: #fff;
+ border-color: #ccc;
+}
+.btn-default:hover,
+.btn-default:focus,
+.btn-default.focus,
+.btn-default:active,
+.btn-default.active,
+.open > .dropdown-toggle.btn-default {
+ color: #333;
+ background-color: #e6e6e6;
+ border-color: #adadad;
+}
+.btn-default:active,
+.btn-default.active,
+.open > .dropdown-toggle.btn-default {
+ background-image: none;
+}
+.btn-default.disabled,
+.btn-default[disabled],
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-default,
+.btn-default.disabled:hover,
+.btn-default[disabled]:hover,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-default:hover,
+.btn-default.disabled:focus,
+.btn-default[disabled]:focus,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-default:focus,
+.btn-default.disabled.focus,
+.btn-default[disabled].focus,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-default.focus,
+.btn-default.disabled:active,
+.btn-default[disabled]:active,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-default:active,
+.btn-default.disabled.active,
+.btn-default[disabled].active,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-default.active {
+ background-color: #fff;
+ border-color: #ccc;
+}
+.btn-default .badge {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #333;
+}
+.btn-primary {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #337ab7;
+ border-color: #2e6da4;
+}
+.btn-primary:hover,
+.btn-primary:focus,
+.btn-primary.focus,
+.btn-primary:active,
+.btn-primary.active,
+.open > .dropdown-toggle.btn-primary {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #286090;
+ border-color: #204d74;
+}
+.btn-primary:active,
+.btn-primary.active,
+.open > .dropdown-toggle.btn-primary {
+ background-image: none;
+}
+.btn-primary.disabled,
+.btn-primary[disabled],
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-primary,
+.btn-primary.disabled:hover,
+.btn-primary[disabled]:hover,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-primary:hover,
+.btn-primary.disabled:focus,
+.btn-primary[disabled]:focus,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-primary:focus,
+.btn-primary.disabled.focus,
+.btn-primary[disabled].focus,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-primary.focus,
+.btn-primary.disabled:active,
+.btn-primary[disabled]:active,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-primary:active,
+.btn-primary.disabled.active,
+.btn-primary[disabled].active,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-primary.active {
+ background-color: #337ab7;
+ border-color: #2e6da4;
+}
+.btn-primary .badge {
+ color: #337ab7;
+ background-color: #fff;
+}
+.btn-success {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #5cb85c;
+ border-color: #4cae4c;
+}
+.btn-success:hover,
+.btn-success:focus,
+.btn-success.focus,
+.btn-success:active,
+.btn-success.active,
+.open > .dropdown-toggle.btn-success {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #449d44;
+ border-color: #398439;
+}
+.btn-success:active,
+.btn-success.active,
+.open > .dropdown-toggle.btn-success {
+ background-image: none;
+}
+.btn-success.disabled,
+.btn-success[disabled],
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-success,
+.btn-success.disabled:hover,
+.btn-success[disabled]:hover,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-success:hover,
+.btn-success.disabled:focus,
+.btn-success[disabled]:focus,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-success:focus,
+.btn-success.disabled.focus,
+.btn-success[disabled].focus,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-success.focus,
+.btn-success.disabled:active,
+.btn-success[disabled]:active,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-success:active,
+.btn-success.disabled.active,
+.btn-success[disabled].active,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-success.active {
+ background-color: #5cb85c;
+ border-color: #4cae4c;
+}
+.btn-success .badge {
+ color: #5cb85c;
+ background-color: #fff;
+}
+.btn-info {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #5bc0de;
+ border-color: #46b8da;
+}
+.btn-info:hover,
+.btn-info:focus,
+.btn-info.focus,
+.btn-info:active,
+.btn-info.active,
+.open > .dropdown-toggle.btn-info {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #31b0d5;
+ border-color: #269abc;
+}
+.btn-info:active,
+.btn-info.active,
+.open > .dropdown-toggle.btn-info {
+ background-image: none;
+}
+.btn-info.disabled,
+.btn-info[disabled],
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-info,
+.btn-info.disabled:hover,
+.btn-info[disabled]:hover,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-info:hover,
+.btn-info.disabled:focus,
+.btn-info[disabled]:focus,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-info:focus,
+.btn-info.disabled.focus,
+.btn-info[disabled].focus,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-info.focus,
+.btn-info.disabled:active,
+.btn-info[disabled]:active,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-info:active,
+.btn-info.disabled.active,
+.btn-info[disabled].active,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-info.active {
+ background-color: #5bc0de;
+ border-color: #46b8da;
+}
+.btn-info .badge {
+ color: #5bc0de;
+ background-color: #fff;
+}
+.btn-warning {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #f0ad4e;
+ border-color: #eea236;
+}
+.btn-warning:hover,
+.btn-warning:focus,
+.btn-warning.focus,
+.btn-warning:active,
+.btn-warning.active,
+.open > .dropdown-toggle.btn-warning {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #ec971f;
+ border-color: #d58512;
+}
+.btn-warning:active,
+.btn-warning.active,
+.open > .dropdown-toggle.btn-warning {
+ background-image: none;
+}
+.btn-warning.disabled,
+.btn-warning[disabled],
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-warning,
+.btn-warning.disabled:hover,
+.btn-warning[disabled]:hover,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-warning:hover,
+.btn-warning.disabled:focus,
+.btn-warning[disabled]:focus,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-warning:focus,
+.btn-warning.disabled.focus,
+.btn-warning[disabled].focus,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-warning.focus,
+.btn-warning.disabled:active,
+.btn-warning[disabled]:active,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-warning:active,
+.btn-warning.disabled.active,
+.btn-warning[disabled].active,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-warning.active {
+ background-color: #f0ad4e;
+ border-color: #eea236;
+}
+.btn-warning .badge {
+ color: #f0ad4e;
+ background-color: #fff;
+}
+.btn-danger {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #d9534f;
+ border-color: #d43f3a;
+}
+.btn-danger:hover,
+.btn-danger:focus,
+.btn-danger.focus,
+.btn-danger:active,
+.btn-danger.active,
+.open > .dropdown-toggle.btn-danger {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #c9302c;
+ border-color: #ac2925;
+}
+.btn-danger:active,
+.btn-danger.active,
+.open > .dropdown-toggle.btn-danger {
+ background-image: none;
+}
+.btn-danger.disabled,
+.btn-danger[disabled],
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-danger,
+.btn-danger.disabled:hover,
+.btn-danger[disabled]:hover,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-danger:hover,
+.btn-danger.disabled:focus,
+.btn-danger[disabled]:focus,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-danger:focus,
+.btn-danger.disabled.focus,
+.btn-danger[disabled].focus,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-danger.focus,
+.btn-danger.disabled:active,
+.btn-danger[disabled]:active,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-danger:active,
+.btn-danger.disabled.active,
+.btn-danger[disabled].active,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-danger.active {
+ background-color: #d9534f;
+ border-color: #d43f3a;
+}
+.btn-danger .badge {
+ color: #d9534f;
+ background-color: #fff;
+}
+.btn-link {
+ font-weight: normal;
+ color: #337ab7;
+ border-radius: 0;
+}
+.btn-link,
+.btn-link:active,
+.btn-link.active,
+.btn-link[disabled],
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-link {
+ background-color: transparent;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: none;
+ box-shadow: none;
+}
+.btn-link,
+.btn-link:hover,
+.btn-link:focus,
+.btn-link:active {
+ border-color: transparent;
+}
+.btn-link:hover,
+.btn-link:focus {
+ color: #23527c;
+ text-decoration: underline;
+ background-color: transparent;
+}
+.btn-link[disabled]:hover,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-link:hover,
+.btn-link[disabled]:focus,
+fieldset[disabled] .btn-link:focus {
+ color: #777;
+ text-decoration: none;
+}
+.btn-lg,
+.btn-group-lg > .btn {
+ padding: 10px 16px;
+ font-size: 18px;
+ line-height: 1.33;
+ border-radius: 6px;
+}
+.btn-sm,
+.btn-group-sm > .btn {
+ padding: 5px 10px;
+ font-size: 12px;
+ line-height: 1.5;
+ border-radius: 3px;
+}
+.btn-xs,
+.btn-group-xs > .btn {
+ padding: 1px 5px;
+ font-size: 12px;
+ line-height: 1.5;
+ border-radius: 3px;
+}
+.btn-block {
+ display: block;
+ width: 100%;
+}
+.btn-block + .btn-block {
+ margin-top: 5px;
+}
+input[type="submit"].btn-block,
+input[type="reset"].btn-block,
+input[type="button"].btn-block {
+ width: 100%;
+}
+.fade {
+ opacity: 0;
+ -webkit-transition: opacity .15s linear;
+ -o-transition: opacity .15s linear;
+ transition: opacity .15s linear;
+}
+.fade.in {
+ opacity: 1;
+}
+.collapse {
+ display: none;
+ visibility: hidden;
+}
+.collapse.in {
+ display: block;
+ visibility: visible;
+}
+tr.collapse.in {
+ display: table-row;
+}
+tbody.collapse.in {
+ display: table-row-group;
+}
+.collapsing {
+ position: relative;
+ height: 0;
+ overflow: hidden;
+ -webkit-transition-timing-function: ease;
+ -o-transition-timing-function: ease;
+ transition-timing-function: ease;
+ -webkit-transition-duration: .35s;
+ -o-transition-duration: .35s;
+ transition-duration: .35s;
+ -webkit-transition-property: height, visibility;
+ -o-transition-property: height, visibility;
+ transition-property: height, visibility;
+}
+.caret {
+ display: inline-block;
+ width: 0;
+ height: 0;
+ margin-left: 2px;
+ vertical-align: middle;
+ border-top: 4px solid;
+ border-right: 4px solid transparent;
+ border-left: 4px solid transparent;
+}
+.dropdown {
+ position: relative;
+}
+.dropdown-toggle:focus {
+ outline: 0;
+}
+.dropdown-menu {
+ position: absolute;
+ top: 100%;
+ left: 0;
+ z-index: 1000;
+ display: none;
+ float: left;
+ min-width: 160px;
+ padding: 5px 0;
+ margin: 2px 0 0;
+ font-size: 14px;
+ text-align: left;
+ list-style: none;
+ background-color: #fff;
+ -webkit-background-clip: padding-box;
+ background-clip: padding-box;
+ border: 1px solid #ccc;
+ border: 1px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, .15);
+ border-radius: 4px;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: 0 6px 12px rgba(0, 0, 0, .175);
+ box-shadow: 0 6px 12px rgba(0, 0, 0, .175);
+}
+.dropdown-menu.pull-right {
+ right: 0;
+ left: auto;
+}
+.dropdown-menu .divider {
+ height: 1px;
+ margin: 9px 0;
+ overflow: hidden;
+ background-color: #e5e5e5;
+}
+.dropdown-menu > li > a {
+ display: block;
+ padding: 3px 20px;
+ clear: both;
+ font-weight: normal;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+ color: #333;
+ white-space: nowrap;
+}
+.dropdown-menu > li > a:hover,
+.dropdown-menu > li > a:focus {
+ color: #262626;
+ text-decoration: none;
+ background-color: #f5f5f5;
+}
+.dropdown-menu > .active > a,
+.dropdown-menu > .active > a:hover,
+.dropdown-menu > .active > a:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+ text-decoration: none;
+ background-color: #337ab7;
+ outline: 0;
+}
+.dropdown-menu > .disabled > a,
+.dropdown-menu > .disabled > a:hover,
+.dropdown-menu > .disabled > a:focus {
+ color: #777;
+}
+.dropdown-menu > .disabled > a:hover,
+.dropdown-menu > .disabled > a:focus {
+ text-decoration: none;
+ cursor: not-allowed;
+ background-color: transparent;
+ background-image: none;
+ filter: progid:DXImageTransform.Microsoft.gradient(enabled = false);
+}
+.open > .dropdown-menu {
+ display: block;
+}
+.open > a {
+ outline: 0;
+}
+.dropdown-menu-right {
+ right: 0;
+ left: auto;
+}
+.dropdown-menu-left {
+ right: auto;
+ left: 0;
+}
+.dropdown-header {
+ display: block;
+ padding: 3px 20px;
+ font-size: 12px;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+ color: #777;
+ white-space: nowrap;
+}
+.dropdown-backdrop {
+ position: fixed;
+ top: 0;
+ right: 0;
+ bottom: 0;
+ left: 0;
+ z-index: 990;
+}
+.pull-right > .dropdown-menu {
+ right: 0;
+ left: auto;
+}
+.dropup .caret,
+.navbar-fixed-bottom .dropdown .caret {
+ content: "";
+ border-top: 0;
+ border-bottom: 4px solid;
+}
+.dropup .dropdown-menu,
+.navbar-fixed-bottom .dropdown .dropdown-menu {
+ top: auto;
+ bottom: 100%;
+ margin-bottom: 1px;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .navbar-right .dropdown-menu {
+ right: 0;
+ left: auto;
+ }
+ .navbar-right .dropdown-menu-left {
+ right: auto;
+ left: 0;
+ }
+}
+.btn-group,
+.btn-group-vertical {
+ position: relative;
+ display: inline-block;
+ vertical-align: middle;
+}
+.btn-group > .btn,
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn {
+ position: relative;
+ float: left;
+}
+.btn-group > .btn:hover,
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn:hover,
+.btn-group > .btn:focus,
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn:focus,
+.btn-group > .btn:active,
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn:active,
+.btn-group > .btn.active,
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn.active {
+ z-index: 2;
+}
+.btn-group .btn + .btn,
+.btn-group .btn + .btn-group,
+.btn-group .btn-group + .btn,
+.btn-group .btn-group + .btn-group {
+ margin-left: -1px;
+}
+.btn-toolbar {
+ margin-left: -5px;
+}
+.btn-toolbar .btn-group,
+.btn-toolbar .input-group {
+ float: left;
+}
+.btn-toolbar > .btn,
+.btn-toolbar > .btn-group,
+.btn-toolbar > .input-group {
+ margin-left: 5px;
+}
+.btn-group > .btn:not(:first-child):not(:last-child):not(.dropdown-toggle) {
+ border-radius: 0;
+}
+.btn-group > .btn:first-child {
+ margin-left: 0;
+}
+.btn-group > .btn:first-child:not(:last-child):not(.dropdown-toggle) {
+ border-top-right-radius: 0;
+ border-bottom-right-radius: 0;
+}
+.btn-group > .btn:last-child:not(:first-child),
+.btn-group > .dropdown-toggle:not(:first-child) {
+ border-top-left-radius: 0;
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 0;
+}
+.btn-group > .btn-group {
+ float: left;
+}
+.btn-group > .btn-group:not(:first-child):not(:last-child) > .btn {
+ border-radius: 0;
+}
+.btn-group > .btn-group:first-child > .btn:last-child,
+.btn-group > .btn-group:first-child > .dropdown-toggle {
+ border-top-right-radius: 0;
+ border-bottom-right-radius: 0;
+}
+.btn-group > .btn-group:last-child > .btn:first-child {
+ border-top-left-radius: 0;
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 0;
+}
+.btn-group .dropdown-toggle:active,
+.btn-group.open .dropdown-toggle {
+ outline: 0;
+}
+.btn-group > .btn + .dropdown-toggle {
+ padding-right: 8px;
+ padding-left: 8px;
+}
+.btn-group > .btn-lg + .dropdown-toggle {
+ padding-right: 12px;
+ padding-left: 12px;
+}
+.btn-group.open .dropdown-toggle {
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 3px 5px rgba(0, 0, 0, .125);
+ box-shadow: inset 0 3px 5px rgba(0, 0, 0, .125);
+}
+.btn-group.open .dropdown-toggle.btn-link {
+ -webkit-box-shadow: none;
+ box-shadow: none;
+}
+.btn .caret {
+ margin-left: 0;
+}
+.btn-lg .caret {
+ border-width: 5px 5px 0;
+ border-bottom-width: 0;
+}
+.dropup .btn-lg .caret {
+ border-width: 0 5px 5px;
+}
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn,
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn-group,
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn-group > .btn {
+ display: block;
+ float: none;
+ width: 100%;
+ max-width: 100%;
+}
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn-group > .btn {
+ float: none;
+}
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn + .btn,
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn + .btn-group,
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn-group + .btn,
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn-group + .btn-group {
+ margin-top: -1px;
+ margin-left: 0;
+}
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn:not(:first-child):not(:last-child) {
+ border-radius: 0;
+}
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn:first-child:not(:last-child) {
+ border-top-right-radius: 4px;
+ border-bottom-right-radius: 0;
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 0;
+}
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn:last-child:not(:first-child) {
+ border-top-left-radius: 0;
+ border-top-right-radius: 0;
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 4px;
+}
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn-group:not(:first-child):not(:last-child) > .btn {
+ border-radius: 0;
+}
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn-group:first-child:not(:last-child) > .btn:last-child,
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn-group:first-child:not(:last-child) > .dropdown-toggle {
+ border-bottom-right-radius: 0;
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 0;
+}
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn-group:last-child:not(:first-child) > .btn:first-child {
+ border-top-left-radius: 0;
+ border-top-right-radius: 0;
+}
+.btn-group-justified {
+ display: table;
+ width: 100%;
+ table-layout: fixed;
+ border-collapse: separate;
+}
+.btn-group-justified > .btn,
+.btn-group-justified > .btn-group {
+ display: table-cell;
+ float: none;
+ width: 1%;
+}
+.btn-group-justified > .btn-group .btn {
+ width: 100%;
+}
+.btn-group-justified > .btn-group .dropdown-menu {
+ left: auto;
+}
+[data-toggle="buttons"] > .btn input[type="radio"],
+[data-toggle="buttons"] > .btn-group > .btn input[type="radio"],
+[data-toggle="buttons"] > .btn input[type="checkbox"],
+[data-toggle="buttons"] > .btn-group > .btn input[type="checkbox"] {
+ position: absolute;
+ clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0);
+ pointer-events: none;
+}
+.input-group {
+ position: relative;
+ display: table;
+ border-collapse: separate;
+}
+.input-group[class*="col-"] {
+ float: none;
+ padding-right: 0;
+ padding-left: 0;
+}
+.input-group .form-control {
+ position: relative;
+ z-index: 2;
+ float: left;
+ width: 100%;
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+}
+.input-group-lg > .form-control,
+.input-group-lg > .input-group-addon,
+.input-group-lg > .input-group-btn > .btn {
+ height: 46px;
+ padding: 10px 16px;
+ font-size: 18px;
+ line-height: 1.33;
+ border-radius: 6px;
+}
+select.input-group-lg > .form-control,
+select.input-group-lg > .input-group-addon,
+select.input-group-lg > .input-group-btn > .btn {
+ height: 46px;
+ line-height: 46px;
+}
+textarea.input-group-lg > .form-control,
+textarea.input-group-lg > .input-group-addon,
+textarea.input-group-lg > .input-group-btn > .btn,
+select[multiple].input-group-lg > .form-control,
+select[multiple].input-group-lg > .input-group-addon,
+select[multiple].input-group-lg > .input-group-btn > .btn {
+ height: auto;
+}
+.input-group-sm > .form-control,
+.input-group-sm > .input-group-addon,
+.input-group-sm > .input-group-btn > .btn {
+ height: 30px;
+ padding: 5px 10px;
+ font-size: 12px;
+ line-height: 1.5;
+ border-radius: 3px;
+}
+select.input-group-sm > .form-control,
+select.input-group-sm > .input-group-addon,
+select.input-group-sm > .input-group-btn > .btn {
+ height: 30px;
+ line-height: 30px;
+}
+textarea.input-group-sm > .form-control,
+textarea.input-group-sm > .input-group-addon,
+textarea.input-group-sm > .input-group-btn > .btn,
+select[multiple].input-group-sm > .form-control,
+select[multiple].input-group-sm > .input-group-addon,
+select[multiple].input-group-sm > .input-group-btn > .btn {
+ height: auto;
+}
+.input-group-addon,
+.input-group-btn,
+.input-group .form-control {
+ display: table-cell;
+}
+.input-group-addon:not(:first-child):not(:last-child),
+.input-group-btn:not(:first-child):not(:last-child),
+.input-group .form-control:not(:first-child):not(:last-child) {
+ border-radius: 0;
+}
+.input-group-addon,
+.input-group-btn {
+ width: 1%;
+ white-space: nowrap;
+ vertical-align: middle;
+}
+.input-group-addon {
+ padding: 6px 12px;
+ font-size: 14px;
+ font-weight: normal;
+ line-height: 1;
+ color: #555;
+ text-align: center;
+ background-color: #eee;
+ border: 1px solid #ccc;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+}
+.input-group-addon.input-sm {
+ padding: 5px 10px;
+ font-size: 12px;
+ border-radius: 3px;
+}
+.input-group-addon.input-lg {
+ padding: 10px 16px;
+ font-size: 18px;
+ border-radius: 6px;
+}
+.input-group-addon input[type="radio"],
+.input-group-addon input[type="checkbox"] {
+ margin-top: 0;
+}
+.input-group .form-control:first-child,
+.input-group-addon:first-child,
+.input-group-btn:first-child > .btn,
+.input-group-btn:first-child > .btn-group > .btn,
+.input-group-btn:first-child > .dropdown-toggle,
+.input-group-btn:last-child > .btn:not(:last-child):not(.dropdown-toggle),
+.input-group-btn:last-child > .btn-group:not(:last-child) > .btn {
+ border-top-right-radius: 0;
+ border-bottom-right-radius: 0;
+}
+.input-group-addon:first-child {
+ border-right: 0;
+}
+.input-group .form-control:last-child,
+.input-group-addon:last-child,
+.input-group-btn:last-child > .btn,
+.input-group-btn:last-child > .btn-group > .btn,
+.input-group-btn:last-child > .dropdown-toggle,
+.input-group-btn:first-child > .btn:not(:first-child),
+.input-group-btn:first-child > .btn-group:not(:first-child) > .btn {
+ border-top-left-radius: 0;
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 0;
+}
+.input-group-addon:last-child {
+ border-left: 0;
+}
+.input-group-btn {
+ position: relative;
+ font-size: 0;
+ white-space: nowrap;
+}
+.input-group-btn > .btn {
+ position: relative;
+}
+.input-group-btn > .btn + .btn {
+ margin-left: -1px;
+}
+.input-group-btn > .btn:hover,
+.input-group-btn > .btn:focus,
+.input-group-btn > .btn:active {
+ z-index: 2;
+}
+.input-group-btn:first-child > .btn,
+.input-group-btn:first-child > .btn-group {
+ margin-right: -1px;
+}
+.input-group-btn:last-child > .btn,
+.input-group-btn:last-child > .btn-group {
+ margin-left: -1px;
+}
+.nav {
+ padding-left: 0;
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ list-style: none;
+}
+.nav > li {
+ position: relative;
+ display: block;
+}
+.nav > li > a {
+ position: relative;
+ display: block;
+ padding: 10px 15px;
+}
+.nav > li > a:hover,
+.nav > li > a:focus {
+ text-decoration: none;
+ background-color: #eee;
+}
+.nav > li.disabled > a {
+ color: #777;
+}
+.nav > li.disabled > a:hover,
+.nav > li.disabled > a:focus {
+ color: #777;
+ text-decoration: none;
+ cursor: not-allowed;
+ background-color: transparent;
+}
+.nav .open > a,
+.nav .open > a:hover,
+.nav .open > a:focus {
+ background-color: #eee;
+ border-color: #337ab7;
+}
+.nav .nav-divider {
+ height: 1px;
+ margin: 9px 0;
+ overflow: hidden;
+ background-color: #e5e5e5;
+}
+.nav > li > a > img {
+ max-width: none;
+}
+.nav-tabs {
+ border-bottom: 1px solid #ddd;
+}
+.nav-tabs > li {
+ float: left;
+ margin-bottom: -1px;
+}
+.nav-tabs > li > a {
+ margin-right: 2px;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+ border: 1px solid transparent;
+ border-radius: 4px 4px 0 0;
+}
+.nav-tabs > li > a:hover {
+ border-color: #eee #eee #ddd;
+}
+.nav-tabs > li.active > a,
+.nav-tabs > li.active > a:hover,
+.nav-tabs > li.active > a:focus {
+ color: #555;
+ cursor: default;
+ background-color: #fff;
+ border: 1px solid #ddd;
+ border-bottom-color: transparent;
+}
+.nav-tabs.nav-justified {
+ width: 100%;
+ border-bottom: 0;
+}
+.nav-tabs.nav-justified > li {
+ float: none;
+}
+.nav-tabs.nav-justified > li > a {
+ margin-bottom: 5px;
+ text-align: center;
+}
+.nav-tabs.nav-justified > .dropdown .dropdown-menu {
+ top: auto;
+ left: auto;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .nav-tabs.nav-justified > li {
+ display: table-cell;
+ width: 1%;
+ }
+ .nav-tabs.nav-justified > li > a {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ }
+}
+.nav-tabs.nav-justified > li > a {
+ margin-right: 0;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+}
+.nav-tabs.nav-justified > .active > a,
+.nav-tabs.nav-justified > .active > a:hover,
+.nav-tabs.nav-justified > .active > a:focus {
+ border: 1px solid #ddd;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .nav-tabs.nav-justified > li > a {
+ border-bottom: 1px solid #ddd;
+ border-radius: 4px 4px 0 0;
+ }
+ .nav-tabs.nav-justified > .active > a,
+ .nav-tabs.nav-justified > .active > a:hover,
+ .nav-tabs.nav-justified > .active > a:focus {
+ border-bottom-color: #fff;
+ }
+}
+.nav-pills > li {
+ float: left;
+}
+.nav-pills > li > a {
+ border-radius: 4px;
+}
+.nav-pills > li + li {
+ margin-left: 2px;
+}
+.nav-pills > li.active > a,
+.nav-pills > li.active > a:hover,
+.nav-pills > li.active > a:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #337ab7;
+}
+.nav-stacked > li {
+ float: none;
+}
+.nav-stacked > li + li {
+ margin-top: 2px;
+ margin-left: 0;
+}
+.nav-justified {
+ width: 100%;
+}
+.nav-justified > li {
+ float: none;
+}
+.nav-justified > li > a {
+ margin-bottom: 5px;
+ text-align: center;
+}
+.nav-justified > .dropdown .dropdown-menu {
+ top: auto;
+ left: auto;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .nav-justified > li {
+ display: table-cell;
+ width: 1%;
+ }
+ .nav-justified > li > a {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ }
+}
+.nav-tabs-justified {
+ border-bottom: 0;
+}
+.nav-tabs-justified > li > a {
+ margin-right: 0;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+}
+.nav-tabs-justified > .active > a,
+.nav-tabs-justified > .active > a:hover,
+.nav-tabs-justified > .active > a:focus {
+ border: 1px solid #ddd;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .nav-tabs-justified > li > a {
+ border-bottom: 1px solid #ddd;
+ border-radius: 4px 4px 0 0;
+ }
+ .nav-tabs-justified > .active > a,
+ .nav-tabs-justified > .active > a:hover,
+ .nav-tabs-justified > .active > a:focus {
+ border-bottom-color: #fff;
+ }
+}
+.tab-content > .tab-pane {
+ display: none;
+ visibility: hidden;
+}
+.tab-content > .active {
+ display: block;
+ visibility: visible;
+}
+.nav-tabs .dropdown-menu {
+ margin-top: -1px;
+ border-top-left-radius: 0;
+ border-top-right-radius: 0;
+}
+.navbar {
+ position: relative;
+ min-height: 50px;
+ margin-bottom: 20px;
+ border: 1px solid transparent;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .navbar {
+ border-radius: 4px;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .navbar-header {
+ float: left;
+ }
+}
+.navbar-collapse {
+ padding-right: 15px;
+ padding-left: 15px;
+ overflow-x: visible;
+ -webkit-overflow-scrolling: touch;
+ border-top: 1px solid transparent;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 1px 0 rgba(255, 255, 255, .1);
+ box-shadow: inset 0 1px 0 rgba(255, 255, 255, .1);
+}
+.navbar-collapse.in {
+ overflow-y: auto;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .navbar-collapse {
+ width: auto;
+ border-top: 0;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: none;
+ box-shadow: none;
+ }
+ .navbar-collapse.collapse {
+ display: block !important;
+ height: auto !important;
+ padding-bottom: 0;
+ overflow: visible !important;
+ visibility: visible !important;
+ }
+ .navbar-collapse.in {
+ overflow-y: visible;
+ }
+ .navbar-fixed-top .navbar-collapse,
+ .navbar-static-top .navbar-collapse,
+ .navbar-fixed-bottom .navbar-collapse {
+ padding-right: 0;
+ padding-left: 0;
+ }
+}
+.navbar-fixed-top .navbar-collapse,
+.navbar-fixed-bottom .navbar-collapse {
+ max-height: 340px;
+}
+@media (max-device-width: 480px) and (orientation: landscape) {
+ .navbar-fixed-top .navbar-collapse,
+ .navbar-fixed-bottom .navbar-collapse {
+ max-height: 200px;
+ }
+}
+.container > .navbar-header,
+.container-fluid > .navbar-header,
+.container > .navbar-collapse,
+.container-fluid > .navbar-collapse {
+ margin-right: -15px;
+ margin-left: -15px;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .container > .navbar-header,
+ .container-fluid > .navbar-header,
+ .container > .navbar-collapse,
+ .container-fluid > .navbar-collapse {
+ margin-right: 0;
+ margin-left: 0;
+ }
+}
+.navbar-static-top {
+ z-index: 1000;
+ border-width: 0 0 1px;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .navbar-static-top {
+ border-radius: 0;
+ }
+}
+.navbar-fixed-top,
+.navbar-fixed-bottom {
+ position: fixed;
+ right: 0;
+ left: 0;
+ z-index: 1030;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .navbar-fixed-top,
+ .navbar-fixed-bottom {
+ border-radius: 0;
+ }
+}
+.navbar-fixed-top {
+ top: 0;
+ border-width: 0 0 1px;
+}
+.navbar-fixed-bottom {
+ bottom: 0;
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ border-width: 1px 0 0;
+}
+.navbar-brand {
+ float: left;
+ height: 50px;
+ padding: 15px 15px;
+ font-size: 18px;
+ line-height: 20px;
+}
+.navbar-brand:hover,
+.navbar-brand:focus {
+ text-decoration: none;
+}
+.navbar-brand > img {
+ display: block;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .navbar > .container .navbar-brand,
+ .navbar > .container-fluid .navbar-brand {
+ margin-left: -15px;
+ }
+}
+.navbar-toggle {
+ position: relative;
+ float: right;
+ padding: 9px 10px;
+ margin-top: 8px;
+ margin-right: 15px;
+ margin-bottom: 8px;
+ background-color: transparent;
+ background-image: none;
+ border: 1px solid transparent;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+}
+.navbar-toggle:focus {
+ outline: 0;
+}
+.navbar-toggle .icon-bar {
+ display: block;
+ width: 22px;
+ height: 2px;
+ border-radius: 1px;
+}
+.navbar-toggle .icon-bar + .icon-bar {
+ margin-top: 4px;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .navbar-toggle {
+ display: none;
+ }
+}
+.navbar-nav {
+ margin: 7.5px -15px;
+}
+.navbar-nav > li > a {
+ padding-top: 10px;
+ padding-bottom: 10px;
+ line-height: 20px;
+}
+@media (max-width: 767px) {
+ .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu {
+ position: static;
+ float: none;
+ width: auto;
+ margin-top: 0;
+ background-color: transparent;
+ border: 0;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: none;
+ box-shadow: none;
+ }
+ .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > li > a,
+ .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu .dropdown-header {
+ padding: 5px 15px 5px 25px;
+ }
+ .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > li > a {
+ line-height: 20px;
+ }
+ .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > li > a:hover,
+ .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > li > a:focus {
+ background-image: none;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .navbar-nav {
+ float: left;
+ margin: 0;
+ }
+ .navbar-nav > li {
+ float: left;
+ }
+ .navbar-nav > li > a {
+ padding-top: 15px;
+ padding-bottom: 15px;
+ }
+}
+.navbar-form {
+ padding: 10px 15px;
+ margin-top: 8px;
+ margin-right: -15px;
+ margin-bottom: 8px;
+ margin-left: -15px;
+ border-top: 1px solid transparent;
+ border-bottom: 1px solid transparent;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 1px 0 rgba(255, 255, 255, .1), 0 1px 0 rgba(255, 255, 255, .1);
+ box-shadow: inset 0 1px 0 rgba(255, 255, 255, .1), 0 1px 0 rgba(255, 255, 255, .1);
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .navbar-form .form-group {
+ display: inline-block;
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ vertical-align: middle;
+ }
+ .navbar-form .form-control {
+ display: inline-block;
+ width: auto;
+ vertical-align: middle;
+ }
+ .navbar-form .form-control-static {
+ display: inline-block;
+ }
+ .navbar-form .input-group {
+ display: inline-table;
+ vertical-align: middle;
+ }
+ .navbar-form .input-group .input-group-addon,
+ .navbar-form .input-group .input-group-btn,
+ .navbar-form .input-group .form-control {
+ width: auto;
+ }
+ .navbar-form .input-group > .form-control {
+ width: 100%;
+ }
+ .navbar-form .control-label {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ vertical-align: middle;
+ }
+ .navbar-form .radio,
+ .navbar-form .checkbox {
+ display: inline-block;
+ margin-top: 0;
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ vertical-align: middle;
+ }
+ .navbar-form .radio label,
+ .navbar-form .checkbox label {
+ padding-left: 0;
+ }
+ .navbar-form .radio input[type="radio"],
+ .navbar-form .checkbox input[type="checkbox"] {
+ position: relative;
+ margin-left: 0;
+ }
+ .navbar-form .has-feedback .form-control-feedback {
+ top: 0;
+ }
+}
+@media (max-width: 767px) {
+ .navbar-form .form-group {
+ margin-bottom: 5px;
+ }
+ .navbar-form .form-group:last-child {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .navbar-form {
+ width: auto;
+ padding-top: 0;
+ padding-bottom: 0;
+ margin-right: 0;
+ margin-left: 0;
+ border: 0;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: none;
+ box-shadow: none;
+ }
+}
+.navbar-nav > li > .dropdown-menu {
+ margin-top: 0;
+ border-top-left-radius: 0;
+ border-top-right-radius: 0;
+}
+.navbar-fixed-bottom .navbar-nav > li > .dropdown-menu {
+ border-top-left-radius: 4px;
+ border-top-right-radius: 4px;
+ border-bottom-right-radius: 0;
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 0;
+}
+.navbar-btn {
+ margin-top: 8px;
+ margin-bottom: 8px;
+}
+.navbar-btn.btn-sm {
+ margin-top: 10px;
+ margin-bottom: 10px;
+}
+.navbar-btn.btn-xs {
+ margin-top: 14px;
+ margin-bottom: 14px;
+}
+.navbar-text {
+ margin-top: 15px;
+ margin-bottom: 15px;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .navbar-text {
+ float: left;
+ margin-right: 15px;
+ margin-left: 15px;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .navbar-left {
+ float: left !important;
+ }
+ .navbar-right {
+ float: right !important;
+ margin-right: -15px;
+ }
+ .navbar-right ~ .navbar-right {
+ margin-right: 0;
+ }
+}
+.navbar-default {
+ background-color: #f8f8f8;
+ border-color: #e7e7e7;
+}
+.navbar-default .navbar-brand {
+ color: #777;
+}
+.navbar-default .navbar-brand:hover,
+.navbar-default .navbar-brand:focus {
+ color: #5e5e5e;
+ background-color: transparent;
+}
+.navbar-default .navbar-text {
+ color: #777;
+}
+.navbar-default .navbar-nav > li > a {
+ color: #777;
+}
+.navbar-default .navbar-nav > li > a:hover,
+.navbar-default .navbar-nav > li > a:focus {
+ color: #333;
+ background-color: transparent;
+}
+.navbar-default .navbar-nav > .active > a,
+.navbar-default .navbar-nav > .active > a:hover,
+.navbar-default .navbar-nav > .active > a:focus {
+ color: #555;
+ background-color: #e7e7e7;
+}
+.navbar-default .navbar-nav > .disabled > a,
+.navbar-default .navbar-nav > .disabled > a:hover,
+.navbar-default .navbar-nav > .disabled > a:focus {
+ color: #ccc;
+ background-color: transparent;
+}
+.navbar-default .navbar-toggle {
+ border-color: #ddd;
+}
+.navbar-default .navbar-toggle:hover,
+.navbar-default .navbar-toggle:focus {
+ background-color: #ddd;
+}
+.navbar-default .navbar-toggle .icon-bar {
+ background-color: #888;
+}
+.navbar-default .navbar-collapse,
+.navbar-default .navbar-form {
+ border-color: #e7e7e7;
+}
+.navbar-default .navbar-nav > .open > a,
+.navbar-default .navbar-nav > .open > a:hover,
+.navbar-default .navbar-nav > .open > a:focus {
+ color: #555;
+ background-color: #e7e7e7;
+}
+@media (max-width: 767px) {
+ .navbar-default .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > li > a {
+ color: #777;
+ }
+ .navbar-default .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > li > a:hover,
+ .navbar-default .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > li > a:focus {
+ color: #333;
+ background-color: transparent;
+ }
+ .navbar-default .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > .active > a,
+ .navbar-default .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > .active > a:hover,
+ .navbar-default .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > .active > a:focus {
+ color: #555;
+ background-color: #e7e7e7;
+ }
+ .navbar-default .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > .disabled > a,
+ .navbar-default .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > .disabled > a:hover,
+ .navbar-default .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > .disabled > a:focus {
+ color: #ccc;
+ background-color: transparent;
+ }
+}
+.navbar-default .navbar-link {
+ color: #777;
+}
+.navbar-default .navbar-link:hover {
+ color: #333;
+}
+.navbar-default .btn-link {
+ color: #777;
+}
+.navbar-default .btn-link:hover,
+.navbar-default .btn-link:focus {
+ color: #333;
+}
+.navbar-default .btn-link[disabled]:hover,
+fieldset[disabled] .navbar-default .btn-link:hover,
+.navbar-default .btn-link[disabled]:focus,
+fieldset[disabled] .navbar-default .btn-link:focus {
+ color: #ccc;
+}
+.navbar-inverse {
+ background-color: #222;
+ border-color: #080808;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-brand {
+ color: #9d9d9d;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-brand:hover,
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-brand:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: transparent;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-text {
+ color: #9d9d9d;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-nav > li > a {
+ color: #9d9d9d;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-nav > li > a:hover,
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-nav > li > a:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: transparent;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-nav > .active > a,
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-nav > .active > a:hover,
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-nav > .active > a:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #080808;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-nav > .disabled > a,
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-nav > .disabled > a:hover,
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-nav > .disabled > a:focus {
+ color: #444;
+ background-color: transparent;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-toggle {
+ border-color: #333;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-toggle:hover,
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-toggle:focus {
+ background-color: #333;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-toggle .icon-bar {
+ background-color: #fff;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-collapse,
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-form {
+ border-color: #101010;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-nav > .open > a,
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-nav > .open > a:hover,
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-nav > .open > a:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #080808;
+}
+@media (max-width: 767px) {
+ .navbar-inverse .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > .dropdown-header {
+ border-color: #080808;
+ }
+ .navbar-inverse .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu .divider {
+ background-color: #080808;
+ }
+ .navbar-inverse .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > li > a {
+ color: #9d9d9d;
+ }
+ .navbar-inverse .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > li > a:hover,
+ .navbar-inverse .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > li > a:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: transparent;
+ }
+ .navbar-inverse .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > .active > a,
+ .navbar-inverse .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > .active > a:hover,
+ .navbar-inverse .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > .active > a:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #080808;
+ }
+ .navbar-inverse .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > .disabled > a,
+ .navbar-inverse .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > .disabled > a:hover,
+ .navbar-inverse .navbar-nav .open .dropdown-menu > .disabled > a:focus {
+ color: #444;
+ background-color: transparent;
+ }
+}
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-link {
+ color: #9d9d9d;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .navbar-link:hover {
+ color: #fff;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .btn-link {
+ color: #9d9d9d;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .btn-link:hover,
+.navbar-inverse .btn-link:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+}
+.navbar-inverse .btn-link[disabled]:hover,
+fieldset[disabled] .navbar-inverse .btn-link:hover,
+.navbar-inverse .btn-link[disabled]:focus,
+fieldset[disabled] .navbar-inverse .btn-link:focus {
+ color: #444;
+}
+.breadcrumb {
+ padding: 8px 15px;
+ margin-bottom: 20px;
+ list-style: none;
+ background-color: #f5f5f5;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+}
+.breadcrumb > li {
+ display: inline-block;
+}
+.breadcrumb > li + li:before {
+ padding: 0 5px;
+ color: #ccc;
+ content: "/\00a0";
+}
+.breadcrumb > .active {
+ color: #777;
+}
+.pagination {
+ display: inline-block;
+ padding-left: 0;
+ margin: 20px 0;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+}
+.pagination > li {
+ display: inline;
+}
+.pagination > li > a,
+.pagination > li > span {
+ position: relative;
+ float: left;
+ padding: 6px 12px;
+ margin-left: -1px;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+ color: #337ab7;
+ text-decoration: none;
+ background-color: #fff;
+ border: 1px solid #ddd;
+}
+.pagination > li:first-child > a,
+.pagination > li:first-child > span {
+ margin-left: 0;
+ border-top-left-radius: 4px;
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 4px;
+}
+.pagination > li:last-child > a,
+.pagination > li:last-child > span {
+ border-top-right-radius: 4px;
+ border-bottom-right-radius: 4px;
+}
+.pagination > li > a:hover,
+.pagination > li > span:hover,
+.pagination > li > a:focus,
+.pagination > li > span:focus {
+ color: #23527c;
+ background-color: #eee;
+ border-color: #ddd;
+}
+.pagination > .active > a,
+.pagination > .active > span,
+.pagination > .active > a:hover,
+.pagination > .active > span:hover,
+.pagination > .active > a:focus,
+.pagination > .active > span:focus {
+ z-index: 2;
+ color: #fff;
+ cursor: default;
+ background-color: #337ab7;
+ border-color: #337ab7;
+}
+.pagination > .disabled > span,
+.pagination > .disabled > span:hover,
+.pagination > .disabled > span:focus,
+.pagination > .disabled > a,
+.pagination > .disabled > a:hover,
+.pagination > .disabled > a:focus {
+ color: #777;
+ cursor: not-allowed;
+ background-color: #fff;
+ border-color: #ddd;
+}
+.pagination-lg > li > a,
+.pagination-lg > li > span {
+ padding: 10px 16px;
+ font-size: 18px;
+}
+.pagination-lg > li:first-child > a,
+.pagination-lg > li:first-child > span {
+ border-top-left-radius: 6px;
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 6px;
+}
+.pagination-lg > li:last-child > a,
+.pagination-lg > li:last-child > span {
+ border-top-right-radius: 6px;
+ border-bottom-right-radius: 6px;
+}
+.pagination-sm > li > a,
+.pagination-sm > li > span {
+ padding: 5px 10px;
+ font-size: 12px;
+}
+.pagination-sm > li:first-child > a,
+.pagination-sm > li:first-child > span {
+ border-top-left-radius: 3px;
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 3px;
+}
+.pagination-sm > li:last-child > a,
+.pagination-sm > li:last-child > span {
+ border-top-right-radius: 3px;
+ border-bottom-right-radius: 3px;
+}
+.pager {
+ padding-left: 0;
+ margin: 20px 0;
+ text-align: center;
+ list-style: none;
+}
+.pager li {
+ display: inline;
+}
+.pager li > a,
+.pager li > span {
+ display: inline-block;
+ padding: 5px 14px;
+ background-color: #fff;
+ border: 1px solid #ddd;
+ border-radius: 15px;
+}
+.pager li > a:hover,
+.pager li > a:focus {
+ text-decoration: none;
+ background-color: #eee;
+}
+.pager .next > a,
+.pager .next > span {
+ float: right;
+}
+.pager .previous > a,
+.pager .previous > span {
+ float: left;
+}
+.pager .disabled > a,
+.pager .disabled > a:hover,
+.pager .disabled > a:focus,
+.pager .disabled > span {
+ color: #777;
+ cursor: not-allowed;
+ background-color: #fff;
+}
+.label {
+ display: inline;
+ padding: .2em .6em .3em;
+ font-size: 75%;
+ font-weight: bold;
+ line-height: 1;
+ color: #fff;
+ text-align: center;
+ white-space: nowrap;
+ vertical-align: baseline;
+ border-radius: .25em;
+}
+a.label:hover,
+a.label:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+ text-decoration: none;
+ cursor: pointer;
+}
+.label:empty {
+ display: none;
+}
+.btn .label {
+ position: relative;
+ top: -1px;
+}
+.label-default {
+ background-color: #777;
+}
+.label-default[href]:hover,
+.label-default[href]:focus {
+ background-color: #5e5e5e;
+}
+.label-primary {
+ background-color: #337ab7;
+}
+.label-primary[href]:hover,
+.label-primary[href]:focus {
+ background-color: #286090;
+}
+.label-success {
+ background-color: #5cb85c;
+}
+.label-success[href]:hover,
+.label-success[href]:focus {
+ background-color: #449d44;
+}
+.label-info {
+ background-color: #5bc0de;
+}
+.label-info[href]:hover,
+.label-info[href]:focus {
+ background-color: #31b0d5;
+}
+.label-warning {
+ background-color: #f0ad4e;
+}
+.label-warning[href]:hover,
+.label-warning[href]:focus {
+ background-color: #ec971f;
+}
+.label-danger {
+ background-color: #d9534f;
+}
+.label-danger[href]:hover,
+.label-danger[href]:focus {
+ background-color: #c9302c;
+}
+.badge {
+ display: inline-block;
+ min-width: 10px;
+ padding: 3px 7px;
+ font-size: 12px;
+ font-weight: bold;
+ line-height: 1;
+ color: #fff;
+ text-align: center;
+ white-space: nowrap;
+ vertical-align: baseline;
+ background-color: #777;
+ border-radius: 10px;
+}
+.badge:empty {
+ display: none;
+}
+.btn .badge {
+ position: relative;
+ top: -1px;
+}
+.btn-xs .badge {
+ top: 0;
+ padding: 1px 5px;
+}
+a.badge:hover,
+a.badge:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+ text-decoration: none;
+ cursor: pointer;
+}
+.list-group-item.active > .badge,
+.nav-pills > .active > a > .badge {
+ color: #337ab7;
+ background-color: #fff;
+}
+.list-group-item > .badge {
+ float: right;
+}
+.list-group-item > .badge + .badge {
+ margin-right: 5px;
+}
+.nav-pills > li > a > .badge {
+ margin-left: 3px;
+}
+.jumbotron {
+ padding: 30px 15px;
+ margin-bottom: 30px;
+ color: inherit;
+ background-color: #eee;
+}
+.jumbotron h1,
+.jumbotron .h1 {
+ color: inherit;
+}
+.jumbotron p {
+ margin-bottom: 15px;
+ font-size: 21px;
+ font-weight: 200;
+}
+.jumbotron > hr {
+ border-top-color: #d5d5d5;
+}
+.container .jumbotron,
+.container-fluid .jumbotron {
+ border-radius: 6px;
+}
+.jumbotron .container {
+ max-width: 100%;
+}
+@media screen and (min-width: 768px) {
+ .jumbotron {
+ padding: 48px 0;
+ }
+ .container .jumbotron,
+ .container-fluid .jumbotron {
+ padding-right: 60px;
+ padding-left: 60px;
+ }
+ .jumbotron h1,
+ .jumbotron .h1 {
+ font-size: 63px;
+ }
+}
+.thumbnail {
+ display: block;
+ padding: 4px;
+ margin-bottom: 20px;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+ background-color: #fff;
+ border: 1px solid #ddd;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+ -webkit-transition: border .2s ease-in-out;
+ -o-transition: border .2s ease-in-out;
+ transition: border .2s ease-in-out;
+}
+.thumbnail > img,
+.thumbnail a > img {
+ margin-right: auto;
+ margin-left: auto;
+}
+a.thumbnail:hover,
+a.thumbnail:focus,
+a.thumbnail.active {
+ border-color: #337ab7;
+}
+.thumbnail .caption {
+ padding: 9px;
+ color: #333;
+}
+.alert {
+ padding: 15px;
+ margin-bottom: 20px;
+ border: 1px solid transparent;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+}
+.alert h4 {
+ margin-top: 0;
+ color: inherit;
+}
+.alert .alert-link {
+ font-weight: bold;
+}
+.alert > p,
+.alert > ul {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+}
+.alert > p + p {
+ margin-top: 5px;
+}
+.alert-dismissable,
+.alert-dismissible {
+ padding-right: 35px;
+}
+.alert-dismissable .close,
+.alert-dismissible .close {
+ position: relative;
+ top: -2px;
+ right: -21px;
+ color: inherit;
+}
+.alert-success {
+ color: #3c763d;
+ background-color: #dff0d8;
+ border-color: #d6e9c6;
+}
+.alert-success hr {
+ border-top-color: #c9e2b3;
+}
+.alert-success .alert-link {
+ color: #2b542c;
+}
+.alert-info {
+ color: #31708f;
+ background-color: #d9edf7;
+ border-color: #bce8f1;
+}
+.alert-info hr {
+ border-top-color: #a6e1ec;
+}
+.alert-info .alert-link {
+ color: #245269;
+}
+.alert-warning {
+ color: #8a6d3b;
+ background-color: #fcf8e3;
+ border-color: #faebcc;
+}
+.alert-warning hr {
+ border-top-color: #f7e1b5;
+}
+.alert-warning .alert-link {
+ color: #66512c;
+}
+.alert-danger {
+ color: #a94442;
+ background-color: #f2dede;
+ border-color: #ebccd1;
+}
+.alert-danger hr {
+ border-top-color: #e4b9c0;
+}
+.alert-danger .alert-link {
+ color: #843534;
+}
+@-webkit-keyframes progress-bar-stripes {
+ from {
+ background-position: 40px 0;
+ }
+ to {
+ background-position: 0 0;
+ }
+}
+@-o-keyframes progress-bar-stripes {
+ from {
+ background-position: 40px 0;
+ }
+ to {
+ background-position: 0 0;
+ }
+}
+@keyframes progress-bar-stripes {
+ from {
+ background-position: 40px 0;
+ }
+ to {
+ background-position: 0 0;
+ }
+}
+.progress {
+ height: 20px;
+ margin-bottom: 20px;
+ overflow: hidden;
+ background-color: #f5f5f5;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, .1);
+ box-shadow: inset 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, .1);
+}
+.progress-bar {
+ float: left;
+ width: 0;
+ height: 100%;
+ font-size: 12px;
+ line-height: 20px;
+ color: #fff;
+ text-align: center;
+ background-color: #337ab7;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 -1px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, .15);
+ box-shadow: inset 0 -1px 0 rgba(0, 0, 0, .15);
+ -webkit-transition: width .6s ease;
+ -o-transition: width .6s ease;
+ transition: width .6s ease;
+}
+.progress-striped .progress-bar,
+.progress-bar-striped {
+ background-image: -webkit-linear-gradient(45deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 75%, transparent 75%, transparent);
+ background-image: -o-linear-gradient(45deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 75%, transparent 75%, transparent);
+ background-image: linear-gradient(45deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 75%, transparent 75%, transparent);
+ -webkit-background-size: 40px 40px;
+ background-size: 40px 40px;
+}
+.progress.active .progress-bar,
+.progress-bar.active {
+ -webkit-animation: progress-bar-stripes 2s linear infinite;
+ -o-animation: progress-bar-stripes 2s linear infinite;
+ animation: progress-bar-stripes 2s linear infinite;
+}
+.progress-bar-success {
+ background-color: #5cb85c;
+}
+.progress-striped .progress-bar-success {
+ background-image: -webkit-linear-gradient(45deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 75%, transparent 75%, transparent);
+ background-image: -o-linear-gradient(45deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 75%, transparent 75%, transparent);
+ background-image: linear-gradient(45deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 75%, transparent 75%, transparent);
+}
+.progress-bar-info {
+ background-color: #5bc0de;
+}
+.progress-striped .progress-bar-info {
+ background-image: -webkit-linear-gradient(45deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 75%, transparent 75%, transparent);
+ background-image: -o-linear-gradient(45deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 75%, transparent 75%, transparent);
+ background-image: linear-gradient(45deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 75%, transparent 75%, transparent);
+}
+.progress-bar-warning {
+ background-color: #f0ad4e;
+}
+.progress-striped .progress-bar-warning {
+ background-image: -webkit-linear-gradient(45deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 75%, transparent 75%, transparent);
+ background-image: -o-linear-gradient(45deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 75%, transparent 75%, transparent);
+ background-image: linear-gradient(45deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 75%, transparent 75%, transparent);
+}
+.progress-bar-danger {
+ background-color: #d9534f;
+}
+.progress-striped .progress-bar-danger {
+ background-image: -webkit-linear-gradient(45deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 75%, transparent 75%, transparent);
+ background-image: -o-linear-gradient(45deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 75%, transparent 75%, transparent);
+ background-image: linear-gradient(45deg, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 25%, transparent 25%, transparent 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 50%, rgba(255, 255, 255, .15) 75%, transparent 75%, transparent);
+}
+.media {
+ margin-top: 15px;
+}
+.media:first-child {
+ margin-top: 0;
+}
+.media-right,
+.media > .pull-right {
+ padding-left: 10px;
+}
+.media-left,
+.media > .pull-left {
+ padding-right: 10px;
+}
+.media-left,
+.media-right,
+.media-body {
+ display: table-cell;
+ vertical-align: top;
+}
+.media-middle {
+ vertical-align: middle;
+}
+.media-bottom {
+ vertical-align: bottom;
+}
+.media-heading {
+ margin-top: 0;
+ margin-bottom: 5px;
+}
+.media-list {
+ padding-left: 0;
+ list-style: none;
+}
+.list-group {
+ padding-left: 0;
+ margin-bottom: 20px;
+}
+.list-group-item {
+ position: relative;
+ display: block;
+ padding: 10px 15px;
+ margin-bottom: -1px;
+ background-color: #fff;
+ border: 1px solid #ddd;
+}
+.list-group-item:first-child {
+ border-top-left-radius: 4px;
+ border-top-right-radius: 4px;
+}
+.list-group-item:last-child {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ border-bottom-right-radius: 4px;
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 4px;
+}
+a.list-group-item {
+ color: #555;
+}
+a.list-group-item .list-group-item-heading {
+ color: #333;
+}
+a.list-group-item:hover,
+a.list-group-item:focus {
+ color: #555;
+ text-decoration: none;
+ background-color: #f5f5f5;
+}
+.list-group-item.disabled,
+.list-group-item.disabled:hover,
+.list-group-item.disabled:focus {
+ color: #777;
+ cursor: not-allowed;
+ background-color: #eee;
+}
+.list-group-item.disabled .list-group-item-heading,
+.list-group-item.disabled:hover .list-group-item-heading,
+.list-group-item.disabled:focus .list-group-item-heading {
+ color: inherit;
+}
+.list-group-item.disabled .list-group-item-text,
+.list-group-item.disabled:hover .list-group-item-text,
+.list-group-item.disabled:focus .list-group-item-text {
+ color: #777;
+}
+.list-group-item.active,
+.list-group-item.active:hover,
+.list-group-item.active:focus {
+ z-index: 2;
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #337ab7;
+ border-color: #337ab7;
+}
+.list-group-item.active .list-group-item-heading,
+.list-group-item.active:hover .list-group-item-heading,
+.list-group-item.active:focus .list-group-item-heading,
+.list-group-item.active .list-group-item-heading > small,
+.list-group-item.active:hover .list-group-item-heading > small,
+.list-group-item.active:focus .list-group-item-heading > small,
+.list-group-item.active .list-group-item-heading > .small,
+.list-group-item.active:hover .list-group-item-heading > .small,
+.list-group-item.active:focus .list-group-item-heading > .small {
+ color: inherit;
+}
+.list-group-item.active .list-group-item-text,
+.list-group-item.active:hover .list-group-item-text,
+.list-group-item.active:focus .list-group-item-text {
+ color: #c7ddef;
+}
+.list-group-item-success {
+ color: #3c763d;
+ background-color: #dff0d8;
+}
+a.list-group-item-success {
+ color: #3c763d;
+}
+a.list-group-item-success .list-group-item-heading {
+ color: inherit;
+}
+a.list-group-item-success:hover,
+a.list-group-item-success:focus {
+ color: #3c763d;
+ background-color: #d0e9c6;
+}
+a.list-group-item-success.active,
+a.list-group-item-success.active:hover,
+a.list-group-item-success.active:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #3c763d;
+ border-color: #3c763d;
+}
+.list-group-item-info {
+ color: #31708f;
+ background-color: #d9edf7;
+}
+a.list-group-item-info {
+ color: #31708f;
+}
+a.list-group-item-info .list-group-item-heading {
+ color: inherit;
+}
+a.list-group-item-info:hover,
+a.list-group-item-info:focus {
+ color: #31708f;
+ background-color: #c4e3f3;
+}
+a.list-group-item-info.active,
+a.list-group-item-info.active:hover,
+a.list-group-item-info.active:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #31708f;
+ border-color: #31708f;
+}
+.list-group-item-warning {
+ color: #8a6d3b;
+ background-color: #fcf8e3;
+}
+a.list-group-item-warning {
+ color: #8a6d3b;
+}
+a.list-group-item-warning .list-group-item-heading {
+ color: inherit;
+}
+a.list-group-item-warning:hover,
+a.list-group-item-warning:focus {
+ color: #8a6d3b;
+ background-color: #faf2cc;
+}
+a.list-group-item-warning.active,
+a.list-group-item-warning.active:hover,
+a.list-group-item-warning.active:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #8a6d3b;
+ border-color: #8a6d3b;
+}
+.list-group-item-danger {
+ color: #a94442;
+ background-color: #f2dede;
+}
+a.list-group-item-danger {
+ color: #a94442;
+}
+a.list-group-item-danger .list-group-item-heading {
+ color: inherit;
+}
+a.list-group-item-danger:hover,
+a.list-group-item-danger:focus {
+ color: #a94442;
+ background-color: #ebcccc;
+}
+a.list-group-item-danger.active,
+a.list-group-item-danger.active:hover,
+a.list-group-item-danger.active:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #a94442;
+ border-color: #a94442;
+}
+.list-group-item-heading {
+ margin-top: 0;
+ margin-bottom: 5px;
+}
+.list-group-item-text {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ line-height: 1.3;
+}
+.panel {
+ margin-bottom: 20px;
+ background-color: #fff;
+ border: 1px solid transparent;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .05);
+ box-shadow: 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .05);
+}
+.panel-body {
+ padding: 15px;
+}
+.panel-heading {
+ padding: 10px 15px;
+ border-bottom: 1px solid transparent;
+ border-top-left-radius: 3px;
+ border-top-right-radius: 3px;
+}
+.panel-heading > .dropdown .dropdown-toggle {
+ color: inherit;
+}
+.panel-title {
+ margin-top: 0;
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ font-size: 16px;
+ color: inherit;
+}
+.panel-title > a {
+ color: inherit;
+}
+.panel-footer {
+ padding: 10px 15px;
+ background-color: #f5f5f5;
+ border-top: 1px solid #ddd;
+ border-bottom-right-radius: 3px;
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 3px;
+}
+.panel > .list-group,
+.panel > .panel-collapse > .list-group {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+}
+.panel > .list-group .list-group-item,
+.panel > .panel-collapse > .list-group .list-group-item {
+ border-width: 1px 0;
+ border-radius: 0;
+}
+.panel > .list-group:first-child .list-group-item:first-child,
+.panel > .panel-collapse > .list-group:first-child .list-group-item:first-child {
+ border-top: 0;
+ border-top-left-radius: 3px;
+ border-top-right-radius: 3px;
+}
+.panel > .list-group:last-child .list-group-item:last-child,
+.panel > .panel-collapse > .list-group:last-child .list-group-item:last-child {
+ border-bottom: 0;
+ border-bottom-right-radius: 3px;
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 3px;
+}
+.panel-heading + .list-group .list-group-item:first-child {
+ border-top-width: 0;
+}
+.list-group + .panel-footer {
+ border-top-width: 0;
+}
+.panel > .table,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table,
+.panel > .panel-collapse > .table {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+}
+.panel > .table caption,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table caption,
+.panel > .panel-collapse > .table caption {
+ padding-right: 15px;
+ padding-left: 15px;
+}
+.panel > .table:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:first-child > .table:first-child {
+ border-top-left-radius: 3px;
+ border-top-right-radius: 3px;
+}
+.panel > .table:first-child > thead:first-child > tr:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:first-child > .table:first-child > thead:first-child > tr:first-child,
+.panel > .table:first-child > tbody:first-child > tr:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:first-child > .table:first-child > tbody:first-child > tr:first-child {
+ border-top-left-radius: 3px;
+ border-top-right-radius: 3px;
+}
+.panel > .table:first-child > thead:first-child > tr:first-child td:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:first-child > .table:first-child > thead:first-child > tr:first-child td:first-child,
+.panel > .table:first-child > tbody:first-child > tr:first-child td:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:first-child > .table:first-child > tbody:first-child > tr:first-child td:first-child,
+.panel > .table:first-child > thead:first-child > tr:first-child th:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:first-child > .table:first-child > thead:first-child > tr:first-child th:first-child,
+.panel > .table:first-child > tbody:first-child > tr:first-child th:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:first-child > .table:first-child > tbody:first-child > tr:first-child th:first-child {
+ border-top-left-radius: 3px;
+}
+.panel > .table:first-child > thead:first-child > tr:first-child td:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:first-child > .table:first-child > thead:first-child > tr:first-child td:last-child,
+.panel > .table:first-child > tbody:first-child > tr:first-child td:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:first-child > .table:first-child > tbody:first-child > tr:first-child td:last-child,
+.panel > .table:first-child > thead:first-child > tr:first-child th:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:first-child > .table:first-child > thead:first-child > tr:first-child th:last-child,
+.panel > .table:first-child > tbody:first-child > tr:first-child th:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:first-child > .table:first-child > tbody:first-child > tr:first-child th:last-child {
+ border-top-right-radius: 3px;
+}
+.panel > .table:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:last-child > .table:last-child {
+ border-bottom-right-radius: 3px;
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 3px;
+}
+.panel > .table:last-child > tbody:last-child > tr:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:last-child > .table:last-child > tbody:last-child > tr:last-child,
+.panel > .table:last-child > tfoot:last-child > tr:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:last-child > .table:last-child > tfoot:last-child > tr:last-child {
+ border-bottom-right-radius: 3px;
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 3px;
+}
+.panel > .table:last-child > tbody:last-child > tr:last-child td:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:last-child > .table:last-child > tbody:last-child > tr:last-child td:first-child,
+.panel > .table:last-child > tfoot:last-child > tr:last-child td:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:last-child > .table:last-child > tfoot:last-child > tr:last-child td:first-child,
+.panel > .table:last-child > tbody:last-child > tr:last-child th:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:last-child > .table:last-child > tbody:last-child > tr:last-child th:first-child,
+.panel > .table:last-child > tfoot:last-child > tr:last-child th:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:last-child > .table:last-child > tfoot:last-child > tr:last-child th:first-child {
+ border-bottom-left-radius: 3px;
+}
+.panel > .table:last-child > tbody:last-child > tr:last-child td:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:last-child > .table:last-child > tbody:last-child > tr:last-child td:last-child,
+.panel > .table:last-child > tfoot:last-child > tr:last-child td:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:last-child > .table:last-child > tfoot:last-child > tr:last-child td:last-child,
+.panel > .table:last-child > tbody:last-child > tr:last-child th:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:last-child > .table:last-child > tbody:last-child > tr:last-child th:last-child,
+.panel > .table:last-child > tfoot:last-child > tr:last-child th:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive:last-child > .table:last-child > tfoot:last-child > tr:last-child th:last-child {
+ border-bottom-right-radius: 3px;
+}
+.panel > .panel-body + .table,
+.panel > .panel-body + .table-responsive,
+.panel > .table + .panel-body,
+.panel > .table-responsive + .panel-body {
+ border-top: 1px solid #ddd;
+}
+.panel > .table > tbody:first-child > tr:first-child th,
+.panel > .table > tbody:first-child > tr:first-child td {
+ border-top: 0;
+}
+.panel > .table-bordered,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered {
+ border: 0;
+}
+.panel > .table-bordered > thead > tr > th:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > thead > tr > th:first-child,
+.panel > .table-bordered > tbody > tr > th:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tbody > tr > th:first-child,
+.panel > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr > th:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr > th:first-child,
+.panel > .table-bordered > thead > tr > td:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > thead > tr > td:first-child,
+.panel > .table-bordered > tbody > tr > td:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tbody > tr > td:first-child,
+.panel > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr > td:first-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr > td:first-child {
+ border-left: 0;
+}
+.panel > .table-bordered > thead > tr > th:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > thead > tr > th:last-child,
+.panel > .table-bordered > tbody > tr > th:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tbody > tr > th:last-child,
+.panel > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr > th:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr > th:last-child,
+.panel > .table-bordered > thead > tr > td:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > thead > tr > td:last-child,
+.panel > .table-bordered > tbody > tr > td:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tbody > tr > td:last-child,
+.panel > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr > td:last-child,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr > td:last-child {
+ border-right: 0;
+}
+.panel > .table-bordered > thead > tr:first-child > td,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > thead > tr:first-child > td,
+.panel > .table-bordered > tbody > tr:first-child > td,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tbody > tr:first-child > td,
+.panel > .table-bordered > thead > tr:first-child > th,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > thead > tr:first-child > th,
+.panel > .table-bordered > tbody > tr:first-child > th,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tbody > tr:first-child > th {
+ border-bottom: 0;
+}
+.panel > .table-bordered > tbody > tr:last-child > td,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tbody > tr:last-child > td,
+.panel > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr:last-child > td,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr:last-child > td,
+.panel > .table-bordered > tbody > tr:last-child > th,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tbody > tr:last-child > th,
+.panel > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr:last-child > th,
+.panel > .table-responsive > .table-bordered > tfoot > tr:last-child > th {
+ border-bottom: 0;
+}
+.panel > .table-responsive {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ border: 0;
+}
+.panel-group {
+ margin-bottom: 20px;
+}
+.panel-group .panel {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+}
+.panel-group .panel + .panel {
+ margin-top: 5px;
+}
+.panel-group .panel-heading {
+ border-bottom: 0;
+}
+.panel-group .panel-heading + .panel-collapse > .panel-body,
+.panel-group .panel-heading + .panel-collapse > .list-group {
+ border-top: 1px solid #ddd;
+}
+.panel-group .panel-footer {
+ border-top: 0;
+}
+.panel-group .panel-footer + .panel-collapse .panel-body {
+ border-bottom: 1px solid #ddd;
+}
+.panel-default {
+ border-color: #ddd;
+}
+.panel-default > .panel-heading {
+ color: #333;
+ background-color: #f5f5f5;
+ border-color: #ddd;
+}
+.panel-default > .panel-heading + .panel-collapse > .panel-body {
+ border-top-color: #ddd;
+}
+.panel-default > .panel-heading .badge {
+ color: #f5f5f5;
+ background-color: #333;
+}
+.panel-default > .panel-footer + .panel-collapse > .panel-body {
+ border-bottom-color: #ddd;
+}
+.panel-primary {
+ border-color: #337ab7;
+}
+.panel-primary > .panel-heading {
+ color: #fff;
+ background-color: #337ab7;
+ border-color: #337ab7;
+}
+.panel-primary > .panel-heading + .panel-collapse > .panel-body {
+ border-top-color: #337ab7;
+}
+.panel-primary > .panel-heading .badge {
+ color: #337ab7;
+ background-color: #fff;
+}
+.panel-primary > .panel-footer + .panel-collapse > .panel-body {
+ border-bottom-color: #337ab7;
+}
+.panel-success {
+ border-color: #d6e9c6;
+}
+.panel-success > .panel-heading {
+ color: #3c763d;
+ background-color: #dff0d8;
+ border-color: #d6e9c6;
+}
+.panel-success > .panel-heading + .panel-collapse > .panel-body {
+ border-top-color: #d6e9c6;
+}
+.panel-success > .panel-heading .badge {
+ color: #dff0d8;
+ background-color: #3c763d;
+}
+.panel-success > .panel-footer + .panel-collapse > .panel-body {
+ border-bottom-color: #d6e9c6;
+}
+.panel-info {
+ border-color: #bce8f1;
+}
+.panel-info > .panel-heading {
+ color: #31708f;
+ background-color: #d9edf7;
+ border-color: #bce8f1;
+}
+.panel-info > .panel-heading + .panel-collapse > .panel-body {
+ border-top-color: #bce8f1;
+}
+.panel-info > .panel-heading .badge {
+ color: #d9edf7;
+ background-color: #31708f;
+}
+.panel-info > .panel-footer + .panel-collapse > .panel-body {
+ border-bottom-color: #bce8f1;
+}
+.panel-warning {
+ border-color: #faebcc;
+}
+.panel-warning > .panel-heading {
+ color: #8a6d3b;
+ background-color: #fcf8e3;
+ border-color: #faebcc;
+}
+.panel-warning > .panel-heading + .panel-collapse > .panel-body {
+ border-top-color: #faebcc;
+}
+.panel-warning > .panel-heading .badge {
+ color: #fcf8e3;
+ background-color: #8a6d3b;
+}
+.panel-warning > .panel-footer + .panel-collapse > .panel-body {
+ border-bottom-color: #faebcc;
+}
+.panel-danger {
+ border-color: #ebccd1;
+}
+.panel-danger > .panel-heading {
+ color: #a94442;
+ background-color: #f2dede;
+ border-color: #ebccd1;
+}
+.panel-danger > .panel-heading + .panel-collapse > .panel-body {
+ border-top-color: #ebccd1;
+}
+.panel-danger > .panel-heading .badge {
+ color: #f2dede;
+ background-color: #a94442;
+}
+.panel-danger > .panel-footer + .panel-collapse > .panel-body {
+ border-bottom-color: #ebccd1;
+}
+.embed-responsive {
+ position: relative;
+ display: block;
+ height: 0;
+ padding: 0;
+ overflow: hidden;
+}
+.embed-responsive .embed-responsive-item,
+.embed-responsive iframe,
+.embed-responsive embed,
+.embed-responsive object,
+.embed-responsive video {
+ position: absolute;
+ top: 0;
+ bottom: 0;
+ left: 0;
+ width: 100%;
+ height: 100%;
+ border: 0;
+}
+.embed-responsive.embed-responsive-16by9 {
+ padding-bottom: 56.25%;
+}
+.embed-responsive.embed-responsive-4by3 {
+ padding-bottom: 75%;
+}
+.well {
+ min-height: 20px;
+ padding: 19px;
+ margin-bottom: 20px;
+ background-color: #f5f5f5;
+ border: 1px solid #e3e3e3;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .05);
+ box-shadow: inset 0 1px 1px rgba(0, 0, 0, .05);
+}
+.well blockquote {
+ border-color: #ddd;
+ border-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, .15);
+}
+.well-lg {
+ padding: 24px;
+ border-radius: 6px;
+}
+.well-sm {
+ padding: 9px;
+ border-radius: 3px;
+}
+.close {
+ float: right;
+ font-size: 21px;
+ font-weight: bold;
+ line-height: 1;
+ color: #000;
+ text-shadow: 0 1px 0 #fff;
+ filter: alpha(opacity=20);
+ opacity: .2;
+}
+.close:hover,
+.close:focus {
+ color: #000;
+ text-decoration: none;
+ cursor: pointer;
+ filter: alpha(opacity=50);
+ opacity: .5;
+}
+button.close {
+ -webkit-appearance: none;
+ padding: 0;
+ cursor: pointer;
+ background: transparent;
+ border: 0;
+}
+.modal-open {
+ overflow: hidden;
+}
+.modal {
+ position: fixed;
+ top: 0;
+ right: 0;
+ bottom: 0;
+ left: 0;
+ z-index: 1040;
+ display: none;
+ overflow: hidden;
+ -webkit-overflow-scrolling: touch;
+ outline: 0;
+}
+.modal.fade .modal-dialog {
+ -webkit-transition: -webkit-transform .3s ease-out;
+ -o-transition: -o-transform .3s ease-out;
+ transition: transform .3s ease-out;
+ -webkit-transform: translate(0, -25%);
+ -ms-transform: translate(0, -25%);
+ -o-transform: translate(0, -25%);
+ transform: translate(0, -25%);
+}
+.modal.in .modal-dialog {
+ -webkit-transform: translate(0, 0);
+ -ms-transform: translate(0, 0);
+ -o-transform: translate(0, 0);
+ transform: translate(0, 0);
+}
+.modal-open .modal {
+ overflow-x: hidden;
+ overflow-y: auto;
+}
+.modal-dialog {
+ position: relative;
+ width: auto;
+ margin: 10px;
+}
+.modal-content {
+ position: relative;
+ background-color: #fff;
+ -webkit-background-clip: padding-box;
+ background-clip: padding-box;
+ border: 1px solid #999;
+ border: 1px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, .2);
+ border-radius: 6px;
+ outline: 0;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: 0 3px 9px rgba(0, 0, 0, .5);
+ box-shadow: 0 3px 9px rgba(0, 0, 0, .5);
+}
+.modal-backdrop {
+ position: absolute;
+ top: 0;
+ right: 0;
+ left: 0;
+ background-color: #000;
+}
+.modal-backdrop.fade {
+ filter: alpha(opacity=0);
+ opacity: 0;
+}
+.modal-backdrop.in {
+ filter: alpha(opacity=50);
+ opacity: .5;
+}
+.modal-header {
+ min-height: 16.42857143px;
+ padding: 15px;
+ border-bottom: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
+}
+.modal-header .close {
+ margin-top: -2px;
+}
+.modal-title {
+ margin: 0;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+}
+.modal-body {
+ position: relative;
+ padding: 15px;
+}
+.modal-footer {
+ padding: 15px;
+ text-align: right;
+ border-top: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
+}
+.modal-footer .btn + .btn {
+ margin-bottom: 0;
+ margin-left: 5px;
+}
+.modal-footer .btn-group .btn + .btn {
+ margin-left: -1px;
+}
+.modal-footer .btn-block + .btn-block {
+ margin-left: 0;
+}
+.modal-scrollbar-measure {
+ position: absolute;
+ top: -9999px;
+ width: 50px;
+ height: 50px;
+ overflow: scroll;
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+ .modal-dialog {
+ width: 600px;
+ margin: 30px auto;
+ }
+ .modal-content {
+ -webkit-box-shadow: 0 5px 15px rgba(0, 0, 0, .5);
+ box-shadow: 0 5px 15px rgba(0, 0, 0, .5);
+ }
+ .modal-sm {
+ width: 300px;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 992px) {
+ .modal-lg {
+ width: 900px;
+ }
+}
+.tooltip {
+ position: absolute;
+ z-index: 1070;
+ display: block;
+ font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;
+ font-size: 12px;
+ font-weight: normal;
+ line-height: 1.4;
+ visibility: visible;
+ filter: alpha(opacity=0);
+ opacity: 0;
+}
+.tooltip.in {
+ filter: alpha(opacity=90);
+ opacity: .9;
+}
+.tooltip.top {
+ padding: 5px 0;
+ margin-top: -3px;
+}
+.tooltip.right {
+ padding: 0 5px;
+ margin-left: 3px;
+}
+.tooltip.bottom {
+ padding: 5px 0;
+ margin-top: 3px;
+}
+.tooltip.left {
+ padding: 0 5px;
+ margin-left: -3px;
+}
+.tooltip-inner {
+ max-width: 200px;
+ padding: 3px 8px;
+ color: #fff;
+ text-align: center;
+ text-decoration: none;
+ background-color: #000;
+ border-radius: 4px;
+}
+.tooltip-arrow {
+ position: absolute;
+ width: 0;
+ height: 0;
+ border-color: transparent;
+ border-style: solid;
+}
+.tooltip.top .tooltip-arrow {
+ bottom: 0;
+ left: 50%;
+ margin-left: -5px;
+ border-width: 5px 5px 0;
+ border-top-color: #000;
+}
+.tooltip.top-left .tooltip-arrow {
+ right: 5px;
+ bottom: 0;
+ margin-bottom: -5px;
+ border-width: 5px 5px 0;
+ border-top-color: #000;
+}
+.tooltip.top-right .tooltip-arrow {
+ bottom: 0;
+ left: 5px;
+ margin-bottom: -5px;
+ border-width: 5px 5px 0;
+ border-top-color: #000;
+}
+.tooltip.right .tooltip-arrow {
+ top: 50%;
+ left: 0;
+ margin-top: -5px;
+ border-width: 5px 5px 5px 0;
+ border-right-color: #000;
+}
+.tooltip.left .tooltip-arrow {
+ top: 50%;
+ right: 0;
+ margin-top: -5px;
+ border-width: 5px 0 5px 5px;
+ border-left-color: #000;
+}
+.tooltip.bottom .tooltip-arrow {
+ top: 0;
+ left: 50%;
+ margin-left: -5px;
+ border-width: 0 5px 5px;
+ border-bottom-color: #000;
+}
+.tooltip.bottom-left .tooltip-arrow {
+ top: 0;
+ right: 5px;
+ margin-top: -5px;
+ border-width: 0 5px 5px;
+ border-bottom-color: #000;
+}
+.tooltip.bottom-right .tooltip-arrow {
+ top: 0;
+ left: 5px;
+ margin-top: -5px;
+ border-width: 0 5px 5px;
+ border-bottom-color: #000;
+}
+.popover {
+ position: absolute;
+ top: 0;
+ left: 0;
+ z-index: 1060;
+ display: none;
+ max-width: 276px;
+ padding: 1px;
+ font-family: "Helvetica Neue", Helvetica, Arial, sans-serif;
+ font-size: 14px;
+ font-weight: normal;
+ line-height: 1.42857143;
+ text-align: left;
+ white-space: normal;
+ background-color: #fff;
+ -webkit-background-clip: padding-box;
+ background-clip: padding-box;
+ border: 1px solid #ccc;
+ border: 1px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, .2);
+ border-radius: 6px;
+ -webkit-box-shadow: 0 5px 10px rgba(0, 0, 0, .2);
+ box-shadow: 0 5px 10px rgba(0, 0, 0, .2);
+}
+.popover.top {
+ margin-top: -10px;
+}
+.popover.right {
+ margin-left: 10px;
+}
+.popover.bottom {
+ margin-top: 10px;
+}
+.popover.left {
+ margin-left: -10px;
+}
+.popover-title {
+ padding: 8px 14px;
+ margin: 0;
+ font-size: 14px;
+ background-color: #f7f7f7;
+ border-bottom: 1px solid #ebebeb;
+ border-radius: 5px 5px 0 0;
+}
+.popover-content {
+ padding: 9px 14px;
+}
+.popover > .arrow,
+.popover > .arrow:after {
+ position: absolute;
+ display: block;
+ width: 0;
+ height: 0;
+ border-color: transparent;
+ border-style: solid;
+}
+.popover > .arrow {
+ border-width: 11px;
+}
+.popover > .arrow:after {
+ content: "";
+ border-width: 10px;
+}
+.popover.top > .arrow {
+ bottom: -11px;
+ left: 50%;
+ margin-left: -11px;
+ border-top-color: #999;
+ border-top-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, .25);
+ border-bottom-width: 0;
+}
+.popover.top > .arrow:after {
+ bottom: 1px;
+ margin-left: -10px;
+ content: " ";
+ border-top-color: #fff;
+ border-bottom-width: 0;
+}
+.popover.right > .arrow {
+ top: 50%;
+ left: -11px;
+ margin-top: -11px;
+ border-right-color: #999;
+ border-right-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, .25);
+ border-left-width: 0;
+}
+.popover.right > .arrow:after {
+ bottom: -10px;
+ left: 1px;
+ content: " ";
+ border-right-color: #fff;
+ border-left-width: 0;
+}
+.popover.bottom > .arrow {
+ top: -11px;
+ left: 50%;
+ margin-left: -11px;
+ border-top-width: 0;
+ border-bottom-color: #999;
+ border-bottom-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, .25);
+}
+.popover.bottom > .arrow:after {
+ top: 1px;
+ margin-left: -10px;
+ content: " ";
+ border-top-width: 0;
+ border-bottom-color: #fff;
+}
+.popover.left > .arrow {
+ top: 50%;
+ right: -11px;
+ margin-top: -11px;
+ border-right-width: 0;
+ border-left-color: #999;
+ border-left-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, .25);
+}
+.popover.left > .arrow:after {
+ right: 1px;
+ bottom: -10px;
+ content: " ";
+ border-right-width: 0;
+ border-left-color: #fff;
+}
+.carousel {
+ position: relative;
+}
+.carousel-inner {
+ position: relative;
+ width: 100%;
+ overflow: hidden;
+}
+.carousel-inner > .item {
+ position: relative;
+ display: none;
+ -webkit-transition: .6s ease-in-out left;
+ -o-transition: .6s ease-in-out left;
+ transition: .6s ease-in-out left;
+}
+.carousel-inner > .item > img,
+.carousel-inner > .item > a > img {
+ line-height: 1;
+}
+@media all and (transform-3d), (-webkit-transform-3d) {
+ .carousel-inner > .item {
+ -webkit-transition: -webkit-transform .6s ease-in-out;
+ -o-transition: -o-transform .6s ease-in-out;
+ transition: transform .6s ease-in-out;
+
+ -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;
+ backface-visibility: hidden;
+ -webkit-perspective: 1000;
+ perspective: 1000;
+ }
+ .carousel-inner > .item.next,
+ .carousel-inner > .item.active.right {
+ left: 0;
+ -webkit-transform: translate3d(100%, 0, 0);
+ transform: translate3d(100%, 0, 0);
+ }
+ .carousel-inner > .item.prev,
+ .carousel-inner > .item.active.left {
+ left: 0;
+ -webkit-transform: translate3d(-100%, 0, 0);
+ transform: translate3d(-100%, 0, 0);
+ }
+ .carousel-inner > .item.next.left,
+ .carousel-inner > .item.prev.right,
+ .carousel-inner > .item.active {
+ left: 0;
+ -webkit-transform: translate3d(0, 0, 0);
+ transform: translate3d(0, 0, 0);
+ }
+}
+.carousel-inner > .active,
+.carousel-inner > .next,
+.carousel-inner > .prev {
+ display: block;
+}
+.carousel-inner > .active {
+ left: 0;
+}
+.carousel-inner > .next,
+.carousel-inner > .prev {
+ position: absolute;
+ top: 0;
+ width: 100%;
+}
+.carousel-inner > .next {
+ left: 100%;
+}
+.carousel-inner > .prev {
+ left: -100%;
+}
+.carousel-inner > .next.left,
+.carousel-inner > .prev.right {
+ left: 0;
+}
+.carousel-inner > .active.left {
+ left: -100%;
+}
+.carousel-inner > .active.right {
+ left: 100%;
+}
+.carousel-control {
+ position: absolute;
+ top: 0;
+ bottom: 0;
+ left: 0;
+ width: 15%;
+ font-size: 20px;
+ color: #fff;
+ text-align: center;
+ text-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, .6);
+ filter: alpha(opacity=50);
+ opacity: .5;
+}
+.carousel-control.left {
+ background-image: -webkit-linear-gradient(left, rgba(0, 0, 0, .5) 0%, rgba(0, 0, 0, .0001) 100%);
+ background-image: -o-linear-gradient(left, rgba(0, 0, 0, .5) 0%, rgba(0, 0, 0, .0001) 100%);
+ background-image: -webkit-gradient(linear, left top, right top, from(rgba(0, 0, 0, .5)), to(rgba(0, 0, 0, .0001)));
+ background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(0, 0, 0, .5) 0%, rgba(0, 0, 0, .0001) 100%);
+ filter: progid:DXImageTransform.Microsoft.gradient(startColorstr='#80000000', endColorstr='#00000000', GradientType=1);
+ background-repeat: repeat-x;
+}
+.carousel-control.right {
+ right: 0;
+ left: auto;
+ background-image: -webkit-linear-gradient(left, rgba(0, 0, 0, .0001) 0%, rgba(0, 0, 0, .5) 100%);
+ background-image: -o-linear-gradient(left, rgba(0, 0, 0, .0001) 0%, rgba(0, 0, 0, .5) 100%);
+ background-image: -webkit-gradient(linear, left top, right top, from(rgba(0, 0, 0, .0001)), to(rgba(0, 0, 0, .5)));
+ background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(0, 0, 0, .0001) 0%, rgba(0, 0, 0, .5) 100%);
+ filter: progid:DXImageTransform.Microsoft.gradient(startColorstr='#00000000', endColorstr='#80000000', GradientType=1);
+ background-repeat: repeat-x;
+}
+.carousel-control:hover,
+.carousel-control:focus {
+ color: #fff;
+ text-decoration: none;
+ filter: alpha(opacity=90);
+ outline: 0;
+ opacity: .9;
+}
+.carousel-control .icon-prev,
+.carousel-control .icon-next,
+.carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-left,
+.carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-right {
+ position: absolute;
+ top: 50%;
+ z-index: 5;
+ display: inline-block;
+}
+.carousel-control .icon-prev,
+.carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-left {
+ left: 50%;
+ margin-left: -10px;
+}
+.carousel-control .icon-next,
+.carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-right {
+ right: 50%;
+ margin-right: -10px;
+}
+.carousel-control .icon-prev,
+.carousel-control .icon-next {
+ width: 20px;
+ height: 20px;
+ margin-top: -10px;
+ font-family: serif;
+}
+.carousel-control .icon-prev:before {
+ content: '\2039';
+}
+.carousel-control .icon-next:before {
+ content: '\203a';
+}
+.carousel-indicators {
+ position: absolute;
+ bottom: 10px;
+ left: 50%;
+ z-index: 15;
+ width: 60%;
+ padding-left: 0;
+ margin-left: -30%;
+ text-align: center;
+ list-style: none;
+}
+.carousel-indicators li {
+ display: inline-block;
+ width: 10px;
+ height: 10px;
+ margin: 1px;
+ text-indent: -999px;
+ cursor: pointer;
+ background-color: #000 \9;
+ background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0);
+ border: 1px solid #fff;
+ border-radius: 10px;
+}
+.carousel-indicators .active {
+ width: 12px;
+ height: 12px;
+ margin: 0;
+ background-color: #fff;
+}
+.carousel-caption {
+ position: absolute;
+ right: 15%;
+ bottom: 20px;
+ left: 15%;
+ z-index: 10;
+ padding-top: 20px;
+ padding-bottom: 20px;
+ color: #fff;
+ text-align: center;
+ text-shadow: 0 1px 2px rgba(0, 0, 0, .6);
+}
+.carousel-caption .btn {
+ text-shadow: none;
+}
+@media screen and (min-width: 768px) {
+ .carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-left,
+ .carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-right,
+ .carousel-control .icon-prev,
+ .carousel-control .icon-next {
+ width: 30px;
+ height: 30px;
+ margin-top: -15px;
+ font-size: 30px;
+ }
+ .carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-left,
+ .carousel-control .icon-prev {
+ margin-left: -15px;
+ }
+ .carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-right,
+ .carousel-control .icon-next {
+ margin-right: -15px;
+ }
+ .carousel-caption {
+ right: 20%;
+ left: 20%;
+ padding-bottom: 30px;
+ }
+ .carousel-indicators {
+ bottom: 20px;
+ }
+}
+.clearfix:before,
+.clearfix:after,
+.dl-horizontal dd:before,
+.dl-horizontal dd:after,
+.container:before,
+.container:after,
+.container-fluid:before,
+.container-fluid:after,
+.row:before,
+.row:after,
+.form-horizontal .form-group:before,
+.form-horizontal .form-group:after,
+.btn-toolbar:before,
+.btn-toolbar:after,
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn-group:before,
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn-group:after,
+.nav:before,
+.nav:after,
+.navbar:before,
+.navbar:after,
+.navbar-header:before,
+.navbar-header:after,
+.navbar-collapse:before,
+.navbar-collapse:after,
+.pager:before,
+.pager:after,
+.panel-body:before,
+.panel-body:after,
+.modal-footer:before,
+.modal-footer:after {
+ display: table;
+ content: " ";
+}
+.clearfix:after,
+.dl-horizontal dd:after,
+.container:after,
+.container-fluid:after,
+.row:after,
+.form-horizontal .form-group:after,
+.btn-toolbar:after,
+.btn-group-vertical > .btn-group:after,
+.nav:after,
+.navbar:after,
+.navbar-header:after,
+.navbar-collapse:after,
+.pager:after,
+.panel-body:after,
+.modal-footer:after {
+ clear: both;
+}
+.center-block {
+ display: block;
+ margin-right: auto;
+ margin-left: auto;
+}
+.pull-right {
+ float: right !important;
+}
+.pull-left {
+ float: left !important;
+}
+.hide {
+ display: none !important;
+}
+.show {
+ display: block !important;
+}
+.invisible {
+ visibility: hidden;
+}
+.text-hide {
+ font: 0/0 a;
+ color: transparent;
+ text-shadow: none;
+ background-color: transparent;
+ border: 0;
+}
+.hidden {
+ display: none !important;
+ visibility: hidden !important;
+}
+.affix {
+ position: fixed;
+}
+@-ms-viewport {
+ width: device-width;
+}
+.visible-xs,
+.visible-sm,
+.visible-md,
+.visible-lg {
+ display: none !important;
+}
+.visible-xs-block,
+.visible-xs-inline,
+.visible-xs-inline-block,
+.visible-sm-block,
+.visible-sm-inline,
+.visible-sm-inline-block,
+.visible-md-block,
+.visible-md-inline,
+.visible-md-inline-block,
+.visible-lg-block,
+.visible-lg-inline,
+.visible-lg-inline-block {
+ display: none !important;
+}
+@media (max-width: 767px) {
+ .visible-xs {
+ display: block !important;
+ }
+ table.visible-xs {
+ display: table;
+ }
+ tr.visible-xs {
+ display: table-row !important;
+ }
+ th.visible-xs,
+ td.visible-xs {
+ display: table-cell !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (max-width: 767px) {
+ .visible-xs-block {
+ display: block !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (max-width: 767px) {
+ .visible-xs-inline {
+ display: inline !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (max-width: 767px) {
+ .visible-xs-inline-block {
+ display: inline-block !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) and (max-width: 991px) {
+ .visible-sm {
+ display: block !important;
+ }
+ table.visible-sm {
+ display: table;
+ }
+ tr.visible-sm {
+ display: table-row !important;
+ }
+ th.visible-sm,
+ td.visible-sm {
+ display: table-cell !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) and (max-width: 991px) {
+ .visible-sm-block {
+ display: block !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) and (max-width: 991px) {
+ .visible-sm-inline {
+ display: inline !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) and (max-width: 991px) {
+ .visible-sm-inline-block {
+ display: inline-block !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 992px) and (max-width: 1199px) {
+ .visible-md {
+ display: block !important;
+ }
+ table.visible-md {
+ display: table;
+ }
+ tr.visible-md {
+ display: table-row !important;
+ }
+ th.visible-md,
+ td.visible-md {
+ display: table-cell !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 992px) and (max-width: 1199px) {
+ .visible-md-block {
+ display: block !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 992px) and (max-width: 1199px) {
+ .visible-md-inline {
+ display: inline !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 992px) and (max-width: 1199px) {
+ .visible-md-inline-block {
+ display: inline-block !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 1200px) {
+ .visible-lg {
+ display: block !important;
+ }
+ table.visible-lg {
+ display: table;
+ }
+ tr.visible-lg {
+ display: table-row !important;
+ }
+ th.visible-lg,
+ td.visible-lg {
+ display: table-cell !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 1200px) {
+ .visible-lg-block {
+ display: block !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 1200px) {
+ .visible-lg-inline {
+ display: inline !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 1200px) {
+ .visible-lg-inline-block {
+ display: inline-block !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (max-width: 767px) {
+ .hidden-xs {
+ display: none !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) and (max-width: 991px) {
+ .hidden-sm {
+ display: none !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 992px) and (max-width: 1199px) {
+ .hidden-md {
+ display: none !important;
+ }
+}
+@media (min-width: 1200px) {
+ .hidden-lg {
+ display: none !important;
+ }
+}
+.visible-print {
+ display: none !important;
+}
+@media print {
+ .visible-print {
+ display: block !important;
+ }
+ table.visible-print {
+ display: table;
+ }
+ tr.visible-print {
+ display: table-row !important;
+ }
+ th.visible-print,
+ td.visible-print {
+ display: table-cell !important;
+ }
+}
+.visible-print-block {
+ display: none !important;
+}
+@media print {
+ .visible-print-block {
+ display: block !important;
+ }
+}
+.visible-print-inline {
+ display: none !important;
+}
+@media print {
+ .visible-print-inline {
+ display: inline !important;
+ }
+}
+.visible-print-inline-block {
+ display: none !important;
+}
+@media print {
+ .visible-print-inline-block {
+ display: inline-block !important;
+ }
+}
+@media print {
+ .hidden-print {
+ display: none !important;
+ }
+}
+/*# sourceMappingURL=bootstrap.css.map */
diff --git a/static/css/bootstrap.min.css b/static/css/bootstrap.min.css
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..db4b02f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/css/bootstrap.min.css
@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+/*!
+ * Bootstrap v3.3.1 (http://getbootstrap.com)
+ * Copyright 2011-2014 Twitter, Inc.
+ * Licensed under MIT (https://github.com/twbs/bootstrap/blob/master/LICENSE)
+ *//*! normalize.css v3.0.2 | MIT License | git.io/normalize */html{font-family:sans-serif;-webkit-text-size-adjust:100%;-ms-text-size-adjust:100%}body{margin:0}article,aside,details,figcaption,figure,footer,header,hgroup,main,menu,nav,section,summary{display:block}audio,canvas,progress,video{display:inline-block;vertical-align:baseline}audio:not([controls]){display:none;height:0}[hidden],template{display:none}a{background-color:transparent}a:active,a:hover{outline:0}abbr[title]{border-bottom:1px dotted}b,strong{font-weight:700}dfn{font-style:italic}h1{margin:.67em 0;font-size:2em}mark{color:#000;background:#ff0}small{font-size:80%}sub,sup{position:relative;font-size:75%;line-height:0;vertical-align:baseline}sup{top:-.5em}sub{bottom:-.25em}img{border:0}svg:not(:root){overflow:hidden}figure{margin:1em 40px}hr{height:0;-webkit-box-sizing:content-box;-moz-box-sizing:content-box;box-sizing:content-box}pre{overflow:auto}code,kbd,pre,samp{font-family:monospace,monospace;font-size:1em}button,input,optgroup,select,textarea{margin:0;font:inherit;color:inherit}button{overflow:visible}button,select{text-transform:none}button,html input[type=button],input[type=reset],input[type=submit]{-webkit-appearance:button;cursor:pointer}button[disabled],html input[disabled]{cursor:default}button::-moz-focus-inner,input::-moz-focus-inner{padding:0;border:0}input{line-height:normal}input[type=checkbox],input[type=radio]{-webkit-box-sizing:border-box;-moz-box-sizing:border-box;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0}input[type=number]::-webkit-inner-spin-button,input[type=number]::-webkit-outer-spin-button{height:auto}input[type=search]{-webkit-box-sizing:content-box;-moz-box-sizing:content-box;box-sizing:content-box;-webkit-appearance:textfield}input[type=search]::-webkit-search-cancel-button,input[type=search]::-webkit-search-decoration{-webkit-appearance:none}fieldset{padding:.35em .625em .75em;margin:0 2px;border:1px solid silver}legend{padding:0;border:0}textarea{overflow:auto}optgroup{font-weight:700}table{border-spacing:0;border-collapse:collapse}td,th{padding:0}/*! 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(min-width:992px){.modal-lg{width:900px}}.tooltip{position:absolute;z-index:1070;display:block;font-family:"Helvetica Neue",Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:12px;font-weight:400;line-height:1.4;visibility:visible;filter:alpha(opacity=0);opacity:0}.tooltip.in{filter:alpha(opacity=90);opacity:.9}.tooltip.top{padding:5px 0;margin-top:-3px}.tooltip.right{padding:0 5px;margin-left:3px}.tooltip.bottom{padding:5px 0;margin-top:3px}.tooltip.left{padding:0 5px;margin-left:-3px}.tooltip-inner{max-width:200px;padding:3px 8px;color:#fff;text-align:center;text-decoration:none;background-color:#000;border-radius:4px}.tooltip-arrow{position:absolute;width:0;height:0;border-color:transparent;border-style:solid}.tooltip.top .tooltip-arrow{bottom:0;left:50%;margin-left:-5px;border-width:5px 5px 0;border-top-color:#000}.tooltip.top-left .tooltip-arrow{right:5px;bottom:0;margin-bottom:-5px;border-width:5px 5px 0;border-top-color:#000}.tooltip.top-right .tooltip-arrow{bottom:0;left:5px;margin-bottom:-5px;border-width:5px 5px 0;border-top-color:#000}.tooltip.right .tooltip-arrow{top:50%;left:0;margin-top:-5px;border-width:5px 5px 5px 0;border-right-color:#000}.tooltip.left .tooltip-arrow{top:50%;right:0;margin-top:-5px;border-width:5px 0 5px 5px;border-left-color:#000}.tooltip.bottom .tooltip-arrow{top:0;left:50%;margin-left:-5px;border-width:0 5px 5px;border-bottom-color:#000}.tooltip.bottom-left .tooltip-arrow{top:0;right:5px;margin-top:-5px;border-width:0 5px 5px;border-bottom-color:#000}.tooltip.bottom-right .tooltip-arrow{top:0;left:5px;margin-top:-5px;border-width:0 5px 5px;border-bottom-color:#000}.popover{position:absolute;top:0;left:0;z-index:1060;display:none;max-width:276px;padding:1px;font-family:"Helvetica Neue",Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:14px;font-weight:400;line-height:1.42857143;text-align:left;white-space:normal;background-color:#fff;-webkit-background-clip:padding-box;background-clip:padding-box;border:1px solid #ccc;border:1px solid rgba(0,0,0,.2);border-radius:6px;-webkit-box-shadow:0 5px 10px rgba(0,0,0,.2);box-shadow:0 5px 10px rgba(0,0,0,.2)}.popover.top{margin-top:-10px}.popover.right{margin-left:10px}.popover.bottom{margin-top:10px}.popover.left{margin-left:-10px}.popover-title{padding:8px 14px;margin:0;font-size:14px;background-color:#f7f7f7;border-bottom:1px solid #ebebeb;border-radius:5px 5px 0 0}.popover-content{padding:9px 14px}.popover>.arrow,.popover>.arrow:after{position:absolute;display:block;width:0;height:0;border-color:transparent;border-style:solid}.popover>.arrow{border-width:11px}.popover>.arrow:after{content:"";border-width:10px}.popover.top>.arrow{bottom:-11px;left:50%;margin-left:-11px;border-top-color:#999;border-top-color:rgba(0,0,0,.25);border-bottom-width:0}.popover.top>.arrow:after{bottom:1px;margin-left:-10px;content:" ";border-top-color:#fff;border-bottom-width:0}.popover.right>.arrow{top:50%;left:-11px;margin-top:-11px;border-right-color:#999;border-right-color:rgba(0,0,0,.25);border-left-width:0}.popover.right>.arrow:after{bottom:-10px;left:1px;content:" ";border-right-color:#fff;border-left-width:0}.popover.bottom>.arrow{top:-11px;left:50%;margin-left:-11px;border-top-width:0;border-bottom-color:#999;border-bottom-color:rgba(0,0,0,.25)}.popover.bottom>.arrow:after{top:1px;margin-left:-10px;content:" ";border-top-width:0;border-bottom-color:#fff}.popover.left>.arrow{top:50%;right:-11px;margin-top:-11px;border-right-width:0;border-left-color:#999;border-left-color:rgba(0,0,0,.25)}.popover.left>.arrow:after{right:1px;bottom:-10px;content:" ";border-right-width:0;border-left-color:#fff}.carousel{position:relative}.carousel-inner{position:relative;width:100%;overflow:hidden}.carousel-inner>.item{position:relative;display:none;-webkit-transition:.6s ease-in-out left;-o-transition:.6s ease-in-out left;transition:.6s ease-in-out left}.carousel-inner>.item>img,.carousel-inner>.item>a>img{line-height:1}@media all and (transform-3d),(-webkit-transform-3d){.carousel-inner>.item{-webkit-transition:-webkit-transform .6s ease-in-out;-o-transition:-o-transform .6s ease-in-out;transition:transform .6s 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1px 2px rgba(0,0,0,.6);filter:alpha(opacity=50);opacity:.5}.carousel-control.left{background-image:-webkit-linear-gradient(left,rgba(0,0,0,.5) 0,rgba(0,0,0,.0001) 100%);background-image:-o-linear-gradient(left,rgba(0,0,0,.5) 0,rgba(0,0,0,.0001) 100%);background-image:-webkit-gradient(linear,left top,right top,from(rgba(0,0,0,.5)),to(rgba(0,0,0,.0001)));background-image:linear-gradient(to right,rgba(0,0,0,.5) 0,rgba(0,0,0,.0001) 100%);filter:progid:DXImageTransform.Microsoft.gradient(startColorstr='#80000000', endColorstr='#00000000', GradientType=1);background-repeat:repeat-x}.carousel-control.right{right:0;left:auto;background-image:-webkit-linear-gradient(left,rgba(0,0,0,.0001) 0,rgba(0,0,0,.5) 100%);background-image:-o-linear-gradient(left,rgba(0,0,0,.0001) 0,rgba(0,0,0,.5) 100%);background-image:-webkit-gradient(linear,left top,right top,from(rgba(0,0,0,.0001)),to(rgba(0,0,0,.5)));background-image:linear-gradient(to right,rgba(0,0,0,.0001) 0,rgba(0,0,0,.5) 100%);filter:progid:DXImageTransform.Microsoft.gradient(startColorstr='#00000000', endColorstr='#80000000', GradientType=1);background-repeat:repeat-x}.carousel-control:hover,.carousel-control:focus{color:#fff;text-decoration:none;filter:alpha(opacity=90);outline:0;opacity:.9}.carousel-control .icon-prev,.carousel-control .icon-next,.carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-left,.carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-right{position:absolute;top:50%;z-index:5;display:inline-block}.carousel-control .icon-prev,.carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-left{left:50%;margin-left:-10px}.carousel-control .icon-next,.carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-right{right:50%;margin-right:-10px}.carousel-control .icon-prev,.carousel-control .icon-next{width:20px;height:20px;margin-top:-10px;font-family:serif}.carousel-control .icon-prev:before{content:'\2039'}.carousel-control .icon-next:before{content:'\203a'}.carousel-indicators{position:absolute;bottom:10px;left:50%;z-index:15;width:60%;padding-left:0;margin-left:-30%;text-align:center;list-style:none}.carousel-indicators li{display:inline-block;width:10px;height:10px;margin:1px;text-indent:-999px;cursor:pointer;background-color:#000 \9;background-color:rgba(0,0,0,0);border:1px solid #fff;border-radius:10px}.carousel-indicators .active{width:12px;height:12px;margin:0;background-color:#fff}.carousel-caption{position:absolute;right:15%;bottom:20px;left:15%;z-index:10;padding-top:20px;padding-bottom:20px;color:#fff;text-align:center;text-shadow:0 1px 2px rgba(0,0,0,.6)}.carousel-caption .btn{text-shadow:none}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-left,.carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-right,.carousel-control .icon-prev,.carousel-control .icon-next{width:30px;height:30px;margin-top:-15px;font-size:30px}.carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-left,.carousel-control .icon-prev{margin-left:-15px}.carousel-control .glyphicon-chevron-right,.carousel-control .icon-next{margin-right:-15px}.carousel-caption{right:20%;left:20%;padding-bottom:30px}.carousel-indicators{bottom:20px}}.clearfix:before,.clearfix:after,.dl-horizontal dd:before,.dl-horizontal dd:after,.container:before,.container:after,.container-fluid:before,.container-fluid:after,.row:before,.row:after,.form-horizontal .form-group:before,.form-horizontal .form-group:after,.btn-toolbar:before,.btn-toolbar:after,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group:before,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group:after,.nav:before,.nav:after,.navbar:before,.navbar:after,.navbar-header:before,.navbar-header:after,.navbar-collapse:before,.navbar-collapse:after,.pager:before,.pager:after,.panel-body:before,.panel-body:after,.modal-footer:before,.modal-footer:after{display:table;content:" "}.clearfix:after,.dl-horizontal dd:after,.container:after,.container-fluid:after,.row:after,.form-horizontal .form-group:after,.btn-toolbar:after,.btn-group-vertical>.btn-group:after,.nav:after,.navbar:after,.navbar-header:after,.navbar-collapse:after,.pager:after,.panel-body:after,
+.modal-footer:after{clear:both}.center-block{display:block;margin-right:auto;margin-left:auto}.pull-right{float:right!important}.pull-left{float:left!important}.hide{display:none!important}.show{display:block!important}.invisible{visibility:hidden}.text-hide{font:0/0 a;color:transparent;text-shadow:none;background-color:transparent;border:0}.hidden{display:none!important;visibility:hidden!important}.affix{position:fixed}@-ms-viewport{width:device-width}.visible-xs,.visible-sm,.visible-md,.visible-lg{display:none!important}.visible-xs-block,.visible-xs-inline,.visible-xs-inline-block,.visible-sm-block,.visible-sm-inline,.visible-sm-inline-block,.visible-md-block,.visible-md-inline,.visible-md-inline-block,.visible-lg-block,.visible-lg-inline,.visible-lg-inline-block{display:none!important}@media (max-width:767px){.visible-xs{display:block!important}table.visible-xs{display:table}tr.visible-xs{display:table-row!important}th.visible-xs,td.visible-xs{display:table-cell!important}}@media (max-width:767px){.visible-xs-block{display:block!important}}@media (max-width:767px){.visible-xs-inline{display:inline!important}}@media (max-width:767px){.visible-xs-inline-block{display:inline-block!important}}@media (min-width:768px) and (max-width:991px){.visible-sm{display:block!important}table.visible-sm{display:table}tr.visible-sm{display:table-row!important}th.visible-sm,td.visible-sm{display:table-cell!important}}@media (min-width:768px) and (max-width:991px){.visible-sm-block{display:block!important}}@media (min-width:768px) and (max-width:991px){.visible-sm-inline{display:inline!important}}@media (min-width:768px) and (max-width:991px){.visible-sm-inline-block{display:inline-block!important}}@media (min-width:992px) and (max-width:1199px){.visible-md{display:block!important}table.visible-md{display:table}tr.visible-md{display:table-row!important}th.visible-md,td.visible-md{display:table-cell!important}}@media (min-width:992px) and (max-width:1199px){.visible-md-block{display:block!important}}@media (min-width:992px) and (max-width:1199px){.visible-md-inline{display:inline!important}}@media (min-width:992px) and (max-width:1199px){.visible-md-inline-block{display:inline-block!important}}@media (min-width:1200px){.visible-lg{display:block!important}table.visible-lg{display:table}tr.visible-lg{display:table-row!important}th.visible-lg,td.visible-lg{display:table-cell!important}}@media (min-width:1200px){.visible-lg-block{display:block!important}}@media (min-width:1200px){.visible-lg-inline{display:inline!important}}@media (min-width:1200px){.visible-lg-inline-block{display:inline-block!important}}@media (max-width:767px){.hidden-xs{display:none!important}}@media (min-width:768px) and (max-width:991px){.hidden-sm{display:none!important}}@media (min-width:992px) and (max-width:1199px){.hidden-md{display:none!important}}@media (min-width:1200px){.hidden-lg{display:none!important}}.visible-print{display:none!important}@media print{.visible-print{display:block!important}table.visible-print{display:table}tr.visible-print{display:table-row!important}th.visible-print,td.visible-print{display:table-cell!important}}.visible-print-block{display:none!important}@media print{.visible-print-block{display:block!important}}.visible-print-inline{display:none!important}@media print{.visible-print-inline{display:inline!important}}.visible-print-inline-block{display:none!important}@media print{.visible-print-inline-block{display:inline-block!important}}@media print{.hidden-print{display:none!important}}
diff --git a/static/css/liquid-dark.css b/static/css/liquid-dark.css
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9cbcce5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/css/liquid-dark.css
@@ -0,0 +1,105 @@
+.hs-linenum {
+ color: #666666; //CCCCCC;
+ font-style: italic;
+}
+
+.hs-error {
+ background-color: #B80000 ;
+}
+
+.hs-keyglyph, .hs-layout { /* color: red; */
+ color: white;
+}
+
+.hs-keyword {
+ color: #75D075 ;
+ //font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+.hs-comment, .hs-comment a {color: green;}
+
+.hs-str, .hs-chr {color: #7FFFD4;}
+
+.hs-conid {
+ color: #00FFFF;
+ //font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+.hs-definition {
+ color: #FFFFFF; /* #ADFF2F; */
+ // font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+.hs-varid, .hs-varop {
+ color: white; /* #BDDEFF; */
+}
+
+.hs-num, .hs-conop {
+ color: aquamarine;
+}
+
+.hs-cpp {
+ color: orange;
+}
+
+.hs-sel {}
+
+a.annot {
+ position:relative;
+ color:#000;
+ text-decoration:none;
+ white-space: pre;
+}
+
+.hidden {
+ display: none;
+}
+
+// a.annot:hover {
+// z-index:25;
+// background-color:#585858;
+// /* background-color:#ff0 */
+// }
+
+a.annot span.annottext{display: none}
+
+a.annot:hover span.annottext{
+
+ border-radius: 5px 5px;
+ -moz-border-radius: 5px;
+ -webkit-border-radius: 5px;
+ box-shadow: 5px 5px 5px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);
+ -webkit-box-shadow: 5px 5px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);
+ -moz-box-shadow: 5px 5px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);
+
+ white-space:pre ;
+ display:block;
+ position: absolute;
+ left: 1em; top: 2em;
+ z-index: 9999;
+ margin-left: 5;
+ padding: 0.8em 1em;
+ border: 3px solid #6495ED ; // #5F9EA0; #FFAD33;
+ background: #EBF5FF; // #C3F6FA #F7F8FD #C1CDCD #FFFFAA;
+}
+
+code {
+ /* font-weight: bold; */
+ background-color: rgb(250, 250, 250);
+ border: 1px solid rgb(200, 200, 200);
+ padding-left: 4px;
+ padding-right: 4px;
+}
+
+pre {
+ border-radius: 5px 5px;
+ // font-family: Bitstream Vera Sans Mono,monospace;
+ font-size: 100%;
+ // color: rgb(255, 255, 255);
+ // background-color: rgb(0, 0, 0);
+ // margin-bottom: 2em;
+ padding: 8px;
+ display: block;
+ overflow: visible;
+}
+
diff --git a/static/css/liquid-light.css b/static/css/liquid-light.css
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6776a2f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/css/liquid-light.css
@@ -0,0 +1,109 @@
+.hs-keyglyph {
+ color: #007020
+}
+
+.hs-linenum {
+ color: white;
+}
+
+.hs-error {
+ background-color: #f4abbb;
+}
+
+.hs-keyword {
+ color: #007020;
+ // font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+.hs-comment, .hs-comment a {color: green;}
+
+.hs-str, .hs-chr {color: teal;}
+
+.hs-conid {
+ color: #902000; /* color: #00FFFF; color: #0E84B5; */
+ //font-weight: bold;
+}
+
+.hs-definition {
+ color: #06287E
+ /* font-weight: bold; */
+}
+
+.hs-varid, .hs-varop, .hs-layout {
+ color: black;
+}
+
+.hs-num {
+ color: #40A070;
+}
+
+.hs-conop {
+ color: #902000;
+}
+
+.hs-cpp {
+ color: orange;
+}
+
+.hs-sel {}
+
+a.annot {
+ position:relative;
+ color:#000;
+ text-decoration:none;
+ white-space: pre;
+}
+
+a.annot:hover {
+ z-index:25;
+ background-color: #D8D8D8;
+}
+
+a.annot span.annottext{display: none}
+
+a.annot:hover span.annottext{
+
+ border-radius: 5px 5px;
+
+ -moz-border-radius: 5px;
+ -webkit-border-radius: 5px;
+
+ box-shadow: 5px 5px 5px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);
+ -webkit-box-shadow: 5px 5px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);
+ -moz-box-shadow: 5px 5px rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1);
+
+ white-space:pre;
+ display:block;
+ position: absolute;
+ left: 1em; top: 2em;
+ z-index: 99;
+ margin-left: 5;
+ background: #FFFFAA;
+ border: 3px solid #FFAD33;
+ padding: 0.8em 1em;
+}
+
+code {
+ /* font-weight: bold;
+ background-color: rgb(250, 250, 250);
+ border: 1px solid rgb(200, 200, 200);
+ */
+ background-color: white;
+ color: black;
+ font-size: 120%;
+ padding-left: 4px;
+ padding-right: 4px;
+}
+
+pre {
+ /*
+ background-color: #f0f0f0;
+ border-top: 1px solid #ccc;
+ border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;
+ */
+ padding: 5px;
+ font-size: 120%;
+ // font-family: Bitstream Vera Sans Mono,monospace;
+ display: block;
+ overflow: visible;
+}
diff --git a/static/css/prettify.css b/static/css/prettify.css
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..400fd74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/css/prettify.css
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+/* Pretty printing styles. Used with prettify.js. */
+
+/* SPAN elements with the classes below are added by prettyprint. */
+.pln { color: #000 } /* plain text */
+
+@media screen {
+ .str { color: #080 } /* string content */
+ .kwd { color: #008 } /* a keyword */
+ .com { color: #800 } /* a comment */
+ .typ { color: #606 } /* a type name */
+ .lit { color: #066 } /* a literal value */
+ /* punctuation, lisp open bracket, lisp close bracket */
+ .pun, .opn, .clo { color: #660 }
+ .tag { color: #008 } /* a markup tag name */
+ .atn { color: #606 } /* a markup attribute name */
+ .atv { color: #080 } /* a markup attribute value */
+ .dec, .var { color: #606 } /* a declaration; a variable name */
+ .fun { color: red } /* a function name */
+}
+
+/* Use higher contrast and text-weight for printable form. */
+@media print, projection {
+ .str { color: #060 }
+ .kwd { color: #006; font-weight: bold }
+ .com { color: #600; font-style: italic }
+ .typ { color: #404; font-weight: bold }
+ .lit { color: #044 }
+ .pun, .opn, .clo { color: #440 }
+ .tag { color: #006; font-weight: bold }
+ .atn { color: #404 }
+ .atv { color: #060 }
+}
+
+/* Put a border around prettyprinted code snippets. */
+pre.prettyprint { padding: 2px; border: 1px solid #888 }
+
+/* Specify class=linenums on a pre to get line numbering */
+ol.linenums { margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0 } /* IE indents via margin-left */
+li.L0,
+li.L1,
+li.L2,
+li.L3,
+li.L5,
+li.L6,
+li.L7,
+li.L8 { list-style-type: none }
+/* Alternate shading for lines */
+li.L1,
+li.L3,
+li.L5,
+li.L7,
+li.L9 { background: #eee }
diff --git a/static/css/ronacher.css b/static/css/ronacher.css
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f0f3f33
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/css/ronacher.css
@@ -0,0 +1,119 @@
+@charset "utf-8";
+
+/* fonts */
+@import url(https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Ubuntu+Mono:400,400italic,700,700italic|Merriweather:400,700,400italic,700italic,300,300italic|Crimson+Text:400,400italic,600italic,600&subset=latin,latin-ext);
+
+/* general style */
+body { font: 17px/25px 'Merriweather', serif;
+ margin: 0; padding: 0; font-weight: 400; color: black; line-height: 30px; }
+a { color: #398ad5; font-weight: 400; }
+a:hover { color: #2771b5; }
+
+/* headlines */
+h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 { font-family: 'Crimson Text', serif;
+ font-weight: 400;
+ color: #2771b5;
+ font-style: italic }
+h1 { color: black; }
+h1 a, h2 a, h3 a, h4 a,
+h5 a, h6 a { text-decoration: none; }
+h1 a:hover, h2 a:hover,
+h3 a:hover, h4 a:hover { text-decoration: underline; }
+h1 { margin: 15px 0 25px 0; }
+h2 { margin: 25px 0 10px 0; }
+h3 { margin: 35px 0 10px 0; }
+h1 { font-size: 52px; line-height: 56px; }
+h2 { font-size: 42px; line-height: 44px; }
+h3 { font-size: 36px; line-height: 38px; }
+
+h1 em { color: black; font-size: 32px; display: block;
+ margin-left: 25px; margin-top: -15px; }
+
+/* layout elements */
+/* div.container { max-width: 880px; margin: 48px auto; padding: 0 40px; }
+ */
+
+div.header { float: left; }
+div.navigation { float: right; }
+div.header, div.navigation { height: 25px; margin-bottom: 42px; }
+div.navigation ul { margin: 0; padding: 0; list-style: none; }
+div.navigation ul li { display: inline; margin: 0 2px; padding: 0; }
+div.body { clear: both; margin: 0 30px; line-height: 1.6; }
+body { padding-top: 50px ;}
+div.footer { margin-top: 55px; font-size: 16px;
+ text-align: right; color: #7b8894; }
+div.footer p { margin: 0; }
+div.footer a { color: #7b8894; }
+
+/* margins and stuff */
+p, div.line-block, ul, ol, pre,
+ table { margin: 15px 0 15px 0; }
+dt { margin: 25px 0 16px 0; padding: 0; }
+dd { margin: 16px 0 25px 40px; padding: 0; }
+ul ol, ol ul, ul ul, ol ol { margin: 10px 0; padding: 0 0 0 40px; }
+li { padding: 0; }
+h1 + p.date { margin-top: -25px; font-style: italic; }
+blockquote { font-style: italic; }
+
+/* code formatting. no monospace because of webkit (bug?) */
+pre, code, tt { font-family: 'Ubuntu Mono', 'Consolas', 'Deja Vu Sans Mono',
+ 'Bitstream Vera Sans Mono', 'Monaco', 'Courier New';
+ font-size: 0.9em; }
+pre { line-height: 1.45; background: none; padding: 0; }
+/* code, tt { background: #eee; } */
+
+
+/* tables */
+table { border: 1px solid #ddd; border-collapse: collapse;
+ background: #fafafa; }
+td, th { padding: 2px 12px; border: 1px solid #ddd; }
+
+/* footnotes */
+table.footnote { margin: 25px 0; background: transparent; border: none; }
+table.footnote + table.footnote { margin-top: -35px; }
+table.footnote td { border: none; padding: 9px 0 0 0; font-size: 15px; }
+table.footnote td.label { padding-right: 10px; }
+table.footnote td p { margin: 0; }
+table.footnote td p + p { margin-top: 15px; }
+
+/* blog overview */
+div.entry-overview { margin: 25px 122px 25px 102px; }
+div.entry-overview h1,
+div.entry-overview div.summary,
+div.entry-overview div.summary p { display: inline; line-height: 30px; }
+div.entry-overview h1 { margin: 0; font-size: 17px; font-weight: 700;
+ font-family: 'Merriweather', serif; color: black; }
+div.entry-overview h1:after { content: " —"; color: black; }
+div.entry-overview h1 a { color: #2771b5; }
+div.entry-overview div.summary,
+div.entry-overview div.date,
+div.entry-overview div.summary p { margin: 0; padding: 0; }
+div.entry-overview div.detail { margin-left: 140px; }
+div.entry-overview div.date { float: left; width: 120px; color: #7b8894;
+ text-align: right; font-style: italic;
+ font-size: 14px; }
+
+/* other alignment things */
+img.align-center { margin: 15px auto; display: block; }
+
+/* pagination */
+div.pagination { margin: 36px 0 0 0; text-align: center; }
+div.pagination strong { font-weight: normal; font-style: italic; }
+
+/* tags */
+p.tags { text-align: right; margin-top: 35px; }
+ul.tagcloud { font-size: 16px; margin: 36px 0; padding: 0;
+ list-style: none; line-height: 1.45; text-align: justify }
+ul.tagcloud li { margin: 0; padding: 0 10px; display: inline; }
+
+/* latex math */
+span.math img { margin-bottom: -7px; }
+
+/* ads */
+div.adspace {
+ text-align: center;
+}
+
+div.adspace iframe {
+ margin: 25px auto 25px auto;
+}
diff --git a/static/css/spaceg.stylesheets.css b/static/css/spaceg.stylesheets.css
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2958f2c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/css/spaceg.stylesheets.css
@@ -0,0 +1,309 @@
+/*!
+Top spaceg.stylesheets.css
+ spaceg.github.io by Lucas Gatsas.
+ www.lucasgatsas.ch
+
+http://lucasgatsas.ch
+https://www.twitter.com/LucasGatsas
+
+ */
+ /* New Update Mo. 2 Feb. 2015 -02:33:45*/
+/* New Update Fr. 06 Feb. 2015 -01:57:13 */
+/* New Update Sa. 21. February. 2015 -02:58:16*/
+/* New Update Fr. 27. February. 2015 -21:53:19*/
+/* New Update Mo. 06. April. 2015 -09:16:07*/
+/* New Update Mo. 09. April. 2015 -14:31:47*/
+/* New Update Sa. 25. April. 2015 -16:47:32ƒ*/
+/* New Update Sa. 26. April. 2015 -00:26:13ƒ*/
+/* New Update Di. 05. May. 2015 -22:26:13ƒ*/
+/* New Update Fr. 12. May. 2015 -00:20:24ƒ*/
+/* New Update Mi. 17. Juni. 2015 - 01:13:24*/
+
+ .pagination{
+ display:inline-block;padding-left:40px;margin:20px 0;border-radius:4px;text-align:center}
+ .pagination.jscroll-next-parent{display:inline-block;padding-left:40px;margin:20px 0;border-radius:4px;text-align:center}
+ #pagination{display:inline-block;padding-left:40px;margin:20px 0;border-radius:4px;text-align:center}
+ #pagination.jscroll-next-parent{display:inline-block;padding-left:40px;margin:20px 0;border-radius:4px}
+ .navbar-default .navbar-nav>li>a{color:#B6B6B6}
+ .navbar-default .navbar-toggle:hover,.navbar-default
+ .navbar-toggle:focus{background-color:#FFF}
+ .navbar-default .navbar-toggle{border-color:#FFF}i
+ #github-icon-top{font-size:20px}
+ nav.navbar.navbar-inverse.navbar-fixed-top-top{padding-top:55px}
+ .navbar-inverse{background-color:#FFF;border-color:#FFF}header
+ .intro-header{background:#6f5499;background-color:gray;background:no-repeat center center;background-attachment:scroll;-webkit-background-size:cover;-moz-background-size:cover;background-size:cover;-o-background-size:cover}
+ .container.front-end{width:100%}
+ article.container.hentry{max-width:770px;text-align:justify;margin-bottom:180px}
+ h1.post-title{text-align:center;color:#fff;font-weight:700;}h1
+ .post-title a{text-align:center;color:#fff}
+ .post-meta{text-align:center;padding-top:280px}
+ .post-meta a{text-align:center;color:#fff}html{font-size:62.5%}
+ body{font-family: 'Open Sans';
+ /* letter-spacing: .01rem; */
+ /* font-size: 1.8rem; */
+ /* line-height: 1.75em; */
+ color: rgba(6,6,6,0.83);
+ font-size: 16px;
+ line-height: 28px;}p{margin:30px 0}
+ h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6{font-family:'Georgia',serif;font-weight:600}a{color:#A8A8A8}
+ a:hover,a:focus{color:#B6B6B6}blockquote{color:#B6B6B6;font-style:italic}
+ hr.small{max-width:100px;margin:15px auto;border-width:4px;border-color:#fff}
+ .navbar-custom{background:#fff;position:fixed;top:0;left:0;width:100%;z-index:2;font-family:'Open Sans','Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif}
+ .navbar-custom .navbar-brand{font-weight:800}
+ .navbar-custom .nav li a{font-family:'Open Sans';text-transform:uppercase;font-size:12px;font-weight:400;letter-spacing:1px}@media only screen and (min-width: 768px){.navbar-custom{border-bottom:1px solid transparent}
+ .navbar-custom .navbar-brand{color:rgba(255,255,255,0.9);padding:20px}
+ .navbar-custom .navbar-brand:hover,.navbar-custom .navbar-brand:focus{color:rgba(255,255,255,0.8)}
+ .navbar-custom .nav li a{padding:20px}.navbar-custom .nav li a:hover,.navbar-custom .nav li a:focus{color:rgba(0,0,0,0.59)}}@media only screen and (min-width: 1170px){.navbar-custom{-webkit-transition:background-color .3s;-moz-transition:background-color .3s;transition:background-color .3s;-webkit-transform:translate3d(0,0,0);-moz-transform:translate3d(0,0,0);-ms-transform:translate3d(0,0,0);-o-transform:translate3d(0,0,0);transform:translate3d(0,0,0);-webkit-backface-visibility:hidden;backface-visibility:hidden}
+ .navbar-custom.is-fixed{position:fixed;top:-65px;background-color:rgba(255,255,255,0.9);border-bottom:1px solid #f2f2f2;-webkit-transition:-webkit-transform .3s;-moz-transition:-moz-transform .3s;transition:transform .3s}
+ .navbar-custom.is-fixed .navbar-brand{color:#404040}
+ .navbar-custom.is-fixed .navbar-brand:hover,.navbar-custom.is-fixed .navbar-brand:focus{color:#777}
+ .navbar-custom.is-fixed .nav li a{color:rgba(64,64,64,0.49)}.navbar-custom.is-fixed .nav li a:hover,.navbar-custom.is-fixed .nav li a:focus{color:#777}
+ .navbar-custom.is-visible{-webkit-transform:translate3d(0,100%,0);-moz-transform:translate3d(0,100%,0);-ms-transform:translate3d(0,100%,0);-o-transform:translate3d(0,100%,0);transform:translate3d(0,100%,0)}}
+ .intro-header{background-color:gray;background:no-repeat center center;background-attachment:scroll;-webkit-background-size:cover;-moz-background-size:cover;background-size:cover;-o-background-size:cover;margin-bottom:50px;min-height:473px}
+ .intro-header
+ .site-heading,
+ .intro-header
+ .post-heading,
+ .intro-header
+ .page-heading{padding:100px 0 50px;color:#000; text-align: center;}@media only screen and (min-width: 768px){.intro-header .site-heading,.intro-header .post-heading,.intro-header .page-heading{padding:250px 0}}
+ .intro-header .site-heading,.intro-header .page-heading{text-align:center}
+ .intro-header .site-heading h1,.intro-header .page-heading h1{margin-top:0;font-size:50px}
+ .intro-header
+ .site-heading .subheading,.intro-header .page-heading .subheading{
+ font-size: 18px;
+ line-height: 1.1,display: block;
+ font-family: 'Georgia' Times,serif;
+ margin: 10px 0 0;
+ color: rgba(11, 11, 11, 0.57);
+ font-weight: 100;
+ letter-spacing: 0;
+ font-weight: 400;
+ text-rendering: optimizeLegibility;
+
+ }@media only screen and (min-width: 768px){.intro-header .site-heading h1,.intro-header .page-heading h1{font-size:60px}}
+ .intro-header .post-heading h1{font-size:35px;}
+ .intro-header .post-heading .subheading,.intro-header .post-heading .meta{line-height:1.1;display:block}
+ .intro-header .post-heading .subheading{font-family:'Open Sans','Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-size:24px;margin:10px 0 30px;font-weight:400;}
+ .intro-header .post-heading .meta{font-family:'Playfair Display', Times, serif;font-style:italic;font-weight:300;font-size:20px;}
+ .intro-header .post-heading .meta a{}
+@media only screen and (min-width: 768px){.intro-header .post-heading h1{font-size:55px}
+ .intro-header .post-heading .subheading{font-size:30px;}}
+ .post-preview > a{color:#404040}.post-preview > a:hover,.post-preview > a:focus{text-decoration:none;color:#BBB}
+ .post-preview > a > .post-title{font-size:30px;margin-top:30px;margin-bottom:10px}
+ .post-preview > a > .post-subtitle{margin:0;font-weight:300;margin-bottom:10px}
+ .post-preview > .post-meta{color:gray;font-size:16px;margin-top:0}
+ .post-preview > .post-meta > a{text-decoration:none;color:#404040}
+ .post-preview > .post-meta > a:hover,.post-preview > .post-meta > a:focus{color:#BBB;text-decoration:underline}@media only screen and (min-width: 768px){.post-preview > a > .post-title{font-size:36px}}
+ .section-heading{font-size:36px;/*margin-top:60px;*/font-weight:500;color:rgba(0,0,0,0.83);text-align:center}
+ .caption{text-align:center;font-size:14px;padding:10px;font-style:italic;margin:15px 0 0;display:block;border-bottom-right-radius:5px;border-bottom-left-radius:5px; border-top: 1px solid #EEE; }footer{padding:50px 0 65px}footer
+ .list-inline{margin:0;padding:0}footer .copyright{font-size:14px;text-align:center;margin-bottom:0}
+ .floating-label-form-group{font-size:14px;position:relative;margin-bottom:0;padding-bottom:.5em;border-bottom:1px solid #eee}
+ .floating-label-form-group input,.floating-label-form-group textarea{z-index:1;position:relative;padding-right:0;padding-left:0;border:none;border-radius:0;font-size:1.5em;background:none;box-shadow:none!important;resize:none}
+ .floating-label-form-group label{display:block;z-index:0;position:relative;top:2em;margin:0;font-size:.85em;line-height:1.764705882em;vertical-align:middle;vertical-align:baseline;opacity:0;-webkit-transition:top .3s ease,opacity .3s ease;-moz-transition:top .3s ease,opacity .3s ease;-ms-transition:top .3s ease,opacity .3s ease;transition:top .3s ease,opacity .3s ease}
+ .floating-label-form-group::not(:first-child){padding-left:14px;border-left:1px solid #eee}
+ .floating-label-form-group-with-value label{top:0;opacity:1}
+ .floating-label-form-group-with-focus label{color:#0085a1}
+ form .row:first-child .floating-label-form-group{border-top:1px solid #eee}
+ .btn{font-family:'Open Sans','Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;text-transform:uppercase;font-size:14px;font-weight:800;letter-spacing:1px;border-radius:90px;padding:15px 25px}
+ .btn-lg{font-size:16px;padding:25px 35px}.btn-default:hover,.btn-default:focus{background-color:#000;border:1px solid #000;color:#fff}
+ .pager{margin:20px 0 0}
+ .pager li > a,.pager li > span{font-family:'Open Sans','Helvetica Neue',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;text-transform:uppercase;font-size:14px;font-weight:800;letter-spacing:1px;padding:10px 5px;background-color:#fff;border-radius:0}@media only screen and (min-width: 768px){.pager li > a,.pager li > span{font-size:14px;padding:15px 25px}}
+ .pager li > a:hover,.pager li > a:focus{color:#fff;background-color:#0D0D0D;border:1px solid #0D0D0D}
+ .pager .disabled > a,.pager .disabled > a:hover,.pager .disabled > a:focus,.pager .disabled > span{color:gray;background-color:#404040;cursor:not-allowed}::-moz-selection{color:#fff;text-shadow:none;background:#0085a1}
+ ::selection{color:#fff;text-shadow:none;background:#404040}img::selection{color:#fff;background:transparent}img::-moz-selection{color:#fff;background:transparent}
+ body{webkit-tap-highlight-color:#0085a1}code{padding:2px 4px;font-size:90%;color:#969696;background-color:#f9f2f4;border-radius:4px}
+ nav.navbar.navbar-inverse.navbar-fixed-bottom{background-color:#FFF;border-color:#E2E2E2}
+ .navbar-inverse .navbar-nav>li>a:hover,.navbar-inverse .navbar-nav>li>a:focus{color:#222;background-color:transparent}
+ img#small-img-nav{margin-bottom:40px;margin-top:-10px}.navbar-inverse .navbar-toggle .icon-bar{background-color:#717171}
+ .navbar-nav{float:left;margin:0;font-family:'Playfair Display',serif;font-size:14px;font-weight:300px}
+ ul.nav.navbar-nav{font-weight:400}.pager li > a,.pager li > span{font-size:14px;padding:15px 25px;border-radius:90px}
+ a#roundbutton{border:1px solid rgba(200,200,200,0.83);border-radius:90px;padding:7px;margin-top:13px;padding-right:13px;padding-left:13px;color:#d3d3d3;font-weight:700;font-family:'Open Sans'}
+ a#roundbutton:hover{border:1px solid #000;border-radius:90px;padding:7px;margin-top:13px;padding-right:13px;padding-left:13px;color:#fff;background:#000}
+ a#post-title-h1 {color: white;}
+ h1#top-title-font-weight-bold{
+
+
+ font-family: "Georgia"; */
+ /* font-weight: 800; */
+ /* text-shadow: rgba(0,0,0,0.4) 0 1px 1px; */
+ /* letter-spacing: -3px; */
+ /* color: rgba(15, 14, 14, 0.8); */
+ font-family: Georgia,times,arial;
+ font-size: 36px;
+ font-weight: 300;
+ margin-top: -5px;
+ color: rgba(15, 14, 14, 0.95);
+
+ }
+
+/* The Colors for the Social Icons */
+
+
+i.fa.fa-rss.fa-stack-1x.fa-inverse {
+background: white;
+color: gray;
+}
+i.fa.fa-twitter.fa-stack-1x.fa-inverse {
+background: white;
+color: gray;
+}
+i.fa.fa-google-plus.fa-stack-1x.fa-inverse {
+background: white;
+color: gray;
+}
+i.fa.fa-github.fa-stack-1x.fa-inverse {
+background: white;
+color: gray;
+}
+i.fa.fa-instagram.fa-stack-1x.fa-inverse {
+ background: white;
+ color: gray;
+}
+
+/* The Hovers for the Social Icons */
+
+
+i.fa.fa-rss.fa-stack-1x.fa-inverse:hover {
+background: white;
+color: rgb(194, 194, 194);
+}
+i.fa.fa-twitter.fa-stack-1x.fa-inverse:hover {
+background: white;
+color: rgb(194, 194, 194);
+}
+i.fa.fa-google-plus.fa-stack-1x.fa-inverse:hover {
+background: white;
+color: rgb(194, 194, 194);
+}
+i.fa.fa-github.fa-stack-1x.fa-inverse:hover {
+background: white;
+color: rgb(194, 194, 194);
+}
+i.fa.fa-instagram.fa-stack-1x.fa-inverse:hover {
+ background: white;
+ color: gray;
+}
+
+
+
+/* Modal Css for Social Buttons */
+
+i#spaceg-social-modal {
+font-size: 19px;
+padding-top: 30px;
+color: rgb(197, 197, 197);
+}
+
+i#spaceg-social-modal:hover {
+font-size: 19px;
+padding-top: 30px;
+color: rgb(174, 174, 174);
+}
+a#blog-title-left-top{font-family:Georgia,times,arial;font-size:36px;font-weight:300;margin-top:-5px;color: rgba(15, 14, 14, 0.8);}@media (max-width: 768px){button#toggle-bottom-fadeout{display:none}.navbar-inverse .navbar-nav>li>a{color:#000;color:#282828}section#archive{padding-top:100px}ul,ol{margin-top:0;margin-bottom:10px;list-style:none}pre{display:block;padding:9.5px;margin:0 0 10px;font-size:13px;line-height:1.42857143;color:none;word-break:break-all;word-wrap:break-word;background-color:none;border:0 solid #ccc;border-radius:4px}.infinite-spinner{display:block;width:40px;height:40px;border-radius:40px;background-color:#333;margin:60px auto;-webkit-animation:scaleout 1s infinite ease-in-out;animation:scaleout 1s infinite ease-in-out}}@-webkit-keyframes scaleout{0%{-webkit-transform:scale(0.0)}100%{-webkit-transform:scale(1.0);opacity:0}}@keyframes scaleout{0%{transform:scale(0.0);-webkit-transform:scale(0.0)}100%{transform:scale(1.0);-webkit-transform:scale(1.0);opacity:0}}
+
+
+
+
+/* Table Settings */
+table {
+ background-color: rgba(152, 152, 152, 0);
+ text-align: initial;
+}
+
+@media (max-width: 533px) {
+
+th#fadeout-1 {
+ display: none;
+}
+td#fadeout-1 {
+ display: none;
+}}
+/* End New Table Settings fade out at 533px hurra :) ! */
+
+
+
+
+@media (max-width: 768px) {
+.navbar-default .navbar-collapse,.navbar-default .navbar-form {
+ border-color: #e7e7e7;
+ margin-bottom: 3px;
+}
+}
+
+.img-responsive, .thumbnail > img, .thumbnail a > img, .carousel-inner > .item > img, .carousel-inner > .item > a > img {
+ display: inline-block;
+ max-width: 100%;
+ height: auto;
+}
+.footer-block, .hero-block {
+ height: 390px;
+ width: 97%;
+ position: absolute;
+ top: 60%;
+ margin-top: -305px;
+}
+@media (max-width: 768px) {
+.footer-block, .hero-block {
+ height: 390px;
+ width: 96%;
+ position: absolute;
+ top: 50%;
+ margin-top: -305px;
+ display:none;
+}
+}
+@media (min-width: 768px) {
+img#small-img-nav {
+ display:none;
+ margin-bottom: 40px;
+ margin-top: -10px;
+}}
+.img-circle {
+ border-radius: 50%;
+}
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index 0000000..6f3ca8a
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diff --git a/static/img/unreal.png b/static/img/unreal.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..727fa1f
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diff --git a/static/img/white.jpg b/static/img/white.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dd262ee
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diff --git a/static/img/world-map.jpg b/static/img/world-map.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..878f8fc
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diff --git a/static/img/wtf-x-plus-one.png b/static/img/wtf-x-plus-one.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3167243
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diff --git a/static/js/anim.js b/static/js/anim.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06bcab3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/js/anim.js
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+function swizzle(name){
+ $(function() {
+ var divName = "#" + name;
+ var animName = "/liquidhaskell-blog/static/img/" + name + ".gif";
+ var statName = "/liquidhaskell-blog/static/img/" + name + ".png";
+ $(divName).hover(
+ function() {
+ $(this).attr("src", animName);
+ },
+ function() {
+ $(this).attr("src", statName);
+ }
+ );
+ });
+};
+
+var z0 = swizzle("splash-head");
+var z1 = swizzle("splash-unstutter");
+var z2 = swizzle("splash-vectorsum");
+var z3 = swizzle("splash-dotproduct");
+var z4 = swizzle("splash-fib");
+var z5 = swizzle("splash-merge");
+var z6 = swizzle("splash-ups");
+var z7 = swizzle("splash-insertsort");
+var z8 = swizzle("splash-assocthm");
+var z9 = swizzle("splash-assocpf");
diff --git a/static/js/bootstrap.min.js b/static/js/bootstrap.min.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d839865
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/js/bootstrap.min.js
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+/*!
+ * Bootstrap v3.3.1 (http://getbootstrap.com)
+ * Copyright 2011-2014 Twitter, Inc.
+ * Licensed under MIT (https://github.com/twbs/bootstrap/blob/master/LICENSE)
+ */
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diff --git a/static/js/jquery-1.11.0.min.js b/static/js/jquery-1.11.0.min.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..73f33fb
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@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
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\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/static/js/prettify.js b/static/js/prettify.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2c46ef2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/js/prettify.js
@@ -0,0 +1,1047 @@
+// Copyright (C) 2006 Google Inc.
+//
+// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
+// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
+// You may obtain a copy of the License at
+//
+// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
+//
+// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
+// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
+// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
+// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
+// limitations under the License.
+
+
+/**
+ * @fileoverview
+ * some functions for browser-side pretty printing of code contained in html.
+ *
+ * <p>
+ * For a fairly comprehensive set of languages see the
+ * <a href="http://google-code-prettify.googlecode.com/svn/trunk/README.html#langs">README</a>
+ * file that came with this source. At a minimum, the lexer should work on a
+ * number of languages including C and friends, Java, Python, Bash, SQL, HTML,
+ * XML, CSS, Javascript, and Makefiles. It works passably on Ruby, PHP and Awk
+ * and a subset of Perl, but, because of commenting conventions, doesn't work on
+ * Smalltalk, Lisp-like, or CAML-like languages without an explicit lang class.
+ * <p>
+ * Usage: <ol>
+ * <li> include this source file in an html page via
+ * {@code <script type="text/javascript" src="/path/to/prettify.js"></script>}
+ * <li> define style rules. See the example page for examples.
+ * <li> mark the {@code <pre>} and {@code <code>} tags in your source with
+ * {@code class=prettyprint.}
+ * You can also use the (html deprecated) {@code <xmp>} tag, but the pretty
+ * printer needs to do more substantial DOM manipulations to support that, so
+ * some css styles may not be preserved.
+ * </ol>
+ * That's it. I wanted to keep the API as simple as possible, so there's no
+ * need to specify which language the code is in, but if you wish, you can add
+ * another class to the {@code <pre>} or {@code <code>} element to specify the
+ * language, as in {@code <pre class="prettyprint lang-java">}. Any class that
+ * starts with "lang-" followed by a file extension, specifies the file type.
+ * See the "lang-*.js" files in this directory for code that implements
+ * per-language file handlers.
+ * <p>
+ * Change log:<br>
+ * cbeust, 2006/08/22
+ * <blockquote>
+ * Java annotations (start with "@") are now captured as literals ("lit")
+ * </blockquote>
+ * @requires console
+ */
+
+// JSLint declarations
+/*global console, document, navigator, setTimeout, window, define */
+
+/** @define {boolean} */
+var IN_GLOBAL_SCOPE = true;
+
+/**
+ * Split {@code prettyPrint} into multiple timeouts so as not to interfere with
+ * UI events.
+ * If set to {@code false}, {@code prettyPrint()} is synchronous.
+ */
+window['PR_SHOULD_USE_CONTINUATION'] = true;
+
+/**
+ * Pretty print a chunk of code.
+ * @param {string} sourceCodeHtml The HTML to pretty print.
+ * @param {string} opt_langExtension The language name to use.
+ * Typically, a filename extension like 'cpp' or 'java'.
+ * @param {number|boolean} opt_numberLines True to number lines,
+ * or the 1-indexed number of the first line in sourceCodeHtml.
+ * @return {string} code as html, but prettier
+ */
+var prettyPrintOne;
+/**
+ * Find all the {@code <pre>} and {@code <code>} tags in the DOM with
+ * {@code class=prettyprint} and prettify them.
+ *
+ * @param {Function} opt_whenDone called when prettifying is done.
+ * @param {HTMLElement|HTMLDocument} opt_root an element or document
+ * containing all the elements to pretty print.
+ * Defaults to {@code document.body}.
+ */
+var prettyPrint;
+
+
+(function () {
+ var win = window;
+ // Keyword lists for various languages.
+ // We use things that coerce to strings to make them compact when minified
+ // and to defeat aggressive optimizers that fold large string constants.
+ var FLOW_CONTROL_KEYWORDS = ["break,continue,do,else,for,if,return,while"];
+ var C_KEYWORDS = [FLOW_CONTROL_KEYWORDS,"auto,case,char,const,default," +
+ "double,enum,extern,float,goto,inline,int,long,register,short,signed," +
+ "sizeof,static,struct,switch,typedef,union,unsigned,void,volatile"];
+ var COMMON_KEYWORDS = [C_KEYWORDS,"catch,class,delete,false,import," +
+ "new,operator,private,protected,public,this,throw,true,try,typeof"];
+ var CPP_KEYWORDS = [COMMON_KEYWORDS,"alignof,align_union,asm,axiom,bool," +
+ "concept,concept_map,const_cast,constexpr,decltype,delegate," +
+ "dynamic_cast,explicit,export,friend,generic,late_check," +
+ "mutable,namespace,nullptr,property,reinterpret_cast,static_assert," +
+ "static_cast,template,typeid,typename,using,virtual,where"];
+ var JAVA_KEYWORDS = [COMMON_KEYWORDS,
+ "abstract,assert,boolean,byte,extends,final,finally,implements,import," +
+ "instanceof,interface,null,native,package,strictfp,super,synchronized," +
+ "throws,transient"];
+ var CSHARP_KEYWORDS = [JAVA_KEYWORDS,
+ "as,base,by,checked,decimal,delegate,descending,dynamic,event," +
+ "fixed,foreach,from,group,implicit,in,internal,into,is,let," +
+ "lock,object,out,override,orderby,params,partial,readonly,ref,sbyte," +
+ "sealed,stackalloc,string,select,uint,ulong,unchecked,unsafe,ushort," +
+ "var,virtual,where"];
+ var COFFEE_KEYWORDS = "all,and,by,catch,class,else,extends,false,finally," +
+ "for,if,in,is,isnt,loop,new,no,not,null,of,off,on,or,return,super,then," +
+ "throw,true,try,unless,until,when,while,yes";
+ var JSCRIPT_KEYWORDS = [COMMON_KEYWORDS,
+ "debugger,eval,export,function,get,null,set,undefined,var,with," +
+ "Infinity,NaN"];
+ var PERL_KEYWORDS = "caller,delete,die,do,dump,elsif,eval,exit,foreach,for," +
+ "goto,if,import,last,local,my,next,no,our,print,package,redo,require," +
+ "sub,undef,unless,until,use,wantarray,while,BEGIN,END";
+ var PYTHON_KEYWORDS = [FLOW_CONTROL_KEYWORDS, "and,as,assert,class,def,del," +
+ "elif,except,exec,finally,from,global,import,in,is,lambda," +
+ "nonlocal,not,or,pass,print,raise,try,with,yield," +
+ "False,True,None"];
+ var RUBY_KEYWORDS = [FLOW_CONTROL_KEYWORDS, "alias,and,begin,case,class," +
+ "def,defined,elsif,end,ensure,false,in,module,next,nil,not,or,redo," +
+ "rescue,retry,self,super,then,true,undef,unless,until,when,yield," +
+ "BEGIN,END"];
+ var RUST_KEYWORDS = [FLOW_CONTROL_KEYWORDS, "as,assert,const,copy,drop," +
+ "enum,extern,fail,false,fn,impl,let,log,loop,match,mod,move,mut,priv," +
+ "pub,pure,ref,self,static,struct,true,trait,type,unsafe,use"];
+ var SH_KEYWORDS = [FLOW_CONTROL_KEYWORDS, "case,done,elif,esac,eval,fi," +
+ "function,in,local,set,then,until"];
+ var ALL_KEYWORDS = [
+ CPP_KEYWORDS, CSHARP_KEYWORDS, JSCRIPT_KEYWORDS, PERL_KEYWORDS,
+ PYTHON_KEYWORDS, RUBY_KEYWORDS, SH_KEYWORDS];
+ var C_TYPES = /^(DIR|FILE|vector|(de|priority_)?queue|list|stack|(const_)?iterator|(multi)?(set|map)|bitset|u?(int|float)\d*)\b/;
+
+ // token style names. correspond to css classes
+ /**
+ * token style for a string literal
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_STRING = 'str';
+ /**
+ * token style for a keyword
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_KEYWORD = 'kwd';
+ /**
+ * token style for a comment
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_COMMENT = 'com';
+ /**
+ * token style for a type
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_TYPE = 'typ';
+ /**
+ * token style for a literal value. e.g. 1, null, true.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_LITERAL = 'lit';
+ /**
+ * token style for a punctuation string.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_PUNCTUATION = 'pun';
+ /**
+ * token style for plain text.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_PLAIN = 'pln';
+
+ /**
+ * token style for an sgml tag.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_TAG = 'tag';
+ /**
+ * token style for a markup declaration such as a DOCTYPE.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_DECLARATION = 'dec';
+ /**
+ * token style for embedded source.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_SOURCE = 'src';
+ /**
+ * token style for an sgml attribute name.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_ATTRIB_NAME = 'atn';
+ /**
+ * token style for an sgml attribute value.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_ATTRIB_VALUE = 'atv';
+
+ /**
+ * A class that indicates a section of markup that is not code, e.g. to allow
+ * embedding of line numbers within code listings.
+ * @const
+ */
+ var PR_NOCODE = 'nocode';
+
+ include("regexpPrecederPatterns.pl");
+
+ include("combinePrefixPatterns.js");
+
+ include("extractSourceSpans.js");
+
+ /**
+ * Apply the given language handler to sourceCode and add the resulting
+ * decorations to out.
+ * @param {number} basePos the index of sourceCode within the chunk of source
+ * whose decorations are already present on out.
+ */
+ function appendDecorations(basePos, sourceCode, langHandler, out) {
+ if (!sourceCode) { return; }
+ var job = {
+ sourceCode: sourceCode,
+ basePos: basePos
+ };
+ langHandler(job);
+ out.push.apply(out, job.decorations);
+ }
+
+ var notWs = /\S/;
+
+ /**
+ * Given an element, if it contains only one child element and any text nodes
+ * it contains contain only space characters, return the sole child element.
+ * Otherwise returns undefined.
+ * <p>
+ * This is meant to return the CODE element in {@code <pre><code ...>} when
+ * there is a single child element that contains all the non-space textual
+ * content, but not to return anything where there are multiple child elements
+ * as in {@code <pre><code>...</code><code>...</code></pre>} or when there
+ * is textual content.
+ */
+ function childContentWrapper(element) {
+ var wrapper = undefined;
+ for (var c = element.firstChild; c; c = c.nextSibling) {
+ var type = c.nodeType;
+ wrapper = (type === 1) // Element Node
+ ? (wrapper ? element : c)
+ : (type === 3) // Text Node
+ ? (notWs.test(c.nodeValue) ? element : wrapper)
+ : wrapper;
+ }
+ return wrapper === element ? undefined : wrapper;
+ }
+
+ /** Given triples of [style, pattern, context] returns a lexing function,
+ * The lexing function interprets the patterns to find token boundaries and
+ * returns a decoration list of the form
+ * [index_0, style_0, index_1, style_1, ..., index_n, style_n]
+ * where index_n is an index into the sourceCode, and style_n is a style
+ * constant like PR_PLAIN. index_n-1 <= index_n, and style_n-1 applies to
+ * all characters in sourceCode[index_n-1:index_n].
+ *
+ * The stylePatterns is a list whose elements have the form
+ * [style : string, pattern : RegExp, DEPRECATED, shortcut : string].
+ *
+ * Style is a style constant like PR_PLAIN, or can be a string of the
+ * form 'lang-FOO', where FOO is a language extension describing the
+ * language of the portion of the token in $1 after pattern executes.
+ * E.g., if style is 'lang-lisp', and group 1 contains the text
+ * '(hello (world))', then that portion of the token will be passed to the
+ * registered lisp handler for formatting.
+ * The text before and after group 1 will be restyled using this decorator
+ * so decorators should take care that this doesn't result in infinite
+ * recursion. For example, the HTML lexer rule for SCRIPT elements looks
+ * something like ['lang-js', /<[s]cript>(.+?)<\/script>/]. This may match
+ * '<script>foo()<\/script>', which would cause the current decorator to
+ * be called with '<script>' which would not match the same rule since
+ * group 1 must not be empty, so it would be instead styled as PR_TAG by
+ * the generic tag rule. The handler registered for the 'js' extension would
+ * then be called with 'foo()', and finally, the current decorator would
+ * be called with '<\/script>' which would not match the original rule and
+ * so the generic tag rule would identify it as a tag.
+ *
+ * Pattern must only match prefixes, and if it matches a prefix, then that
+ * match is considered a token with the same style.
+ *
+ * Context is applied to the last non-whitespace, non-comment token
+ * recognized.
+ *
+ * Shortcut is an optional string of characters, any of which, if the first
+ * character, gurantee that this pattern and only this pattern matches.
+ *
+ * @param {Array} shortcutStylePatterns patterns that always start with
+ * a known character. Must have a shortcut string.
+ * @param {Array} fallthroughStylePatterns patterns that will be tried in
+ * order if the shortcut ones fail. May have shortcuts.
+ *
+ * @return {function (Object)} a
+ * function that takes source code and returns a list of decorations.
+ */
+ function createSimpleLexer(shortcutStylePatterns, fallthroughStylePatterns) {
+ var shortcuts = {};
+ var tokenizer;
+ (function () {
+ var allPatterns = shortcutStylePatterns.concat(fallthroughStylePatterns);
+ var allRegexs = [];
+ var regexKeys = {};
+ for (var i = 0, n = allPatterns.length; i < n; ++i) {
+ var patternParts = allPatterns[i];
+ var shortcutChars = patternParts[3];
+ if (shortcutChars) {
+ for (var c = shortcutChars.length; --c >= 0;) {
+ shortcuts[shortcutChars.charAt(c)] = patternParts;
+ }
+ }
+ var regex = patternParts[1];
+ var k = '' + regex;
+ if (!regexKeys.hasOwnProperty(k)) {
+ allRegexs.push(regex);
+ regexKeys[k] = null;
+ }
+ }
+ allRegexs.push(/[\0-\uffff]/);
+ tokenizer = combinePrefixPatterns(allRegexs);
+ })();
+
+ var nPatterns = fallthroughStylePatterns.length;
+
+ /**
+ * Lexes job.sourceCode and produces an output array job.decorations of
+ * style classes preceded by the position at which they start in
+ * job.sourceCode in order.
+ *
+ * @param {Object} job an object like <pre>{
+ * sourceCode: {string} sourceText plain text,
+ * basePos: {int} position of job.sourceCode in the larger chunk of
+ * sourceCode.
+ * }</pre>
+ */
+ var decorate = function (job) {
+ var sourceCode = job.sourceCode, basePos = job.basePos;
+ /** Even entries are positions in source in ascending order. Odd enties
+ * are style markers (e.g., PR_COMMENT) that run from that position until
+ * the end.
+ * @type {Array.<number|string>}
+ */
+ var decorations = [basePos, PR_PLAIN];
+ var pos = 0; // index into sourceCode
+ var tokens = sourceCode.match(tokenizer) || [];
+ var styleCache = {};
+
+ for (var ti = 0, nTokens = tokens.length; ti < nTokens; ++ti) {
+ var token = tokens[ti];
+ var style = styleCache[token];
+ var match = void 0;
+
+ var isEmbedded;
+ if (typeof style === 'string') {
+ isEmbedded = false;
+ } else {
+ var patternParts = shortcuts[token.charAt(0)];
+ if (patternParts) {
+ match = token.match(patternParts[1]);
+ style = patternParts[0];
+ } else {
+ for (var i = 0; i < nPatterns; ++i) {
+ patternParts = fallthroughStylePatterns[i];
+ match = token.match(patternParts[1]);
+ if (match) {
+ style = patternParts[0];
+ break;
+ }
+ }
+
+ if (!match) { // make sure that we make progress
+ style = PR_PLAIN;
+ }
+ }
+
+ isEmbedded = style.length >= 5 && 'lang-' === style.substring(0, 5);
+ if (isEmbedded && !(match && typeof match[1] === 'string')) {
+ isEmbedded = false;
+ style = PR_SOURCE;
+ }
+
+ if (!isEmbedded) { styleCache[token] = style; }
+ }
+
+ var tokenStart = pos;
+ pos += token.length;
+
+ if (!isEmbedded) {
+ decorations.push(basePos + tokenStart, style);
+ } else { // Treat group 1 as an embedded block of source code.
+ var embeddedSource = match[1];
+ var embeddedSourceStart = token.indexOf(embeddedSource);
+ var embeddedSourceEnd = embeddedSourceStart + embeddedSource.length;
+ if (match[2]) {
+ // If embeddedSource can be blank, then it would match at the
+ // beginning which would cause us to infinitely recurse on the
+ // entire token, so we catch the right context in match[2].
+ embeddedSourceEnd = token.length - match[2].length;
+ embeddedSourceStart = embeddedSourceEnd - embeddedSource.length;
+ }
+ var lang = style.substring(5);
+ // Decorate the left of the embedded source
+ appendDecorations(
+ basePos + tokenStart,
+ token.substring(0, embeddedSourceStart),
+ decorate, decorations);
+ // Decorate the embedded source
+ appendDecorations(
+ basePos + tokenStart + embeddedSourceStart,
+ embeddedSource,
+ langHandlerForExtension(lang, embeddedSource),
+ decorations);
+ // Decorate the right of the embedded section
+ appendDecorations(
+ basePos + tokenStart + embeddedSourceEnd,
+ token.substring(embeddedSourceEnd),
+ decorate, decorations);
+ }
+ }
+ job.decorations = decorations;
+ };
+ return decorate;
+ }
+
+ /** returns a function that produces a list of decorations from source text.
+ *
+ * This code treats ", ', and ` as string delimiters, and \ as a string
+ * escape. It does not recognize perl's qq() style strings.
+ * It has no special handling for double delimiter escapes as in basic, or
+ * the tripled delimiters used in python, but should work on those regardless
+ * although in those cases a single string literal may be broken up into
+ * multiple adjacent string literals.
+ *
+ * It recognizes C, C++, and shell style comments.
+ *
+ * @param {Object} options a set of optional parameters.
+ * @return {function (Object)} a function that examines the source code
+ * in the input job and builds the decoration list.
+ */
+ function sourceDecorator(options) {
+ var shortcutStylePatterns = [], fallthroughStylePatterns = [];
+ if (options['tripleQuotedStrings']) {
+ // '''multi-line-string''', 'single-line-string', and double-quoted
+ shortcutStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_STRING, /^(?:\'\'\'(?:[^\'\\]|\\[\s\S]|\'{1,2}(?=[^\']))*(?:\'\'\'|$)|\"\"\"(?:[^\"\\]|\\[\s\S]|\"{1,2}(?=[^\"]))*(?:\"\"\"|$)|\'(?:[^\\\']|\\[\s\S])*(?:\'|$)|\"(?:[^\\\"]|\\[\s\S])*(?:\"|$))/,
+ null, '\'"']);
+ } else if (options['multiLineStrings']) {
+ // 'multi-line-string', "multi-line-string"
+ shortcutStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_STRING, /^(?:\'(?:[^\\\']|\\[\s\S])*(?:\'|$)|\"(?:[^\\\"]|\\[\s\S])*(?:\"|$)|\`(?:[^\\\`]|\\[\s\S])*(?:\`|$))/,
+ null, '\'"`']);
+ } else {
+ // 'single-line-string', "single-line-string"
+ shortcutStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_STRING,
+ /^(?:\'(?:[^\\\'\r\n]|\\.)*(?:\'|$)|\"(?:[^\\\"\r\n]|\\.)*(?:\"|$))/,
+ null, '"\'']);
+ }
+ if (options['verbatimStrings']) {
+ // verbatim-string-literal production from the C# grammar. See issue 93.
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_STRING, /^@\"(?:[^\"]|\"\")*(?:\"|$)/, null]);
+ }
+ var hc = options['hashComments'];
+ if (hc) {
+ if (options['cStyleComments']) {
+ if (hc > 1) { // multiline hash comments
+ shortcutStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_COMMENT, /^#(?:##(?:[^#]|#(?!##))*(?:###|$)|.*)/, null, '#']);
+ } else {
+ // Stop C preprocessor declarations at an unclosed open comment
+ shortcutStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_COMMENT, /^#(?:(?:define|e(?:l|nd)if|else|error|ifn?def|include|line|pragma|undef|warning)\b|[^\r\n]*)/,
+ null, '#']);
+ }
+ // #include <stdio.h>
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_STRING,
+ /^<(?:(?:(?:\.\.\/)*|\/?)(?:[\w-]+(?:\/[\w-]+)+)?[\w-]+\.h(?:h|pp|\+\+)?|[a-z]\w*)>/,
+ null]);
+ } else {
+ shortcutStylePatterns.push([PR_COMMENT, /^#[^\r\n]*/, null, '#']);
+ }
+ }
+ if (options['cStyleComments']) {
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push([PR_COMMENT, /^\/\/[^\r\n]*/, null]);
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_COMMENT, /^\/\*[\s\S]*?(?:\*\/|$)/, null]);
+ }
+ var regexLiterals = options['regexLiterals'];
+ if (regexLiterals) {
+ /**
+ * @const
+ */
+ var regexExcls = regexLiterals > 1
+ ? '' // Multiline regex literals
+ : '\n\r';
+ /**
+ * @const
+ */
+ var regexAny = regexExcls ? '.' : '[\\S\\s]';
+ /**
+ * @const
+ */
+ var REGEX_LITERAL = (
+ // A regular expression literal starts with a slash that is
+ // not followed by * or / so that it is not confused with
+ // comments.
+ '/(?=[^/*' + regexExcls + '])'
+ // and then contains any number of raw characters,
+ + '(?:[^/\\x5B\\x5C' + regexExcls + ']'
+ // escape sequences (\x5C),
+ + '|\\x5C' + regexAny
+ // or non-nesting character sets (\x5B\x5D);
+ + '|\\x5B(?:[^\\x5C\\x5D' + regexExcls + ']'
+ + '|\\x5C' + regexAny + ')*(?:\\x5D|$))+'
+ // finally closed by a /.
+ + '/');
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push(
+ ['lang-regex',
+ RegExp('^' + REGEXP_PRECEDER_PATTERN + '(' + REGEX_LITERAL + ')')
+ ]);
+ }
+
+ var types = options['types'];
+ if (types) {
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push([PR_TYPE, types]);
+ }
+
+ var keywords = ("" + options['keywords']).replace(/^ | $/g, '');
+ if (keywords.length) {
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push(
+ [PR_KEYWORD,
+ new RegExp('^(?:' + keywords.replace(/[\s,]+/g, '|') + ')\\b'),
+ null]);
+ }
+
+ shortcutStylePatterns.push([PR_PLAIN, /^\s+/, null, ' \r\n\t\xA0']);
+
+ var punctuation =
+ // The Bash man page says
+
+ // A word is a sequence of characters considered as a single
+ // unit by GRUB. Words are separated by metacharacters,
+ // which are the following plus space, tab, and newline: { }
+ // | & $ ; < >
+ // ...
+
+ // A word beginning with # causes that word and all remaining
+ // characters on that line to be ignored.
+
+ // which means that only a '#' after /(?:^|[{}|&$;<>\s])/ starts a
+ // comment but empirically
+ // $ echo {#}
+ // {#}
+ // $ echo \$#
+ // $#
+ // $ echo }#
+ // }#
+
+ // so /(?:^|[|&;<>\s])/ is more appropriate.
+
+ // http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-2.95.3/cpp_1.html#SEC3
+ // suggests that this definition is compatible with a
+ // default mode that tries to use a single token definition
+ // to recognize both bash/python style comments and C
+ // preprocessor directives.
+
+ // This definition of punctuation does not include # in the list of
+ // follow-on exclusions, so # will not be broken before if preceeded
+ // by a punctuation character. We could try to exclude # after
+ // [|&;<>] but that doesn't seem to cause many major problems.
+ // If that does turn out to be a problem, we should change the below
+ // when hc is truthy to include # in the run of punctuation characters
+ // only when not followint [|&;<>].
+ '^.[^\\s\\w.$@\'"`/\\\\]*';
+ if (options['regexLiterals']) {
+ punctuation += '(?!\s*\/)';
+ }
+
+ fallthroughStylePatterns.push(
+ // TODO(mikesamuel): recognize non-latin letters and numerals in idents
+ [PR_LITERAL, /^@[a-z_$][a-z_$@0-9]*/i, null],
+ [PR_TYPE, /^(?:[@_]?[A-Z]+[a-z][A-Za-z_$@0-9]*|\w+_t\b)/, null],
+ [PR_PLAIN, /^[a-z_$][a-z_$@0-9]*/i, null],
+ [PR_LITERAL,
+ new RegExp(
+ '^(?:'
+ // A hex number
+ + '0x[a-f0-9]+'
+ // or an octal or decimal number,
+ + '|(?:\\d(?:_\\d+)*\\d*(?:\\.\\d*)?|\\.\\d\\+)'
+ // possibly in scientific notation
+ + '(?:e[+\\-]?\\d+)?'
+ + ')'
+ // with an optional modifier like UL for unsigned long
+ + '[a-z]*', 'i'),
+ null, '0123456789'],
+ // Don't treat escaped quotes in bash as starting strings.
+ // See issue 144.
+ [PR_PLAIN, /^\\[\s\S]?/, null],
+ [PR_PUNCTUATION, new RegExp(punctuation), null]);
+
+ return createSimpleLexer(shortcutStylePatterns, fallthroughStylePatterns);
+ }
+
+ var decorateSource = sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': ALL_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': true,
+ 'cStyleComments': true,
+ 'multiLineStrings': true,
+ 'regexLiterals': true
+ });
+
+ include("numberLines.js");
+
+ include("recombineTagsAndDecorations.js");
+
+ /** Maps language-specific file extensions to handlers. */
+ var langHandlerRegistry = {};
+ /** Register a language handler for the given file extensions.
+ * @param {function (Object)} handler a function from source code to a list
+ * of decorations. Takes a single argument job which describes the
+ * state of the computation. The single parameter has the form
+ * {@code {
+ * sourceCode: {string} as plain text.
+ * decorations: {Array.<number|string>} an array of style classes
+ * preceded by the position at which they start in
+ * job.sourceCode in order.
+ * The language handler should assigned this field.
+ * basePos: {int} the position of source in the larger source chunk.
+ * All positions in the output decorations array are relative
+ * to the larger source chunk.
+ * } }
+ * @param {Array.<string>} fileExtensions
+ */
+ function registerLangHandler(handler, fileExtensions) {
+ for (var i = fileExtensions.length; --i >= 0;) {
+ var ext = fileExtensions[i];
+ if (!langHandlerRegistry.hasOwnProperty(ext)) {
+ langHandlerRegistry[ext] = handler;
+ } else if (win['console']) {
+ console['warn']('cannot override language handler %s', ext);
+ }
+ }
+ }
+ function langHandlerForExtension(extension, source) {
+ if (!(extension && langHandlerRegistry.hasOwnProperty(extension))) {
+ // Treat it as markup if the first non whitespace character is a < and
+ // the last non-whitespace character is a >.
+ extension = /^\s*</.test(source)
+ ? 'default-markup'
+ : 'default-code';
+ }
+ return langHandlerRegistry[extension];
+ }
+ registerLangHandler(decorateSource, ['default-code']);
+ registerLangHandler(
+ createSimpleLexer(
+ [],
+ [
+ [PR_PLAIN, /^[^<?]+/],
+ [PR_DECLARATION, /^<!\w[^>]*(?:>|$)/],
+ [PR_COMMENT, /^<\!--[\s\S]*?(?:-\->|$)/],
+ // Unescaped content in an unknown language
+ ['lang-', /^<\?([\s\S]+?)(?:\?>|$)/],
+ ['lang-', /^<%([\s\S]+?)(?:%>|$)/],
+ [PR_PUNCTUATION, /^(?:<[%?]|[%?]>)/],
+ ['lang-', /^<xmp\b[^>]*>([\s\S]+?)<\/xmp\b[^>]*>/i],
+ // Unescaped content in javascript. (Or possibly vbscript).
+ ['lang-js', /^<script\b[^>]*>([\s\S]*?)(<\/script\b[^>]*>)/i],
+ // Contains unescaped stylesheet content
+ ['lang-css', /^<style\b[^>]*>([\s\S]*?)(<\/style\b[^>]*>)/i],
+ ['lang-in.tag', /^(<\/?[a-z][^<>]*>)/i]
+ ]),
+ ['default-markup', 'htm', 'html', 'mxml', 'xhtml', 'xml', 'xsl']);
+ registerLangHandler(
+ createSimpleLexer(
+ [
+ [PR_PLAIN, /^[\s]+/, null, ' \t\r\n'],
+ [PR_ATTRIB_VALUE, /^(?:\"[^\"]*\"?|\'[^\']*\'?)/, null, '\"\'']
+ ],
+ [
+ [PR_TAG, /^^<\/?[a-z](?:[\w.:-]*\w)?|\/?>$/i],
+ [PR_ATTRIB_NAME, /^(?!style[\s=]|on)[a-z](?:[\w:-]*\w)?/i],
+ ['lang-uq.val', /^=\s*([^>\'\"\s]*(?:[^>\'\"\s\/]|\/(?=\s)))/],
+ [PR_PUNCTUATION, /^[=<>\/]+/],
+ ['lang-js', /^on\w+\s*=\s*\"([^\"]+)\"/i],
+ ['lang-js', /^on\w+\s*=\s*\'([^\']+)\'/i],
+ ['lang-js', /^on\w+\s*=\s*([^\"\'>\s]+)/i],
+ ['lang-css', /^style\s*=\s*\"([^\"]+)\"/i],
+ ['lang-css', /^style\s*=\s*\'([^\']+)\'/i],
+ ['lang-css', /^style\s*=\s*([^\"\'>\s]+)/i]
+ ]),
+ ['in.tag']);
+ registerLangHandler(
+ createSimpleLexer([], [[PR_ATTRIB_VALUE, /^[\s\S]+/]]), ['uq.val']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': CPP_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': true,
+ 'cStyleComments': true,
+ 'types': C_TYPES
+ }), ['c', 'cc', 'cpp', 'cxx', 'cyc', 'm']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': 'null,true,false'
+ }), ['json']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': CSHARP_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': true,
+ 'cStyleComments': true,
+ 'verbatimStrings': true,
+ 'types': C_TYPES
+ }), ['cs']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': JAVA_KEYWORDS,
+ 'cStyleComments': true
+ }), ['java']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': SH_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': true,
+ 'multiLineStrings': true
+ }), ['bash', 'bsh', 'csh', 'sh']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': PYTHON_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': true,
+ 'multiLineStrings': true,
+ 'tripleQuotedStrings': true
+ }), ['cv', 'py', 'python']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': PERL_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': true,
+ 'multiLineStrings': true,
+ 'regexLiterals': 2 // multiline regex literals
+ }), ['perl', 'pl', 'pm']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': RUBY_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': true,
+ 'multiLineStrings': true,
+ 'regexLiterals': true
+ }), ['rb', 'ruby']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': JSCRIPT_KEYWORDS,
+ 'cStyleComments': true,
+ 'regexLiterals': true
+ }), ['javascript', 'js']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': COFFEE_KEYWORDS,
+ 'hashComments': 3, // ### style block comments
+ 'cStyleComments': true,
+ 'multilineStrings': true,
+ 'tripleQuotedStrings': true,
+ 'regexLiterals': true
+ }), ['coffee']);
+ registerLangHandler(sourceDecorator({
+ 'keywords': RUST_KEYWORDS,
+ 'cStyleComments': true,
+ 'multilineStrings': true
+ }), ['rc', 'rs', 'rust']);
+ registerLangHandler(
+ createSimpleLexer([], [[PR_STRING, /^[\s\S]+/]]), ['regex']);
+
+ function applyDecorator(job) {
+ var opt_langExtension = job.langExtension;
+
+ try {
+ // Extract tags, and convert the source code to plain text.
+ var sourceAndSpans = extractSourceSpans(job.sourceNode, job.pre);
+ /** Plain text. @type {string} */
+ var source = sourceAndSpans.sourceCode;
+ job.sourceCode = source;
+ job.spans = sourceAndSpans.spans;
+ job.basePos = 0;
+
+ // Apply the appropriate language handler
+ langHandlerForExtension(opt_langExtension, source)(job);
+
+ // Integrate the decorations and tags back into the source code,
+ // modifying the sourceNode in place.
+ recombineTagsAndDecorations(job);
+ } catch (e) {
+ if (win['console']) {
+ console['log'](e && e['stack'] || e);
+ }
+ }
+ }
+
+ /**
+ * Pretty print a chunk of code.
+ * @param sourceCodeHtml {string} The HTML to pretty print.
+ * @param opt_langExtension {string} The language name to use.
+ * Typically, a filename extension like 'cpp' or 'java'.
+ * @param opt_numberLines {number|boolean} True to number lines,
+ * or the 1-indexed number of the first line in sourceCodeHtml.
+ */
+ function $prettyPrintOne(sourceCodeHtml, opt_langExtension, opt_numberLines) {
+ var container = document.createElement('div');
+ // This could cause images to load and onload listeners to fire.
+ // E.g. <img onerror="alert(1337)" src="nosuchimage.png">.
+ // We assume that the inner HTML is from a trusted source.
+ // The pre-tag is required for IE8 which strips newlines from innerHTML
+ // when it is injected into a <pre> tag.
+ // http://stackoverflow.com/questions/451486/pre-tag-loses-line-breaks-when-setting-innerhtml-in-ie
+ // http://stackoverflow.com/questions/195363/inserting-a-newline-into-a-pre-tag-ie-javascript
+ container.innerHTML = '<pre>' + sourceCodeHtml + '</pre>';
+ container = container.firstChild;
+ if (opt_numberLines) {
+ numberLines(container, opt_numberLines, true);
+ }
+
+ var job = {
+ langExtension: opt_langExtension,
+ numberLines: opt_numberLines,
+ sourceNode: container,
+ pre: 1
+ };
+ applyDecorator(job);
+ return container.innerHTML;
+ }
+
+ /**
+ * Find all the {@code <pre>} and {@code <code>} tags in the DOM with
+ * {@code class=prettyprint} and prettify them.
+ *
+ * @param {Function} opt_whenDone called when prettifying is done.
+ * @param {HTMLElement|HTMLDocument} opt_root an element or document
+ * containing all the elements to pretty print.
+ * Defaults to {@code document.body}.
+ */
+ function $prettyPrint(opt_whenDone, opt_root) {
+ var root = opt_root || document.body;
+ var doc = root.ownerDocument || document;
+ function byTagName(tn) { return root.getElementsByTagName(tn); }
+ // fetch a list of nodes to rewrite
+ var codeSegments = [byTagName('pre'), byTagName('code'), byTagName('xmp')];
+ var elements = [];
+ for (var i = 0; i < codeSegments.length; ++i) {
+ for (var j = 0, n = codeSegments[i].length; j < n; ++j) {
+ elements.push(codeSegments[i][j]);
+ }
+ }
+ codeSegments = null;
+
+ var clock = Date;
+ if (!clock['now']) {
+ clock = { 'now': function () { return +(new Date); } };
+ }
+
+ // The loop is broken into a series of continuations to make sure that we
+ // don't make the browser unresponsive when rewriting a large page.
+ var k = 0;
+ var prettyPrintingJob;
+
+ var langExtensionRe = /\blang(?:uage)?-([\w.]+)(?!\S)/;
+ var prettyPrintRe = /\bprettyprint\b/;
+ var prettyPrintedRe = /\bprettyprinted\b/;
+ var preformattedTagNameRe = /pre|xmp/i;
+ var codeRe = /^code$/i;
+ var preCodeXmpRe = /^(?:pre|code|xmp)$/i;
+ var EMPTY = {};
+
+ function doWork() {
+ var endTime = (win['PR_SHOULD_USE_CONTINUATION'] ?
+ clock['now']() + 250 /* ms */ :
+ Infinity);
+ for (; k < elements.length && clock['now']() < endTime; k++) {
+ var cs = elements[k];
+
+ // Look for a preceding comment like
+ // <?prettify lang="..." linenums="..."?>
+ var attrs = EMPTY;
+ {
+ for (var preceder = cs; (preceder = preceder.previousSibling);) {
+ var nt = preceder.nodeType;
+ // <?foo?> is parsed by HTML 5 to a comment node (8)
+ // like <!--?foo?-->, but in XML is a processing instruction
+ var value = (nt === 7 || nt === 8) && preceder.nodeValue;
+ if (value
+ ? !/^\??prettify\b/.test(value)
+ : (nt !== 3 || /\S/.test(preceder.nodeValue))) {
+ // Skip over white-space text nodes but not others.
+ break;
+ }
+ if (value) {
+ attrs = {};
+ value.replace(
+ /\b(\w+)=([\w:.%+-]+)/g,
+ function (_, name, value) { attrs[name] = value; });
+ break;
+ }
+ }
+ }
+
+ var className = cs.className;
+ if ((attrs !== EMPTY || prettyPrintRe.test(className))
+ // Don't redo this if we've already done it.
+ // This allows recalling pretty print to just prettyprint elements
+ // that have been added to the page since last call.
+ && !prettyPrintedRe.test(className)) {
+
+ // make sure this is not nested in an already prettified element
+ var nested = false;
+ for (var p = cs.parentNode; p; p = p.parentNode) {
+ var tn = p.tagName;
+ if (preCodeXmpRe.test(tn)
+ && p.className && prettyPrintRe.test(p.className)) {
+ nested = true;
+ break;
+ }
+ }
+ if (!nested) {
+ // Mark done. If we fail to prettyprint for whatever reason,
+ // we shouldn't try again.
+ cs.className += ' prettyprinted';
+
+ // If the classes includes a language extensions, use it.
+ // Language extensions can be specified like
+ // <pre class="prettyprint lang-cpp">
+ // the language extension "cpp" is used to find a language handler
+ // as passed to PR.registerLangHandler.
+ // HTML5 recommends that a language be specified using "language-"
+ // as the prefix instead. Google Code Prettify supports both.
+ // http://dev.w3.org/html5/spec-author-view/the-code-element.html
+ var langExtension = attrs['lang'];
+ if (!langExtension) {
+ langExtension = className.match(langExtensionRe);
+ // Support <pre class="prettyprint"><code class="language-c">
+ var wrapper;
+ if (!langExtension && (wrapper = childContentWrapper(cs))
+ && codeRe.test(wrapper.tagName)) {
+ langExtension = wrapper.className.match(langExtensionRe);
+ }
+
+ if (langExtension) { langExtension = langExtension[1]; }
+ }
+
+ var preformatted;
+ if (preformattedTagNameRe.test(cs.tagName)) {
+ preformatted = 1;
+ } else {
+ var currentStyle = cs['currentStyle'];
+ var defaultView = doc.defaultView;
+ var whitespace = (
+ currentStyle
+ ? currentStyle['whiteSpace']
+ : (defaultView
+ && defaultView.getComputedStyle)
+ ? defaultView.getComputedStyle(cs, null)
+ .getPropertyValue('white-space')
+ : 0);
+ preformatted = whitespace
+ && 'pre' === whitespace.substring(0, 3);
+ }
+
+ // Look for a class like linenums or linenums:<n> where <n> is the
+ // 1-indexed number of the first line.
+ var lineNums = attrs['linenums'];
+ if (!(lineNums = lineNums === 'true' || +lineNums)) {
+ lineNums = className.match(/\blinenums\b(?::(\d+))?/);
+ lineNums =
+ lineNums
+ ? lineNums[1] && lineNums[1].length
+ ? +lineNums[1] : true
+ : false;
+ }
+ if (lineNums) { numberLines(cs, lineNums, preformatted); }
+
+ // do the pretty printing
+ prettyPrintingJob = {
+ langExtension: langExtension,
+ sourceNode: cs,
+ numberLines: lineNums,
+ pre: preformatted
+ };
+ applyDecorator(prettyPrintingJob);
+ }
+ }
+ }
+ if (k < elements.length) {
+ // finish up in a continuation
+ setTimeout(doWork, 250);
+ } else if ('function' === typeof opt_whenDone) {
+ opt_whenDone();
+ }
+ }
+
+ doWork();
+ }
+
+ /**
+ * Contains functions for creating and registering new language handlers.
+ * @type {Object}
+ */
+ var PR = win['PR'] = {
+ 'createSimpleLexer': createSimpleLexer,
+ 'registerLangHandler': registerLangHandler,
+ 'sourceDecorator': sourceDecorator,
+ 'PR_ATTRIB_NAME': PR_ATTRIB_NAME,
+ 'PR_ATTRIB_VALUE': PR_ATTRIB_VALUE,
+ 'PR_COMMENT': PR_COMMENT,
+ 'PR_DECLARATION': PR_DECLARATION,
+ 'PR_KEYWORD': PR_KEYWORD,
+ 'PR_LITERAL': PR_LITERAL,
+ 'PR_NOCODE': PR_NOCODE,
+ 'PR_PLAIN': PR_PLAIN,
+ 'PR_PUNCTUATION': PR_PUNCTUATION,
+ 'PR_SOURCE': PR_SOURCE,
+ 'PR_STRING': PR_STRING,
+ 'PR_TAG': PR_TAG,
+ 'PR_TYPE': PR_TYPE,
+ 'prettyPrintOne':
+ IN_GLOBAL_SCOPE
+ ? (win['prettyPrintOne'] = $prettyPrintOne)
+ : (prettyPrintOne = $prettyPrintOne),
+ 'prettyPrint': prettyPrint =
+ IN_GLOBAL_SCOPE
+ ? (win['prettyPrint'] = $prettyPrint)
+ : (prettyPrint = $prettyPrint)
+ };
+
+ // Make PR available via the Asynchronous Module Definition (AMD) API.
+ // Per https://github.com/amdjs/amdjs-api/wiki/AMD:
+ // The Asynchronous Module Definition (AMD) API specifies a
+ // mechanism for defining modules such that the module and its
+ // dependencies can be asynchronously loaded.
+ // ...
+ // To allow a clear indicator that a global define function (as
+ // needed for script src browser loading) conforms to the AMD API,
+ // any global define function SHOULD have a property called "amd"
+ // whose value is an object. This helps avoid conflict with any
+ // other existing JavaScript code that could have defined a define()
+ // function that does not conform to the AMD API.
+ if (typeof define === "function" && define['amd']) {
+ define("google-code-prettify", [], function () {
+ return PR;
+ });
+ }
+})();
diff --git a/static/js/scripts.js b/static/js/scripts.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ebfc15
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/js/scripts.js
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+//<![CDATA[
+ $(window).load(function() { // makes sure the whole site is loaded
+// $('#status').fadeOut(); // will first fade out the loading animation
+// $('#preloader').delay(150).fadeOut('fast'); // will fade out the white DIV that covers the website.
+ $('body').delay(100).css({'overflow':'visible'});
+ })
+//]]]]><![CDATA[>
+
+ !function ($) {
+ $(function(){
+ window.prettyPrint && prettyPrint()
+ })
+ }(window.jQuery)
+
+ (function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i['GoogleAnalyticsObject']=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){
+ (i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o),
+ m=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m)
+ })(window,document,'script','//www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js','ga');
+
+ ga('create', 'UA-XXXXXXXX-X', 'auto');
+ ga('send', 'pageview');
+
diff --git a/static/js/spaceg.stylesheets.min.js b/static/js/spaceg.stylesheets.min.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f644731
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/js/spaceg.stylesheets.min.js
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+/*!
+ Top spaceg.stylesheets.min.js js for my Blog!
+ spaceg.github.io by Lucas Gatsas.
+ */
+ /* New Update Mo. 2 Feb. 2015 -02:33:45*/
+/* New Update Fr. 6 Feb. 2015 -01:57:13 */
+/* New Update Sa. 21. February. 2015 -02:58:16*/
+/* New Update Fr. 27. February. 2015 -21:53:19*/
+
+
+/* New Update Mo. 09. April. 2015 -15:39:28*/
+
+
+
+
+$(function(){$("[data-toggle='tooltip']").tooltip()}),$(function(){$("input,textarea").jqBootstrapValidation({preventSubmit:!0,submitError:function(){},submitSuccess:function(a,b){b.preventDefault();var c=$("input#name").val(),d=$("input#email").val(),e=$("input#phone").val(),f=$("textarea#message").val(),g=c;g.indexOf(" ")>=0&&(g=c.split(" ").slice(0,-1).join(" ")),$.ajax({url:"././mail/contact_me.php",type:"POST",data:{name:c,phone:e,email:d,message:f},cache:!1,success:function(){$("#success").html("<div class='alert alert-success'>"),$("#success > .alert-success").html("<button type='button' class='close' data-dismiss='alert' aria-hidden='true'>×").append("</button>"),$("#success > .alert-success").append("<strong>Your message has been sent. </strong>"),$("#success > .alert-success").append("</div>"),$("#contactForm").trigger("reset")},error:function(){$("#success").html("<div class='alert alert-danger'>"),$("#success > .alert-danger").html("<button type='button' class='close' data-dismiss='alert' aria-hidden='true'>×").append("</button>"),$("#success > .alert-danger").append("<strong>Sorry "+g+", it seems that my mail server is not responding. Please try again later!"),$("#success > .alert-danger").append("</div>"),$("#contactForm").trigger("reset")}})},filter:function(){return $(this).is(":visible")}}),$('a[data-toggle="tab"]').click(function(a){a.preventDefault(),$(this).tab("show")})}),$("#name").focus(function(){$("#success").html("")}),function(a){function b(a){return new RegExp("^"+a+"$")}function c(a,b){for(var c=Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments).splice(2),d=a.split("."),e=d.pop(),f=0;f<d.length;f++)b=b[d[f]];return b[e].apply(this,c)}var d=[],e={options:{prependExistingHelpBlock:!1,sniffHtml:!0,preventSubmit:!0,submitError:!1,submitSuccess:!1,semanticallyStrict:!1,autoAdd:{helpBlocks:!0},filter:function(){return!0}},methods:{init:function(b){var c=a.extend(!0,{},e);c.options=a.extend(!0,c.options,b);var h=this,i=a.unique(h.map(function(){return a(this).parents("form")[0]}).toArray());return a(i).bind("submit",function(b){var d=a(this),e=0,f=d.find("input,textarea,select").not("[type=submit],[type=image]").filter(c.options.filter);f.trigger("submit.validation").trigger("validationLostFocus.validation"),f.each(function(b,c){var d=a(c),f=d.parents(".form-group").first();f.hasClass("warning")&&(f.removeClass("warning").addClass("error"),e++)}),f.trigger("validationLostFocus.validation"),e?(c.options.preventSubmit&&b.preventDefault(),d.addClass("error"),a.isFunction(c.options.submitError)&&c.options.submitError(d,b,f.jqBootstrapValidation("collectErrors",!0))):(d.removeClass("error"),a.isFunction(c.options.submitSuccess)&&c.options.submitSuccess(d,b))}),this.each(function(){var b=a(this),e=b.parents(".form-group").first(),h=e.find(".help-block").first(),i=b.parents("form").first(),j=[];if(!h.length&&c.options.autoAdd&&c.options.autoAdd.helpBlocks&&(h=a('<div class="help-block" />'),e.find(".controls").append(h),d.push(h[0])),c.options.sniffHtml){var k="";if(void 0!==b.attr("pattern")&&(k="Not in the expected 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data-validation-maxlength-message to override -->",b.data("validationMaxlengthMessage")&&(k=b.data("validationMaxlengthMessage")),b.data("validationMaxlengthMessage",k),b.data("validationMaxlengthMaxlength",b.attr("maxlength"))),void 0!==b.attr("minlength")&&(k="Too short: Minimum of '"+b.attr("minlength")+"' characters<!-- data-validation-minlength-message to override -->",b.data("validationMinlengthMessage")&&(k=b.data("validationMinlengthMessage")),b.data("validationMinlengthMessage",k),b.data("validationMinlengthMinlength",b.attr("minlength"))),(void 0!==b.attr("required")||void 0!==b.attr("aria-required"))&&(k=c.builtInValidators.required.message,b.data("validationRequiredMessage")&&(k=b.data("validationRequiredMessage")),b.data("validationRequiredMessage",k)),void 0!==b.attr("type")&&"number"===b.attr("type").toLowerCase()&&(k=c.builtInValidators.number.message,b.data("validationNumberMessage")&&(k=b.data("validationNumberMessage")),b.data("validationNumberMessage",k)),void 0!==b.attr("type")&&"email"===b.attr("type").toLowerCase()&&(k="Not a valid email address<!-- data-validator-validemail-message to override -->",b.data("validationValidemailMessage")?k=b.data("validationValidemailMessage"):b.data("validationEmailMessage")&&(k=b.data("validationEmailMessage")),b.data("validationValidemailMessage",k)),void 0!==b.attr("minchecked")&&(k="Not enough options checked; Minimum of '"+b.attr("minchecked")+"' required<!-- data-validation-minchecked-message to override -->",b.data("validationMincheckedMessage")&&(k=b.data("validationMincheckedMessage")),b.data("validationMincheckedMessage",k),b.data("validationMincheckedMinchecked",b.attr("minchecked"))),void 0!==b.attr("maxchecked")&&(k="Too many options checked; Maximum of '"+b.attr("maxchecked")+"' required<!-- data-validation-maxchecked-message to override 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'"+e+"'")}),h.data("original-contents",h.data("original-contents")?h.data("original-contents"):h.html()),h.data("original-role",h.data("original-role")?h.data("original-role"):h.attr("role")),e.data("original-classes",e.data("original-clases")?e.data("original-classes"):e.attr("class")),b.data("original-aria-invalid",b.data("original-aria-invalid")?b.data("original-aria-invalid"):b.attr("aria-invalid")),b.bind("validation.validation",function(d,e){var f=g(b),h=[];return a.each(p,function(d,g){(f||f.length||e&&e.includeEmpty||c.validatorTypes[d].blockSubmit&&e&&e.submitting)&&a.each(g,function(a,e){c.validatorTypes[d].validate(b,f,e)&&h.push(e.message)})}),h}),b.bind("getValidators.validation",function(){return p}),b.bind("submit.validation",function(){return b.triggerHandler("change.validation",{submitting:!0})}),b.bind(["keyup","focus","blur","click","keydown","keypress","change"].join(".validation ")+".validation",function(d,f){var 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diff --git a/static/raw/MidtermSp14.hs b/static/raw/MidtermSp14.hs
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+-- | Midterm Sp14
+
+module MidetermSp14 where
+
+import Prelude hiding (sum, lookup)
+
+-- Problem 1
+ans1a :: Int
+ans1a =
+ let x = 10 in
+ let f y z = x + y + z in
+ let x = 100 in
+ let h = f 5 in
+ h x
+
+chain :: [t -> t] -> t -> t
+chain [] = \x -> x
+chain (f:fs) = \x -> f (chain fs x)
+
+ans1c :: Int
+ans1c = chain [ \x -> x * x
+ , \x -> 16 * x
+ , \x -> x + 1
+ ] 1
+
+data Tree a
+ = Leaf
+ | Node a (Tree a) (Tree a)
+
+ans0 :: Tree Int
+ans0 = Node 2 (Node 1 Leaf Leaf) (Node 3 Leaf Leaf)
+
+flerb :: [a] -> Tree a
+flerb [] = Leaf
+flerb (x:xs) = Node x Leaf (flerb xs)
+
+ans1f = flerb [0, 1, 2]
+
+glub :: (t -> a) -> Tree t -> Tree a
+glub f Leaf = Leaf
+glub f (Node x l r) = Node (f x) (glub f l) (glub f r)
+
+ans1h :: Tree Int
+ans1h = glub (\x -> 2 * x) ans0
+
+-- Problem 2
+sum :: Int -> Int
+sum 0 = 0
+sum n = n + sum (n - 1)
+
+fac :: Int -> Int
+fac 0 = 1
+fac n = n * fac (n - 1)
+
+sumTR n = helper 0 n
+ where
+ helper :: Int -> Int -> Int
+ helper acc 0 = acc
+ helper acc n = helper (acc + n) (n - 1)
+
+facTR n = helper 1 n
+ where
+ helper :: Int -> Int -> Int
+ helper acc 0 = acc
+ helper acc n = helper (acc * n) (n - 1)
+
+foldn :: (a -> Int -> a) -> a -> Int -> a
+foldn f b n = helper b n
+ where
+ helper acc 0 = acc
+ helper acc n = helper (f acc n) (n - 1)
+
+sum' = foldn (\a n -> a + n) 0
+fac' = foldn (\a n -> a * n) 1
+
+-- Problem 3
+data Option a = None | Some a
+
+-- TODO What _is_ the type of this function?
+safeDiv :: (Eq a, Fractional a) => a -> a -> Option a
+safeDiv num 0 = None
+safeDiv num den = Some (num / den)
+
+lookup :: Eq a => a -> [(a,b)] -> Option b
+lookup k [] = None
+lookup k ((k',v):kvs) = if k == k' then Some v else lookup k kvs
+
+lift1 :: (a -> b) -> Option a -> Option b
+lift1 f None = None
+lift1 f (Some x) = Some (f x)
+
+lift2 :: (a -> b -> c) -> Option a -> Option b -> Option c
+lift2 f None _ = None
+lift2 f _ None = None
+lift2 f (Some x) (Some y) = Some (f x y)
+
+-- Alternatively:
+lift2' :: (a -> b -> c) -> Option a -> Option b -> Option c
+lift2' f None _ = None
+lift2' f (Some x) y = lift1 (f x) y
+
+data Expr
+ = Var String
+ | Con Int
+ | Neg Expr
+ | Plus Expr Expr
+
+eval :: [(String, Int)] -> Expr -> Option Int
+eval env (Var x) = lookup x env
+eval env (Con i) = Some i
+eval env (Neg e) = lift1 (\x -> -x) (eval env e)
+eval env (Plus e1 e2) = lift2 (+) (eval env e1) (eval env e2)
diff --git a/static/raw/MidtermSp15.hs b/static/raw/MidtermSp15.hs
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+-- | Midterm Sp15
+
+module MidetermSp15 where
+
+-- Problem 1
+ans1a :: [Int]
+ans1a =
+ let x = 0 in
+ let a1 = let x = 1 in
+ \y z -> [x, y, z]
+ in
+ let a2 = let x = 100 in
+ a1 x
+ in
+ a2 x
+
+data Tree a = Leaf
+ | Node a (Tree a) (Tree a)
+
+fold :: (a -> b -> b -> b) -> b -> Tree a -> b
+fold f b Leaf = b
+fold f b (Node x l r) = f x (fold f b l) (fold f b r)
+
+t0 :: Tree String
+t0 = Node "cat" (Node "dog" Leaf Leaf) (Node "hippo" Leaf Leaf)
+
+-- ans1b =
+-- let f = (\_ vl vr -> 1 + vl + vr)
+-- in fold f 0 t
+
+ans1c :: String
+ans1c =
+ let f = (\x vl vr -> vl ++ x ++ vr)
+ in fold f "" t0
+
+data Option a = None | Some a
+
+find :: (a -> Bool) -> [a] -> Option a
+find f [] = None
+find f (x:xs') = if f x then
+ Some x
+ else
+ find f xs'
+
+xs0 :: [Int]
+xs0 = [2, 4, 8, 16, 32]
+
+ans1d :: Option Int
+ans1d = let f x = x > 10 in find f xs0
+
+ans1e :: Option Int
+ans1e = let f x = (x `mod` 2) == 1 in
+ find f xs0
+
+-- Problem 2
+data Set a = Set [a]
+
+empty :: Show a => Set a
+empty = Set []
+
+member :: Eq a => a -> Set a -> Bool
+member x (Set []) = False
+member x (Set (x':xs)) = (x' == x) || member x (Set xs) -- TODO Do they know `||`?
+
+add :: a -> Set a -> Set a
+add x s = case s of
+ Set xs -> Set (x:xs)
+
+union :: Set a -> Set a -> Set a
+union s1 (Set x2s) = foldl (\s x -> add x s) s1 x2s
+
+del :: Eq a => a -> Set a -> Set a
+del x (Set xs) = Set (filter (\y -> y /= x) xs)
+
+s0 = empty
+s1 = add 1 s0
+s2 = add 2 s1
+s3 = union s1 s2
+s4 = del 1 s3
+
+-- Problem 3
+data Binop = Plus
+ deriving Show
+
+data Expr
+ = Const Int
+ | Var String
+ | Bin Expr Binop Expr
+ | Let String Expr Expr
+ | App Expr Expr
+ | Fun String Expr
+ deriving Show
+
+e1 :: Expr
+e1 = Bin (Const 1) Plus (Const 2)
+
+e2 :: Expr
+e2 = Let "x" (Const 1)
+ (Let "y" (Const 2)
+ (Bin (Var "x") Plus (Var "y")))
+
+e3 :: Expr
+e3 = Let "x" (Const 10)
+ (App (Fun "y" (Bin (Var "x") Plus (Var "y"))) -- TODO There was a typo here in the exam I think?
+ (Var "x"))
+
+e1' :: Expr
+e1' = Bin (Const 1) Plus (Var "x")
+
+e2' :: Expr
+e2' = Let "y" (Const 2)
+ (Bin (Var "x") Plus (Var "y"))
+
+e3' :: Expr
+e3' = App (Let "z" (Const 10) (Fun "y" (Bin (Var "y") Plus (Var "z")))) (Var "z")
+
+free :: Expr -> Set String
+free (Var x) = Set ["x"]
+free (Const n) = Set []
+free (Bin e1 op e2) = union (free e1) (free e2)
+free (App e1 e2) = union (free e1) (free e2)
+free (Let x e1 e2) = union (free e1) (del x (free e2))
+free (Fun x e1) = del x (free e1)
+
+isWellFormed :: Expr -> Bool
+isWellFormed e = case free e of
+ Set [] -> True
+ _ -> False
diff --git a/static/raw/Pepper_Canyon_106_groups.pdf b/static/raw/Pepper_Canyon_106_groups.pdf
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diff --git a/static/raw/code-4-7.lc b/static/raw/code-4-7.lc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..42a5b66
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/code-4-7.lc
@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+eval id :
+(\x -> x) ORANGE
+ =b> ORANGE
+
+eval bizzorra :
+ (\f -> f (\x1 -> x1)) (\x2 -> x2)
+-- ^ formal ^^^^^^^^^^^^ body ^^^^^^^^^^ arg
+ =b> (\x2 -> x2) (\x1 -> x1)
+-- ^ formal ^ body ^^^^^^^^^^ arg
+ =b> \x1 -> x1
+
+eval loop :
+ (\x -> x x) (\y -> y y)
+-- ^ formal ^^^ body ^^^^^^^^^^ arg
+ =b> (\y -> y y) (\y -> y y)
+ =a> (\x -> x x) (\y -> y y)
+
+-- e := x | \x -> e | (e1 e2)
+-- REDEX
+--
+-- (\x -> e1) e2
+--
+-- =b> e1[x := e2]
+
+eval example1:
+ (\x -> x) (\f -> f TGIF)
+ =a> (\x -> x) (\f -> f TGIF)
+ =b> (\f -> f TGIF)
+
+
+eval this_example :
+ (\x -> (\x -> x)) TGIF
+ =a> (\x1 -> (\x2 -> x2)) TGIF
+ =b> (\x2 -> x2)
+
+-- function(x){
+-- return function(x) { return x}
+-- }(TGIF)
+
+eval that_example :
+ (\x -> (\y -> x)) y
+ =a> (\x1 -> (\y1 -> x1)) y
+ =b> (\y1 -> y)
+
+-- function(x){
+-- return function(y){ return x}
+-- }( y )
+
+eval whatever1 :
+ (\x y -> (\x y -> x) y x)
+=a> (\x y -> (\x1 y1 -> x1) y x)
+=b> (\x y -> (\y1 -> y) x)
+=b> (\x y -> y)
+
+-- function(x1){
+-- return function(y1){ return x1}
+-- }( y )
+
+-- When we write
+-- \x -> x (\x -> x) x
+-- we actually mean
+-- (\x -> ((x (\x -> x)) x))
+-- that is to say
+-- (\x1 -> ((x1 (\x2 -> x2)) x1))
diff --git a/static/raw/cow.txt b/static/raw/cow.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..351c221
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/cow.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+ \ ^__^
+ \ (oo)\_______
+ (__)\ )\/\
+ ||----w |
+ || ||
+
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diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/Makefile b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/Makefile
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1529b29
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/Makefile
@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+all:
+ ocamllex arithLexer.mll
+ ocamlyacc arithParser.mly
+ ocamlc -c arithInterpreter.ml
+ ocamlc -c arithParser.mli
+ ocamlc -c arithLexer.ml
+ ocamlc -c arithParser.ml
+ ocamlc -c arith.ml
+ ocamlmktop arithLexer.cmo arithParser.cmo arithInterpreter.cmo arith.cmo -o arith.top
+
+
+clean:
+ rm -f *.cm[io] arithLexer.ml arithParser.ml arithParser.mli
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/README.md b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..daedcf7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+# Arithmetic expressions example from section
+
+## Build
+
+```
+$ cp arithParser1.mly arithParser.mly
+$ make clean
+$ make
+```
+
+## Test
+
+```
+$ ./arith.top
+# open Arith;;
+
+# eval_string [] "2*3+5";;
+# eval_string [("x", 500)] "x / 10";;
+
+# let exp1 = parse_string "2*3+5";;
+# Arith.eval [] exp1;;
+
+# let exp2 = parse_string "x / 10";;
+# Arith.eval [("x", 500)] exp2;;
+```
+
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arith.ml b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arith.ml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a4cb058
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arith.ml
@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+
+open ArithInterpreter
+
+let parseAexpr (str : string) : aexpr =
+ let lb = Lexing.from_string str in
+ ArithParser.burrito ArithLexer.token lb
+
+let token_list_of_string s =
+ let lb = Lexing.from_string s in
+ let rec helper l =
+ try
+ let t = ArithLexer.token lb in
+ if t = ArithParser.EOF then List.rev l else helper (t::l)
+ with _ -> List.rev l
+ in helper []
+
+let evalString env str = ArithInterpreter.eval env (parseAexpr str)
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithInterpreter.ml b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithInterpreter.ml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..156cb70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithInterpreter.ml
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+
+
+type aexpr =
+ | Const of int
+ | Var of string
+ | Plus of aexpr * aexpr
+ | Minus of aexpr * aexpr
+ | Times of aexpr * aexpr
+ | Divide of aexpr * aexpr
+
+type environ = (string * int) list
+
+(* let rec eval (env : env) (e: aexpr) : int *)
+
+let rec eval (env : environ) (e : aexpr) : int
+ = match e with
+ | Const i -> i
+ | Var s -> List.assoc s env
+ | Plus (e1, e2) -> eval env e1 + eval env e2
+ | Minus (e1, e2) -> eval env e1 - eval env e2
+ | Times (e1, e2) -> eval env e1 * eval env e2
+ | Divide (e1, e2) -> eval env e1 / eval env e2
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithLexer.mll b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithLexer.mll
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a9f162
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithLexer.mll
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+{
+open ArithParser
+}
+
+rule token = parse
+ | eof { EOF }
+ | [' ' '\t' '\r' '\n'] { token lexbuf }
+ | ['0'-'9']+ as n { CONST (int_of_string n) }
+ | ['a'-'z']['A'-'z' '0'-'9']* as x { VAR x }
+ | '+' { PLUS }
+ | '-' { MINUS }
+ | '*' { TIMES }
+ | '/' { DIVIDE }
+ | '(' { LPAREN }
+ | ')' { RPAREN }
+ | _ { DUNNO }
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithParser.mly b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithParser.mly
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..51add4c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithParser.mly
@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+%{
+open ArithInterpreter
+%}
+
+%token <int> CONST
+%token <string> VAR
+%token TIMES DIVIDE PLUS MINUS
+%token LPAREN RPAREN
+%token DUNNO
+%token EOF
+
+%left PLUS MINUS
+%left TIMES DIVIDE
+
+
+%start burrito
+%type <ArithInterpreter.aexpr> burrito
+%%
+
+burrito:
+ | binExpr { $1 }
+ | CONST { Const $1 }
+ | VAR { Var $1 }
+ | LPAREN burrito RPAREN { $2 }
+
+binExpr:
+ | burrito TIMES burrito { Times ($1, $3) }
+ | burrito DIVIDE burrito { Divide ($1, $3) }
+ | burrito PLUS burrito { Plus ($1, $3) }
+ | burrito MINUS burrito { Minus ($1, $3) }
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithParser0.mly b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithParser0.mly
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b445467
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithParser0.mly
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+%{
+open ArithInterpreter
+%}
+
+%token <int> CONST
+%token <string> VAR
+%token PLUS MINUS TIMES DIVIDE
+%token LPAREN RPAREN
+%token EOF
+
+%start aexpr
+%type <ArithInterpreter.aexpr> aexpr
+%%
+
+aexpr:
+ | aexpr PLUS aexpr { Plus ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr MINUS aexpr { Minus ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr TIMES aexpr { Times ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr DIVIDE aexpr { Divide ($1, $3) }
+ | CONST { Const $1 }
+ | VAR { Var $1 }
+ | LPAREN aexpr RPAREN { $2 }
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithParser1.mly b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithParser1.mly
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6baf3fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithParser1.mly
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+%{
+open ArithInterpreter
+%}
+
+%token <int> CONST
+%token <string> VAR
+%token PLUS MINUS TIMES DIVIDE
+%token LPAREN RPAREN
+%token EOF
+%left PLUS MINUS
+%left TIMES DIVIDE
+%start aexpr
+%type <ArithInterpreter.aexpr> aexpr
+%%
+
+aexpr:
+ | aexpr PLUS aexpr { Plus ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr MINUS aexpr { Minus ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr TIMES aexpr { Times ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr DIVIDE aexpr { Divide ($1, $3) }
+ | CONST { Const $1 }
+ | VAR { Var $1 }
+ | LPAREN aexpr RPAREN { $2 }
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithParser2.mly b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithParser2.mly
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..29833e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/arithParser2.mly
@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+%{
+open ArithInterpreter
+%}
+
+%token <int> CONST
+%token <string> VAR
+%token PLUS MINUS TIMES DIVIDE
+%token LPAREN RPAREN
+%token EOF
+
+%start aexpr
+%type <ArithInterpreter.aexpr> aexpr
+%%
+
+aexpr:
+ | aexpr PLUS aexpr2 { Plus ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr MINUS aexpr2 { Minus ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr2 { $1 }
+
+aexpr2:
+ | aexpr2 TIMES aexpr3 { Times ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr2 DIVIDE aexpr3 { Divide ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr3 { $1 }
+
+aexpr3:
+ | CONST { Const $1 }
+ | VAR { Var $1 }
+ | LPAREN aexpr RPAREN { $2 }
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/info_parsing.md b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/info_parsing.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..47dc441
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/info_parsing.md
@@ -0,0 +1,533 @@
+---
+title: A Quick Tutorial On Parsing
+---
+
+In this note we consider an invaluable programming tool, the
+*parser generator*. The problem that we want to solve
+is: how do we **parse strings**, that is, convert
+(unstructured) strings, the lowest-level representation of a
+program text, into (highly structured) representations like
+expressions, statements, functions *etc* which can then be
+compiled or interpreted.
+
+Of course, the problem is much more general and arises in
+pretty much every large scale system, how do you convert
+raw data strings, into structured objects that can be
+manipulated by the rest of the system.
+
+Of course, one can imagine various convoluted algorithms
+for extracting structure from strings. Indeed, you may well
+think that the conversion routine depends heavily on the
+*target* of the conversion! However, it turns out that we
+can design a small *domain-specific language* that describes
+a large number of the kinds of target structures, and we
+will use a *parser generator* that will automatically
+convert the structure description into a parsing function!
+
+# An Arithmetic Interpreter
+
+As a running example, let us build a small interpreter for
+a language of arithmetic expressions, described by the type
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+type aexpr =
+ | Const of int
+ | Var of string
+ | Plus of aexpr * aexpr
+ | Minus of aexpr * aexpr
+ | Times of aexpr * aexpr
+ | Divide of aexpr * aexpr
+~~~~~
+
+shown in file (arithInterpreter.ml)[0]. This expression language
+is quite similar to what you saw for the random-art assignment,
+and we can write a simple recursive evaluator for it
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+let rec eval env = function
+ | Const i -> i
+ | Var s -> List.assoc s env
+ | Plus (e1, e2) -> eval env e1 + eval env e2
+ | Minus (e1, e2) -> eval env e1 - eval env e2
+ | Times (e1, e2) -> eval env e1 * eval env e2
+ | Divide (e1, e2) -> eval env e1 / eval env e2
+~~~~~
+
+Here the `env` is a `(string * int) list` corresponding to a list
+of variables and their corresponding values. Thus, if you run the above,
+you would see something like
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+# eval [] (Plus (Const 2, Const 6)) ;;
+- : int = 4
+
+# eval [("x",16); ("y", 10)] (Minus (Var "x", Var "y")) ;;
+- : int = 6
+
+# eval [("x",16); ("y", 10)] (Minus (Var "x", Var "z")) ;;
+Exception: NotFound.
+~~~~~~
+
+Now it is rather tedious to write ML expressions like
+`Plus (Const 2, Const 6)`, and `Minus (Var "x", Var "z")`.
+We would like to obtain a simple parsing function
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+val parseAexpr : string -> aexpr
+~~~~~
+
+that converts a string to the corresponding `aexpr` if possible. For
+example, it would be sweet if we could get
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+# parseAexpr "2 + 6" ;;
+- : aexpr = Plus (Const 2, Const 6)
+
+# parseAexpr "(x - y) / 2" ;;
+- : aexpr = Divide (Minus (Var "x", Var "y"), Const 2)
+~~~~~
+
+and so on. Lets see how to get there.
+
+# Strategy
+
+We will use a two-step strategy to convert raw strings into structured
+data.
+
+## Step 1 (Lexing) : From String to Tokens
+
+Strings are really just a list of very low-level characters.
+In the first step, we will aggregate the characters into more
+meaningful *tokens* that contain more high-level information.
+For example, we will can aggregate a sequence of numeric characters
+into an integer, and a sequence of alphanumerics (starting with a
+lower-case alphabet) into say a variable name.
+
+Thus, as a result of the lexing phase, we can convert a list of
+individual characters
+
+<img src="../static/info_parser.001a.jpg" width="300"/>
+
+into a list of *tokens*
+
+<img src="../static/info_parser.001b.jpg" width="300"/>
+
+### Step 2 (Parsing) : From Tokens to Tree
+
+Next, we will use a special description of the structures we
+are trying to generate called a *grammar* to convert the list
+of tokens into a tree-like representation of our final structure.
+The actual algorithms for converting from lists of tokens to
+trees are very subtle and sophisticated. We will omit a detailed
+description and instead just look at how the structures can
+themselves be represented by grammars.
+
+Next, we get into the details of our the above strategy, by
+describing exactly what the lexer and parser (generators) do
+in terms of their input and output.
+
+# Lexers
+
+We will use the tool called `ocamllex` to automatically obtain
+a lexer from a high-level description of what the tokens are and
+what what sequences of characters should get mapped to tokens.
+
+## Tokens
+
+The file (arithParser0.mly)[1] describes the set of tokens needed
+to represent our simple language
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+%token <int> CONST
+%token <string> VAR
+%token PLUS MINUS TIMES DIVIDE
+%token LPAREN RPAREN
+%token EOF
+~~~~~
+
+Note that the first two tokens, `CONST` and `VAR` also carry values with
+them, respectively `int` and `string.
+
+
+## Regular Expressions
+
+Next, we must describe the sequences of characters that get aggregated
+into a particular token. This is done using (regular expressions)[7]
+defined in the file (arithLexer.mll)[2].
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+{ open ArithParser }
+
+rule token = parse
+ | eof { EOF }
+ | [' ' '\t' '\r' '\n'] { token lexbuf }
+ | ['0'-'9']+ as l { CONST (int_of_string l) }
+ | ['a'-'z']['A'-'z']* as l { VAR l }
+ | '+' { PLUS }
+ | '-' { MINUS }
+ | '*' { TIMES }
+ | '/' { DIVIDE }
+ | '(' { LPAREN }
+ | ')' { RPAREN }
+~~~~~
+
+the first line at top simply imports the token definitions from
+`arithParser.mly`. Next, there is a sequence of rules of the form
+`| <regexp> {ml-expr}`.
+
+Intuitively, each regular expression describes a sequence of characters,
+and when that sequence is matched in the input string, the corresponding ML
+expression is evaluated to obtain the token that is to be returned on the
+match. Let's see some examples,
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+ | eof { EOF }
+ | '+' { PLUS }
+ | '-' { MINUS }
+ | '*' { TIMES }
+ | '/' { DIVIDE }
+ | '(' { LPAREN }
+ | ')' { RPAREN }
+~~~~~
+
+- when the `eof` is reached (i.e. we hit the end of the string), a token
+ called `EOF` is generated, similarly, when a character `+`, `-`, `/`
+ etc. are encountered, the lexer generates the tokens `PLUS`, `MINUS`,
+ `DIVIDE` etc. respectively,
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+ | [' ' '\t' '\r' '\n'] { token lexbuf }
+~~~~~
+
+- `[c1 c2 ... cn]` where each `ci` is a character denotes a regular expression
+ that matches **any of** the characters in the sequence. Thus, the regexp
+ `[' ' '\n' '\t']` indicates that if either a blank or tab or newline is
+ hit, the lexer should simply ignore it and recursively generate the token
+ corresponding to the rest of the buffer,
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+ | ['0'-'9']+ as l { CONST (int_of_string l) }
+~~~~~
+
+- `['0' - '9']` denotes a regexp that matches any
+ digit-character. When you take a regexp and put a `+` in front of it,
+ i.e. `e+` you get a regexp corresponding to a **non-zero repetitions` of `e`.
+ Thus, the regexp `['0'-'9']+` matches a non-empty sequence of digit characters!
+ Here, the variable `l` holds the exact substring that was matched, and we
+ simply write `CONST (int_of_string l)` to return the `CONST` token carrying
+ the `int` value corresponding to the matched substring.
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+ | ['a'-'z']['A'-'z' '0'-'9'] as l { VAR l }
+~~~~~
+
+- A regexp of the form `e1 e2` matches any string `s` that can be split into
+ two parts `s1` and `s2` (s.t. `s == s1 ^ s2`) where `s1` matches `e1` and
+ `s2` matches `e2`. That is, `e1 e2` is a **sequencing** regexp that first
+ matches `e1` and then matches `e2`. The regexp `e*` corresponds to
+ **zero-or-more repetitions** of `e`. Thus, `['a'-'z']['A'-'z' '0'-'9']*`
+ is a regexp that matches all strings that begin with a lower-case
+ alphabet, and then have a (possibly empty) sequence of alpha-numeric
+ characters. As before, the entire matching string is bound to the
+ variable `l` and in the case the `VAR l` token is returned indicating
+ that an identifier appeared in the input stream.
+
+## Running the Lexer
+
+We can run the lexer directly to look at the sequences of tokens found.
+The function `Lexing.from_string` simply converts an input string into a
+buffer on which the actual lexer operates.
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+# ArithLexer.token (Lexing.from_string "+");;
+- : ArithParser.token = ArithParser.PLUS
+
+# ArithLexer.token (Lexing.from_string "294");;
+- : ArithParser.token = ArithParser.CONST 294
+~~~~~
+
+Next, we can write a function that recursively keeps grinding away to get
+all the possible tokens from a string (until it hits `eof`). When we call
+that function it behaves thus:
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+# token_list_of_string "23 + + 92 zz /" ;;
+- : ArithParser.token list =
+ [ArithParser.CONST 23; ArithParser.PLUS; ArithParser.PLUS;
+ ArithParser.CONST 92; ArithParser.VAR "zz"; ArithParser.DIVIDE]
+
+# token_list_of_string "23++92zz/" ;;
+- : ArithParser.token list =
+ [ArithParser.CONST 23; ArithParser.PLUS; ArithParser.PLUS;
+ ArithParser.CONST 92; ArithParser.VAR "zz"; ArithParser.DIVIDE]
+~~~~~
+
+Note that the above two calls produce exactly the same result, because
+the lexer finds maximal matches.
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+# token_list_of_string "92z" ;;
+- : ArithParser.token list = [ArithParser.CONST 92; ArithParser.VAR "z"]
+~~~~~
+
+Here, when it hits the `z` it knows that the number pattern has ended and
+a new variable pattern has begun. Of course, if you give it something that
+doesn't match anything, you get an exception
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+# parse_string "%" ;;
+Exception: Failure "lexing: empty token".
+~~~~~
+
+# Parsers
+
+Next, will use the tool called `ocamlyacc` to automatically obtain
+a parser from a high-level description of the target structure
+called a **grammar**. (Note: grammars are very deep area of study,
+we're going to take a very superficial look here, guided by the pragmatics
+of how to convert strings to `aexpr` values.)
+
+## Grammars
+
+A grammar is a recursive definition of a set of trees, comprising
+
+- Non-terminals and Terminals, which describe the internal and leaf
+ nodes of the tree, respectively. Here, the leaf nodes will be tokens.
+
+- Rules of the form
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+nonterm :
+ | term-or-nonterm-1 ... term-or-non-term-n { ML-EXPR }
+~~~~~
+
+ that describe the possible configuration of
+ children of each internal node, together with an ML
+ expression that generates a *value* that is used to
+ decorate the node. This value is computed from the
+ values decorating the respective children.
+
+We can define the following simple grammar for arith expressions:
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+aexpr:
+ | aexpr PLUS aexpr { Plus ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr MINUS aexpr { Minus ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr TIMES aexpr { Times ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr DIVIDE aexpr { Divide ($1, $3) }
+ | CONST { Const $1 }
+ | VAR { Var $1 }
+ | LPAREN aexpr RPAREN { $2 }
+~~~~~
+
+Note that the above ``grammar" (almost) directly mimics the
+recursive type definition of the expressions. In the above
+grammar, the *only* non-terminal is `aexpr` (we could call
+it whatever we like, we just picked the same name for
+convenience.)
+The terminals are the tokens we defined earlier, and each
+rule corresponds to how you would take the sub-trees (i.e.
+sub-expressions) and stitch them together to get bigger trees.
+
+The line `%type <ArithInterpreter.aexpr> aexpr` at the top stipulates
+that each `aexpr` node will be decorated with a value of type
+`ArithInterpreter.aexpr` -- that is, by a structured arithmetic expression.
+
+Next, let us consider each of the rules in turn.
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+ | CONST { Const $1 }
+ | VAR { Var $1 }
+~~~~~
+
+- The base-case rules for `CONST` and `VAR` state that those
+ (individual) tokens can be viewed as corresponding to `aexpr`
+ nodes. Consider the target expression in the curly braces.
+ Here `$1` denotes the value decorating the 1st (and only!)
+ element of the corresponding non/terminal- sequence. That is,
+ for the former (respectively latter) case $1 the `int`
+ (respectively `string` value) associated with the token,
+ which we use to obtain the base arithmetic expressions via the
+ appropriate constructors.
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+ | aexpr PLUS aexpr { Plus ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr MINUS aexpr { Minus ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr TIMES aexpr { Times ($1, $3) }
+ | aexpr DIVIDE aexpr { Divide ($1, $3) }
+~~~~~
+
+- The inductive case rules, e.g. for the `PLUS` case says that
+ if there is a token-sequence that is parsed into an `aexpr`
+ node, followed by a `PLUS` token, followed by a sequence that
+ is parsed into an `aexpr` node, then the **entire** sequence
+ can be parsed into an `aexpr` node.
+ Here `$1` and `$3` refer to the first and third elements of
+ the sequence, that is, the *left* and *right* subexpressions.
+ The decorated value is simply the super-expression obtained by
+ applying the `Plus` constructor to the left and right subexpressions.
+ The same applies to
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+ | LPAREN aexpr RPAREN { $2 }
+~~~~~
+
+- The last rule allows us to parse parenthesized expressions;
+ if there is a left-paren token followed by an expresssion
+ followed by a matching right-paren token, then the whole
+ sequence is an `aexpr` node. Notice how the decorated expression is
+ simply `$2` which decorates the second element of the sequence, i.e.
+ the (sub) expression being wrapped in parentheses.
+
+## Running the Parser
+
+Great, lets take our parser out for a spin! First, lets build the different
+elements
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+$ cp arithParser0.mly arithParser.mly
+
+$ make clean
+rm -f *.cm[io] arithLexer.ml arithParser.ml arithParser.mli
+
+$ make
+ocamllex arithLexer.mll
+11 states, 332 transitions, table size 1394 bytes
+ocamlyacc arithParser.mly
+16 shift/reduce conflicts.
+ocamlc -c arithInterpreter.ml
+ocamlc -c arithParser.mli
+ocamlc -c arithLexer.ml
+ocamlc -c arithParser.ml
+ocamlc -c arith.ml
+ocamlmktop arithLexer.cmo arithParser.cmo arithInterpreter.cmo arith.cmo -o arith.top
+~~~~~
+
+Now, we have a specialize top-level with the relevant libraries baked in.
+So we can do:
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+$ rlwrap ./arith.top
+ Objective Caml version 3.11.2
+
+# open Arith;;
+
+# eval_string [] "1 + 3 + 6" ;;
+- : int = 10
+
+# eval_string [("x", 100); ("y", 20)] "x - y" ;;
+- : int = 80
+~~~~~
+
+And lo! we have a simple calculator that also supports variables.
+
+## Precedence and Associativity
+
+Ok, looks like our calculator works fine, but lets try this
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+# eval_string [] "2 * 5 + 5" ;;
+- : int = 20
+~~~~~
+
+Huh?! you would think that the above should yield `15` as `*` has higher
+precedence than `+` , and so the above expression is really `(2 * 5) + 5`.
+Indeed, if we took the trouble to put the parentheses in, the right thing
+happens
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+# eval_string [] "(2 * 5) + 5" ;;
+- : int = 15
+~~~~~
+
+Indeed, the same issue arises with a single operator
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+# eval_string [] "2 - 1 - 1" ;;
+- : int = 2
+~~~~~
+
+What happens here is that the grammar we gave is **ambiguous**
+as there are multiple ways of parsing the string `2 * 5 + 5`, namely
+
+- `Plus (Times (Const 2, Const 5), Const 5)`, or
+- `Times (Const 2, Plus (Const 5, Const 5))`
+
+We want the former, but ocamlyacc gives us the latter!
+Similarly, there are multiple ways of parsing `2 - 1 - 1`, namely
+
+- `Minus (Minus (Const 2, Const 1), Const 1)`, or
+- `Minus (Const 2, Minus (Const 1, Const 1))`
+
+Again, since `-` is left-associative, we want the former, but
+we get the latter! (Incidentally, this is why we got those wierd
+grumbles about `shift/reduce conflicts` when we ran `ocamlyacc`
+above, but lets not go too deep into that...)
+
+There are various ways of adding precedence, one is to hack the grammar
+by adding various extra non-terminals, as done here (arithParser2.mly)[5].
+Note how there are no conflicts if you use that grammar instead.
+
+However, since this is such a common problem, there is a much simpler
+solution, which is to add precedence and associativity annotations to the
+.mly file. In particular, let us use the modified grammar
+(arithParser1.mly)[3].
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+$ cp arithParser1.mly arithParser.mly
+$ make
+ocamllex arithLexer.mll
+11 states, 332 transitions, table size 1394 bytes
+ocamlyacc arithParser.mly
+ocamlc -c arithInterpreter.ml
+ocamlc -c arithParser.mli
+ocamlc -c arithLexer.ml
+ocamlc -c arithParser.ml
+ocamlc -c arith.ml
+ocamlmktop arithLexer.cmo arithParser.cmo arithInterpreter.cmo arith.cmo -o arith.top
+~~~~~
+
+check it out, no conflicts this time! The only difference between this
+grammar and the previous one are the lines
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+%left PLUS MINUS
+%left TIMES DIVIDE
+~~~~~
+
+This means that all the operators are **left-associative**
+so `e1 - e2 - e3` is parsed as if it were `(e1 - e2) - e3`.
+As a result we get
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+# eval_string [] "2 - 1 - 1" ;;
+- : int = 0
+~~~~~
+
+Furthermore, we get that addition and subtraction have lower
+precedence than multiplication and division (the order of
+the annotations matters!)
+
+~~~~~{.ocaml}
+# eval_string [] "2 * 5 + 5" ;;
+- : int = 15
+# eval_string [] "2 + 5 * 5" ;;
+- : int = 27
+~~~~~
+
+Hence, the multiplication operator has higher precedence than the addition,
+as we have grown to expect, and all is well in the world.
+
+
+This concludes our brief tutorial, which should suffice for your NanoML
+programming assignment. However, if you are curious, I encourage you to
+look at (this)[6] for more details.
+
+
+[0]: ($root/static/pa4/arith_notes/arithInterpreter.ml)
+[1]: ($root/static/pa4/arith_notes/arithParser0.mly)
+[2]: ($root/static/pa4/arith_notes/arithLexer.mll)
+[3]: ($root/static/pa4/arith_notes/arithParser1.mly)
+[6]: http://plus.kaist.ac.kr/~shoh/ocaml/ocamllex-ocamlyacc/ocamlyacc-tutorial/
+[7]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_expression
+
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/interp.ml b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/interp.ml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d01df93
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/interp.ml
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+(*
+ * expressions
+ * values
+ * environments
+ *
+ *)
+
+type binop = Plus | Times | Or
+
+type value = Int of int
+ | Bool of bool
+
+type exp = IConst of int
+ | BConst of bool
+ | Bin of exp * binop * exp
+ | Var of string
+ | Let of string * exp * exp
+
+type env = (string * value) list
+
+type program = (string * exp) list
+
+let listAssoc k l = List.fold_left (fun r (t,v) ->
+ if r=None && k=t then Some v else r) None l
+
+let p1 = [("x",Bin(IConst 3,Plus,IConst 4)); (* x = 3+4 *)
+ ("y",Bin(Var "x",Plus,Var "x")); (* y = x+x *)
+ ("z",BConst false);
+ ("w",Bin(Var "z",Or,BConst true));
+ ("a",Let("x",IConst 10,Bin(Var "x",Plus,Var "x")))]
+
+let rec eval_exp evn e =
+ match e with
+ IConst i -> Int i
+ | BConst b -> Bool b
+ | Bin(e1,op,e2) -> let v1=eval_exp evn e1 in
+ let v2 = eval_exp evn e2 in
+ (match (v1,op,v2) with
+ (Int i1,Plus,Int i2) -> Int (i1+i2)
+ | (Int i1,Times,Int i2) -> Int (i1*i2)
+ | (Bool b1,Or,Bool b2) -> Bool (b1||b2)
+ | _ -> failwith "bad types for binary operator")
+ | Var x -> (match listAssoc x evn with
+ Some v -> v
+ | None -> failwith "variable not bound")
+ | Let(x,e1,e2) -> let v1 = eval_exp evn e1 in
+ let new_evn = (x,v1)::evn in
+ eval_exp new_evn e2
+
+let rec eval_program evn p =
+ match p with
+ [] -> evn
+ | ((x,e)::t) -> let v = eval_exp evn e in
+ let new_evn = (x,v)::evn in
+ eval_program new_evn t
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/main.ml b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/main.ml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fb44991
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/arith_notes/main.ml
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+let parse_string str =
+ let lb = Lexing.from_string str in
+ ArithParser.expr ArithLexer.token lb
+
+let token_list_of_string str =
+ let lb = Lexing.from_string str in
+ let rec loop () =
+ let tok = ArithLexer.token lb in
+ tok :: loop ()
+ in loop ()
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/README.md b/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c09426
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,122 @@
+
+# Overview
+
+Compilers and interpreters take as input programs in string form. Lexing and
+parsing are the first two steps towards converting this string input into a
+program in the language that can then be executed or interpreted.
+Lexing is the process that takes the entire string input and breaks it into
+smaller chunks, or tokens. Tokens are often separated by spaces, newlines,
+operators, and other characters like `;`, `(`, and `}`.
+
+Once a string has been tokenized into a sequence of tokens, the parsing
+process takes the sequence and groups tokens together according to the rules
+defined by a grammar.
+
+Implementations of lexers and parsers for differene languages have a lot
+similarities. To avoid duplicating effort, tools called lexer-generators
+and parser-generators allow the compiler writer to focus on the interesting
+details of his/her language -- namely, the syntax and semantics --
+while taking care of the boilerplate code e.g. think `fold_left`.
+
+Used for writing compilers and interpreters in OCaml, `ocamllex` is
+a lexer-generator and `ocamlyacc` a parser-generator.
+The compiler writer implements two specification files in particular formats
+that `ocamllex` and `ocamlyacc` process, and they generate pure
+OCaml code that can be executed to lex and parse strings.
+
+We will look at an example lexer and parser for a simple language of
+binary expressions and assignments. Run `./build.sh` to build
+everything.
+
+## `beParser.mly`
+
+In this file we define the different kinds of tokens for our language, the
+grammar rules that define legal statements in our language, and how to process
+the stream of tokens when groups of them match a grammar rule.
+`ocamlyacc` will read this file and then generate an OCaml file called
+`beParser.ml`, which will be the complete parser for our language.
+
+The code between `%{` and `%}` gets copied verbatim into
+`beParser.ml`, so it is pure OCaml code. In this case, we just open
+up the `BeAst` module that defines the abstract syntax for our language
+of binary expressions and assignments.
+
+Each `%token` line defines a kind of token. Note that multiple tokens
+can be defined on the same line, and you can define a token to carry along with
+it data of a particular type using `<...>`. Take a look at
+`beParser.ml` to see the OCaml datatype that corresponds to these
+token definitions.
+
+The `%start` and `%type` lines define which of the rules (defined
+later in the file) should be used as the top-most rule when trying to
+parse an input string. The remainder of the file after the `%%` defines
+the grammar rules. For each rule in the grammar, there is a corresponding
+`{` and `}`. What goes inside there is the OCaml "expression" that
+gets returned when the particular rule is matched. It is normal OCaml code, with
+the exception of things like `$1` and `$2`, which correspond to
+the values returned by the first and second subparts of the rule. For example,
+when some sequence of tokens matches the fourth `atom` rule, the
+expression matched by `expr` between two parentheses is referred to
+as `$2`.
+
+For more complete documentation about `ocamlyacc`, see [this tutorial](http://plus.kaist.ac.kr/~shoh/ocaml/ocamllex-ocamlyacc/ocamlyacc-tutorial/)
+
+
+## `beLexer.mll`
+
+In this file we define how characters in the input string should be broken
+up into the tokens defined in `beParser.mly`. The code within
+the `{` and `}` at the top is pure OCaml code that gets copied
+verbatim into a file called `beLexer.ml`. Notice that we open
+the `BeParser` module (which will be generated by `ocamlyacc`
+so that the token datatype is in scope).
+
+The rest of the file defines how to convert ASCII characters into tokens.
+We choose the name `token` for our definition, but we very well
+could have named in anything. Whatever name we choose, however, we will
+be the entrypoint to the lexer; look at the file `beLexer.ml` and look
+for a function called `token`.
+
+The syntax in this section of the specification should be readable because it
+is very close to pure OCaml. The input string is matched against a series of
+string literals and regular expressions. As soon as one of the patterns matches
+the input string, the OCaml code within the corresponding `{` and `}`
+is added to the list of tokens, and the `token` function is recursively
+invoked on what remains of the input string. Note that in the first rule,
+`lexbuf` is the implicit name of the input string, so `token
+lexbuf` is a recursive call to the lexer that does not add any tokens
+to the list whenever any whitespace is matched in the input string.
+
+For more complete documentation about `ocamllex`, see [this tutorial](http://plus.kaist.ac.kr/~shoh/ocaml/ocamllex-ocamlyacc/ocamllex-tutorial/)
+
+## Putting it all together
+
+After running `ocamllex beLexer.ml` and `ocamlyacc beParser.mly`,
+the modules `BeLexer` and `BeParser` can now be used to lex
+and parse strings and interpret them as statements in our little language.
+The `parse_string` function in `beMain.ml` shows how to
+use the generated lexer and parser to process a string.
+
+Run `./be.top`, which is an OCaml top-level that already has loaded
+all the modules we need (look at `build.sh` to see how `be.top`
+is created). We can now process strings in the language:
+
+```
+% ./be.top
+ Objective Caml version 3.10.0
+# BeMain.token_list_of_string "true || false";;
+- : BeParser.token list = [BeParser.TRUE; BeParser.OR; BeParser.FALSE]
+
+# BeMain.token_list_of_string "(look ma no hands)";;
+- : BeParser.token list =
+[BeParser.LPAREN; BeParser.Id "look"; BeParser.Id "ma"; BeParser.Id "no"; BeParser.Id "hands"; BeParser.RPAREN]
+
+# BeMain.parse_string "(true || false) && x";;
+- : BeAst.bexpr = BeAst.And (BeAst.Or (BeAst.Const true, BeAst.Const false), BeAst.Var "x")
+
+# BeMain.parse_string " true || (false && x)";;
+- : BeAst.bexpr = BeAst.Or (BeAst.Const true, BeAst.And (BeAst.Const false, BeAst.Var "x"))
+
+# BeMain.parse_string "look ma no hands";;
+Exception: Parsing.Parse_error.
+```
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/beAst.ml b/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/beAst.ml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..705f2b0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/beAst.ml
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+type bexpr = And of bexpr * bexpr
+ | Or of bexpr * bexpr
+ | Xor of bexpr * bexpr
+ | Neg of bexpr
+ | Var of string
+ | Const of bool
+
+type binstr = Print of bexpr
+ | Assign of string * bexpr
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/beLexer.mll b/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/beLexer.mll
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..219af1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/beLexer.mll
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+{
+open BeParser
+}
+
+rule token = parse
+ | [' ' '\t' '\n'] { token lexbuf } (* skip spaces *)
+ | "true" { TRUE }
+ | "false" { FALSE }
+ | "||" { OR }
+ | "&&" { AND }
+ | "^" { XOR }
+ | "-" { NEG }
+ | "(" { LPAREN }
+ | ")" { RPAREN }
+ | ['A'-'Z' 'a'-'z' '_']['A'-'Z' 'a'-'z' '0'-'9' '_']* as str
+ { Id(str) }
+ | _ as chr { failwith ("lex error: "^(Char.escaped chr))}
+ | eof { EOF }
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/beMain.ml b/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/beMain.ml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..82692eb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/beMain.ml
@@ -0,0 +1,15 @@
+
+let parse_string str =
+ let lb = Lexing.from_string str
+ in
+ BeParser.expr BeLexer.token lb
+
+let token_list_of_string s =
+ let lb = Lexing.from_string s in
+ let rec helper l =
+ try
+ let t = BeLexer.token lb in
+ if t = BeParser.EOF then List.rev l else helper (t::l)
+ with _ -> List.rev l
+ in
+ helper []
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/beParser.mly b/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/beParser.mly
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9f7d151
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/beParser.mly
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+%{
+open BeAst
+%}
+
+%token <string> Id
+%token TRUE FALSE
+%token OR AND XOR NEG
+%token LPAREN RPAREN
+%token EOF
+
+%start expr
+%type <BeAst.bexpr> expr
+
+%%
+
+expr: expr OR xexpr { Or($1,$3) }
+ | xexpr { $1 }
+
+xexpr: xexpr XOR nexpr { Xor($1,$3) }
+ | nexpr { $1 }
+
+nexpr: nexpr AND atom { And($1,$3) }
+ | atom { $1 }
+
+atom: TRUE { Const(true) }
+ | FALSE { Const(false) }
+ | Id { Var($1) }
+ | LPAREN expr RPAREN { $2 }
+ | NEG atom { Neg($2) }
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/build.sh b/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/build.sh
new file mode 100755
index 0000000..c63bc6a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw4/bool_notes/build.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+#!/bin/sh
+ocamllex beLexer.mll && \
+ocamlyacc beParser.mly && \
+ocamlc -c beAst.ml && \
+ocamlc -c beParser.mli && \
+ocamlc -c beParser.ml && \
+ocamlc -c beLexer.ml && \
+ocamlc -c beMain.ml && \
+ocamlmktop -o be.top beAst.cmo beParser.cmo beLexer.cmo beMain.cmo
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/static/raw/hw5.zip b/static/raw/hw5.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..861720a
Binary files /dev/null and b/static/raw/hw5.zip differ
diff --git a/static/raw/hw5/misc.pl b/static/raw/hw5/misc.pl
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c66dc1b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw5/misc.pl
@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+% Helpers
+
+%isin(X,L) is true if X appears in L
+isin(X,[X|_]).
+isin(X,[_|T]) :- isin(X,T).
+
+%hint: use append, reverse, bagof judiciously.
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+% Problem 1: Rules
+
+zip(L1,L2,L3) :- throw(to_be_done).
+
+assoc(L,X,Y) :- throw(to_be_done).
+
+remove_duplicates(L1,L2) :- throw(to_be_done).
+
+union(L1,L2,L3) :- throw(to_be_done).
+
+intersection(L1,L2,L3) :- throw(to_be_done).
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+% Problem 2: Facts
+
+cost(carne_asada,3).
+cost(lengua,2).
+cost(birria,2).
+cost(carnitas,2).
+cost(adobado,2).
+cost(al_pastor,2).
+cost(guacamole,1).
+cost(rice,1).
+cost(beans,1).
+cost(salsa,1).
+cost(cheese,1).
+cost(sour_cream,1).
+cost(taco,1).
+cost(tortilla,1).
+cost(sopa,1).
+
+
+ingredients(carnitas_taco, [taco,carnitas, salsa, guacamole]).
+ingredients(birria_taco, [taco,birria, salsa, guacamole]).
+ingredients(al_pastor_taco, [taco,al_pastor, salsa, guacamole, cheese]).
+ingredients(guacamole_taco, [taco,guacamole, salsa,sour_cream]).
+ingredients(al_pastor_burrito, [tortilla,al_pastor, salsa]).
+ingredients(carne_asada_burrito, [tortilla,carne_asada, guacamole, rice, beans]).
+ingredients(adobado_burrito, [tortilla,adobado, guacamole, rice, beans]).
+ingredients(carnitas_sopa, [sopa,carnitas, guacamole, salsa,sour_cream]).
+ingredients(lengua_sopa, [sopa,lengua,beans,sour_cream]).
+ingredients(combo_plate, [al_pastor, carne_asada,rice, tortilla, beans, salsa, guacamole, cheese]).
+ingredients(adobado_plate, [adobado, guacamole, rice, tortilla, beans, cheese]).
+
+taqueria(el_cuervo, [ana,juan,maria],
+ [carnitas_taco, combo_plate, al_pastor_taco, carne_asada_burrito]).
+
+taqueria(la_posta,
+ [victor,maria,carla], [birria_taco, adobado_burrito, carnitas_sopa, combo_plate, adobado_plate]).
+
+taqueria(robertos, [hector,carlos,miguel],
+ [adobado_plate, guacamole_taco, al_pastor_burrito, carnitas_taco, carne_asada_burrito]).
+
+taqueria(la_milpas_quatros, [jiminez, martin, antonio, miguel],
+ [lengua_sopa, adobado_plate, combo_plate]).
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+% Problem 2: Rules
+
+available_at(X,L) :- throw(to_be_done).
+
+multi_available(X) :- throw(to_be_done).
+
+overworked(X) :- throw(to_be_done).
+
+total_cost(X,K) :- throw(to_be_done).
+
+has_ingredients(X,Is) :- throw(to_be_done).
+
+avoids_ingredients(X,Is) :- throw(to_be_done).
+
+p1(L,X) :- throw(to_be_done).
+
+p2(L,Y) :- throw(to_be_done).
+
+find_items(L,X,Y) :- p1(L1,X), p2(L2,Y),intersection(L1,L2,L).
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
diff --git a/static/raw/hw5/test.pl b/static/raw/hw5/test.pl
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1896851
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/hw5/test.pl
@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+:- working_directory(CWD,CWD),atom_concat(CWD,'misc.pl',F),consult(F).
+
+print_list([]).
+print_list([H|T]) :- print(H), print_list(T).
+
+print_exception(E) :- print_list(['exception: ',E]).
+% print_exception(E) :- print_message(informational,E)
+
+run_test(T,Max,Pts) :- print_list(['testing ',T,'... ']),
+ catch( ((not(not(T)),print('success'),Pts=Max);(print('fail'),Pts=0)), Ex, (print_exception(Ex),Pts=0) ),
+ print_list([' (',Pts,'/',Max,')']),nl,!.
+
+run_tests([],Max,Pts) :- Max=0,Pts=0.
+run_tests([run_test(T,TMax)|Ts],Max,Pts) :- run_test(T,TMax,TPts), run_tests(Ts,TsMax,TsPts), Max is TMax + TsMax, Pts is TPts + TsPts.
+
+unordered_eq(A,B) :- msort(A,SA), msort(B,SB), !, SA=SB.
+
+run_all_tests(Max,Pts) :- run_tests(
+ [run_test(zip([1,2],[a,b],[1,a,2,b]),1),
+ run_test((zip([1,2],[a,b],X),X=[1,a,2,b]),1),
+ run_test((zip([1,2],[a,b],[1, 2, a, b])),1),
+ run_test((zip([1,2],[a,b],[a, b, 1, 2])),1),
+ run_test((zip([1,2],[a,b],[1, a, b, 2])),1),
+ run_test((zip(X,[a,b],[1,a,2,b]),!,X=[1,2]),1),
+ run_test((zip([1,2],X,[1,a,2,b]),!,X=[a,b]),1),
+ run_test(assoc([[a,1],[b,2],[c,3],[d,4],[b,5]],c,3),1),
+ run_test(not(assoc([[a,1],[b,2],[c,3],[d,4],[b,5]],f,_)),1),
+ run_test(not(assoc([[a,1],[b,2],[c,3],[d,4],[b,5]],_,99)),1),
+ run_test((bagof(X,assoc([[a,1],[b,2],[c,3],[d,4],[b,5]],b,X),Y),!,Y=[2,5]),1),
+ run_test((bagof(X,assoc([[a,1],[b,2],[c,3],[d,1],[b,5]],X,1),Y),!,Y=[a,d]),1),
+ run_test(remove_duplicates([1,2,3,4,2,3],[1,2,3,4]),1),
+ run_test(not(remove_duplicates([1,2,3,4,2,3],[1,4,2,3])),1),
+ run_test((remove_duplicates([1,2,3,4,2,3],X),!,X=[1,2,3,4]),1),
+ run_test((union([1,2,3,4],[1,3,5,6],X),!,unordered_eq(X,[1,2,3,4,5,6])),1),
+ run_test(not((union([1,2,3],[4,3],X),!,unordered_eq(X,[1,2,3]))),1),
+ run_test((intersection([1,2,3,4],[1,3,5,6],X),!,unordered_eq(X,[1,3])),1),
+ run_test(not(intersection([1,2,3],[4,3],[1])),1),
+
+ run_test(not(available_at(lengua_sopa,el_cuervo)),1),
+ run_test((bagof(X:Y,available_at(X,Y),Z),!,subset([carnitas_taco:el_cuervo,
+ combo_plate:el_cuervo,
+ al_pastor_taco:el_cuervo,
+ carne_asada_burrito:el_cuervo,
+ birria_taco:la_posta,
+ adobado_burrito:la_posta],Z)),1),
+ run_test((bagof(X,available_at(carnitas_taco,X),Y),!,unordered_eq(Y,[el_cuervo,robertos])),1),
+ run_test(multi_available(carnitas_taco),1),
+ run_test(not(multi_available(lengua_sopa)),1),
+ run_test((bagof(X,multi_available(X),Y),!,unordered_eq(Y,[carnitas_taco,carne_asada_burrito,adobado_plate,combo_plate])),1),
+ run_test(overworked(maria),1),
+ run_test(not(overworked(carlos)),1),
+ run_test((bagof(X,overworked(X),Y),!,unordered_eq(Y,[maria,miguel])),1),
+ run_test(not(total_cost(carnitas_taco,3)),1),
+ run_test((total_cost(carnitas_taco,X),!,X=5),1),
+ run_test((bagof(X,total_cost(X,5),Y),!,unordered_eq(Y,[carnitas_taco,birria_taco,lengua_sopa])),1),
+ run_test(not(has_ingredients(lengua_sopa,[cheese,lengua])),1),
+ run_test((bagof(X,has_ingredients(X,[salsa,guacamole,cheese]),Y),!,unordered_eq(Y,[al_pastor_taco,combo_plate])),1),
+ run_test(not(avoids_ingredients(lengua_sopa,[cheese,lengua])),1),
+ run_test(avoids_ingredients(lengua_sopa,[cheese,tortilla]),1),
+ run_test((bagof(X,avoids_ingredients(X,[guacamole]),Y),!,unordered_eq(Y,[al_pastor_burrito,lengua_sopa])),1),
+ run_test((bagof(X,avoids_ingredients(X,[salsa,guacamole]),Y),!,unordered_eq(Y,[lengua_sopa])),1),
+ run_test((find_items(X,[taco,guacamole],[cheese]),!,unordered_eq(X,[carnitas_taco,birria_taco,guacamole_taco])),1),
+ run_test((find_items(X,[tortilla],[rice]),!,unordered_eq(X,[al_pastor_burrito])),1),
+ run_test((find_items(X,[],[rice,guacamole]),!,unordered_eq(X,[al_pastor_burrito, lengua_sopa])),1),
+ run_test((find_items(X,[rice,guacamole],[salsa]),!,unordered_eq(X,[carne_asada_burrito, adobado_burrito, adobado_plate])),1),
+ run_test((find_items(X,[guacamole,cheese,salsa],[]),!,unordered_eq(X,[al_pastor_taco,combo_plate])),1)
+ ],Max,Pts).
+
+:- run_all_tests(Max,Pts), print_list(['Result: ',Pts,'/',Max]), nl, halt.
diff --git a/static/raw/intro.pl b/static/raw/intro.pl
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aea921d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/intro.pl
@@ -0,0 +1,104 @@
+isMexican(carnitas).
+isDelicious(X) :- isMexican(X).
+
+hasType(t,bool).
+hasType(f,bool).
+hasType(num, int).
+hasType(add(X,Y),int) :- hasType(X,int), hasType(Y, int).
+
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%%
+%% Family %%
+%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+parent(kim, holly).
+parent(margaret, kim).
+parent(herbert, margaret).
+parent(john, kim).
+parent(felix, john).
+parent(albert, felix).
+parent(albert, dana).
+parent(felix, maya).
+
+grandparent(GP, GC) :- parent(GP, P), parent(P, GC).
+greatgrandparent(GGP, GC) :- parent(GGP, GP), grandparent(GP, GC).
+
+has_family(X) :- parent(X, _).
+has_family(X) :- parent(_, X).
+
+ancestor(A,X) :- parent(P,X),ancestor(A,P).
+ancestor(A,X) :- parent(A,X).
+
+sibling(X, Y) :- parent(P,X), parent(P,Y), not(X = Y).
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+%% Arithmetic %%
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+% A
+% addP(X, Y) :- _ is X + Y.
+
+% B
+addP(X, Y, Z) :- Z is X + Y.
+
+% C
+% addP(X, Y, X + Y).
+
+% D
+% addP(X, Y) :- X + Y.
+
+% E
+% addP(X, Y, Z) :- X + Y is Z.
+
+fib(0,1).
+fib(1,1).
+fib(N,R) :- N > 1
+ , N1 is N - 1
+ , N2 is N - 2
+ , fib(N1,R1)
+ , fib(N2,R2)
+ , R is R1 + R2.
+
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%
+%% Lists %%
+%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+
+headOf([H|_],H).
+tailOf([_|T],T).
+
+
+isIn(X,[X|_]).
+isIn(X,[_|T]) :- isIn(X,T).
+
+sum([],0).
+sum([H|T],R) :- sum(T,R1), R is H + R1.
+
+append([],Ys,Ys).
+append([H|T],Ys,[H|Zs]) :- append(T,Ys,Zs).
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+%% Farmer, Wolf, Goat, Cabbage %%
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+change(east,west).
+change(west,east).
+
+move([X,X,P_Goat,P_Cab], move_wolf, [Y,Y,P_Goat,P_Cab]) :- change(X,Y).
+move([X,P_Wolf,X,P_Cab], move_goat, [Y,P_Wolf,Y,P_Cab]) :- change(X,Y).
+move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,X], move_cabbage,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,Y]) :- change(X,Y).
+move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cab],move_nothing,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cab]) :- change(X,Y).
+
+safe([P_Farmer,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cab]) :-
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Wolf,P_Goat),
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Goat,P_Cab).
+
+one_equal(X,X,_).
+one_equal(X,_,X).
+
+solution([east,east,east,east],[]).
+solution(State,[FirstMove|RemainingMoves]) :-
+ move(State,FirstMove,NextState),
+ safe(NextState),
+ solution(NextState,RemainingMoves).
+
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diff --git a/static/raw/lec1-intro-nup.pdf b/static/raw/lec1-intro-nup.pdf
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diff --git a/static/raw/lec_1_12_21.lc b/static/raw/lec_1_12_21.lc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5db79f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/lec_1_12_21.lc
@@ -0,0 +1,117 @@
+
+let ID = (\x -> x)
+let FIRST = \x1 x2 x3 -> x1 -- (\x1 -> (\x2 -> (\x3 -> x1)))
+let SECOND = \x1 x2 x3 -> x2 -- (\x1 -> (\x2 -> (\x3 -> x2)))
+let THIRD = \x1 x2 x3 -> x3 -- (\x1 -> (\x2 -> (\x3 -> x3)))
+
+let TRUE = (\x -> (\y -> x))
+let FALSE = (\x -> (\y -> y))
+let ITE = (\b -> (\x -> (\y -> ((b x) y))))
+
+let NOT = \b -> ITE b FALSE TRUE
+let AND = \b1 b2 -> ITE b1 b2 FALSE
+let OR = \b1 b2 -> ITE b1 TRUE b2
+
+--
+eval not_false:
+ NOT FALSE
+ =d> (\b -> ITE b FALSE TRUE) FALSE
+ =b> ITE FALSE FALSE TRUE
+ -- =d> ((((\b -> (\x -> (\y -> ((b x) y)))) FALSE) FALSE) TRUE)
+ -- =*> ((FALSE FALSE) TRUE)
+ -- =d> ((((\x -> (\y -> y))) FALSE) TRUE)
+ -- =b> (\y -> y) TRUE
+ =*> TRUE
+
+eval and_t_t :
+ AND TRUE TRUE
+ =d> (\b1 b2 -> ITE b1 b2 FALSE) TRUE TRUE
+ =*> ITE TRUE TRUE FALSE
+ =*> TRUE
+
+eval and_t_f :
+ AND TRUE FALSE
+ =d> (\b1 b2 -> ITE b1 b2 FALSE) TRUE FALSE
+ =*> ITE TRUE FALSE FALSE
+ =*> FALSE
+
+
+eval ite_true:
+ ITE TRUE xxx yyy
+ =d> (\b x y -> b x y) TRUE xxx yyy
+ =*> TRUE xxx yyy
+ =d> (\x -> (\y -> x)) xxx yyy
+ =b> (\y -> xxx) yyy
+ =b> xxx
+
+eval ite_true:
+ ITE FALSE xxx yyy
+ =d> (\b x y -> b x y) FALSE xxx yyy
+ =*> FALSE xxx yyy
+ =d> (\x -> (\y -> y)) xxx yyy
+ =b> (\y -> y) yyy
+ =b> yyy
+
+eval and_f_t :
+ AND FALSE TRUE
+ =d> (\b1 b2 -> ITE b1 b2 FALSE) FALSE TRUE
+ =*> ITE FALSE TRUE FALSE
+ =*> FALSE
+
+
+
+
+
+eval ex_true:
+ (((ITE TRUE) apple) banana)
+ =d> ((((\b -> (\x -> (\y -> ((b x) y)))) TRUE) apple) banana)
+ =*> ((TRUE apple) banana)
+ =*> (\x y -> x) apple banana
+ =*> apple
+
+eval ex_false:
+ (((ITE FALSE) apple) banana)
+ =d> ((((\b -> (\x -> (\y -> ((b x) y)))) FALSE) apple) banana)
+ =*> ((FALSE apple) banana)
+ =*> (\x y -> y) apple banana
+ =*> banana
+
+
+
+eval ex_first:
+ (((FIRST apple) banana) orange)
+ =d>((((\x1 -> (\x2 -> (\x3 -> x1))) apple) banana) orange)
+ =b> (((\x2 -> (\x3 -> apple)) banana) orange)
+ =b> (\x3 -> apple) orange
+ =b> apple
+
+
+eval ex_second:
+ (((SECOND apple) banana) orange)
+ =d> ((((\x1 -> (\x2 -> (\x3 -> x2))) apple) banana) orange)
+ =b> (((((\x2 -> (\x3 -> x2)))) banana) orange)
+ =b> ((((((\x3 -> banana))))) orange)
+ =b> ((((((banana))))) )
+
+
+
+
+eval tricky :
+ ((\x -> (\y -> x)) y)
+ =a> ((\x -> (\z -> x)) y)
+ =a> ((\tue -> (\z -> tue)) y)
+ =b> (\z -> y)
+
+eval id_apple :
+ ID apple
+ =d> (\x -> x) apple
+ =b> apple
+
+eval ex1 :
+
+ ((\f -> (f ID)) ID)
+ =d> ((\f -> (f (\x -> x))) (\x -> x))
+ =a> ((\f -> (f (\x -> x))) (\y -> y))
+ =b> ((\y -> y) (\x -> x))
+ =b> (\x -> x)
+
diff --git a/static/raw/lec_4_10_2019.lc b/static/raw/lec_4_10_2019.lc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..db59c70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/lec_4_10_2019.lc
@@ -0,0 +1,224 @@
+
+let MICKEYMOUSE = (\x -> x)
+let FUNKY = \y -> y y
+
+let TRUE = \x y -> x
+let FALSE = \x y -> y
+let IF = \b stuff other -> b stuff other
+let NOT = \b -> IF b FALSE TRUE
+let AND = \b1 b2 -> IF b1 b2 FALSE
+let OR = \b1 b2 -> IF b1 TRUE b2
+let FIX = \stp -> (\x -> stp (x x)) (\x -> stp (x x))
+
+let PACK = \v1 v2 -> (\choice -> IF choice v1 v2)
+let FST = \box -> box TRUE
+let SND = \box -> box FALSE
+
+let TODO = \x -> x
+
+-- let PACK3 = \v1 v2 v3 -> (\c1 c2 -> IF c1 v1 (IF c2 v2 v3))
+-- let FST3 = \t -> t TRUE TRUE
+-- let SND3 = \t -> t FALSE TRUE
+-- let THD3 = \t -> t FALSE FALSE
+
+let PACK3 = \v1 v2 v3 -> PACK (PACK v1 v2) v3
+let FST3 = \t -> FST (FST t)
+let SND3 = \t -> SND (FST t)
+let THD3 = \t -> SND t
+
+let PACK4 = \v1 v2 v3 v4 sel -> sel v1 v2 v3 v4
+let F1 = \v1 v2 v3 v4 -> v1
+let F2 = \v1 v2 v3 v4 -> v2
+let F3 = \v1 v2 v3 v4 -> v3
+let F4 = \v1 v2 v3 v4 -> v4
+
+
+let ZERO = \f x -> x
+let ONE = \f x -> f x
+let TWO = \f x -> f (f x)
+let THREE = \f x -> f (f (f x))
+let FOUR = \f x -> f (f (f (f x)))
+let SIX = \f x -> f (f (f (f (f (f x)))))
+
+-- n f x == f (f( ... (f x))) -- n times
+
+let INC = \n -> (\f x -> f (n f x))
+
+let ADD = \n m -> n INC m
+let MUL = \n m -> n (ADD m) ZERO
+let ISZ = \t o b e d o n e -> e
+let DEC = \t o b e d o n e -> e
+
+-- let SUM = \n -> 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n
+let SUM_HELPER = \callme -> \n -> IF (ISZ n) ZERO (ADD n (callme (DEC n)))
+let FIX = \step -> (\x -> step (x x)) (\x -> step (x x))
+let SUM = FIX SUM_HELPER
+
+eval sum0:
+ SUM THREE
+ =~> SIX
+
+
+eval mul0:
+ MUL TWO TWO
+ =~> FOUR
+
+
+eval add0:
+ ADD TWO ONE
+ =*> THREE
+
+
+eval pack4:
+ (PACK4 JOHN PAUL GEORGE RINGO) F2
+ -- =*> (\sel -> sel JOHN PAUL GEORGE RINGO) F1
+ -- =b> (F1 JOHN PAUL GEORGE RINGO)
+ -- =d> ((\v1 v2 v3 v4 -> v1) JOHN PAUL GEORGE RINGO)
+ =*> PAUL
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+eval inc0:
+ INC (INC ZERO)
+ =*> TWO
+
+
+eval pack1:
+ FST3 (PACK3 Cookie Sandwich OrangeJuice)
+ =~> Cookie
+
+eval pack2:
+ SND3 (PACK3 Cookie Sandwich OrangeJuice)
+ =~> Sandwich
+
+eval pack3:
+ THD3 (PACK3 Cookie Sandwich OrangeJuice)
+ =~> OrangeJuice
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+eval exPack0:
+ FST (PACK COOKIE SANDWICH)
+ =*> FST (\choice -> IF choice COOKIE SANDWICH)
+ =*> (\choice -> IF choice COOKIE SANDWICH) TRUE
+ =*> IF TRUE COOKIE SANDWICH
+ =*> COOKIE
+
+eval exPack1:
+ SND (PACK COOKIE SANDWICH)
+ =*> SND (\choice -> IF choice COOKIE SANDWICH)
+ =*> (\choice -> IF choice COOKIE SANDWICH) FALSE
+ =*> IF FALSE COOKIE SANDWICH
+ =*> SANDWICH
+
+
+eval asIf0:
+ IF cond this that
+ =d> (\b stuff other -> b stuff other) cond this that
+ =b> (\stuff other -> cond stuff other) this that
+ =b> (\other -> cond this other) that
+ =b> (cond this that)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+eval exNOT:
+ NOT FALSE
+ =d> (\b -> IF b FALSE TRUE) FALSE
+ =b> IF FALSE FALSE TRUE
+ =d> (\b stuff other -> b stuff other ) FALSE FALSE TRUE
+ =b> (\stuff other -> FALSE stuff other ) FALSE TRUE
+ =b> (\other -> FALSE FALSE other) TRUE
+ =b> (FALSE FALSE TRUE)
+ =d> ((\x y -> y) FALSE TRUE)
+ =b> ((\ y -> y) TRUE)
+ =b> TRUE
+
+
+eval exTRUE:
+ (((IF TRUE) apple) banana)
+ =d> ((\b -> (\stuff other -> b stuff other)) TRUE) apple banana
+ =b> ((((\stuff other -> TRUE stuff other))) apple) banana
+ =b> ((((\other -> TRUE apple other)))) banana
+ =b> TRUE apple banana
+ =d> (\x y -> x) apple banana
+ =b> (\y -> apple) banana
+ =b> apple
+
+eval exFALSE:
+ (((IF FALSE) apple) banana)
+ =d> ((\b -> (\stuff other -> b stuff other)) FALSE) apple banana
+ =b> ((((\stuff other -> FALSE stuff other))) apple) banana
+ =b> ((((\other -> FALSE apple other)))) banana
+ =b> FALSE apple banana
+ =d> (\x y -> y) apple banana
+ =b> (\y -> y) banana
+ =b> banana
+
+
+
+
+
+eval mickey0 :
+ MICKEYMOUSE cheese
+ =d> (\x -> x) cheese
+ =b> cheese
+
+
+-- \x1 x2 x3 x4 -> e
+-- abbrev
+-- \x1 -> (\x2 -> (\x3 -> (\x4 -> e)))
+
+-- e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
+-- abbrev
+-- ((((e1 e2) e3) e4) e5)
+
+-- (\x y -> x) apple orange
+-- (((\x -> (\y -> x)) apple) orange)
+
+eval blurb:
+ (\a b -> a) (c a b)
+ =a> (\a b -> a) (c a b)
+
+
+ -- =b> ((\b -> (c a b)))
+ -- (\a -> (\b -> a)) (c a b)
+ -- ^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^
+
+-- eval piazza2:
+-- (\a b -> c b a)
+-- =b> (\b -> c b c)
+
+-- What's up with the below lambda terms?
+
+-- \a b -> a d
+-- \a b c -> a
+
+
+
diff --git a/static/raw/lec_4_1_2019.lc b/static/raw/lec_4_1_2019.lc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a04036
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/lec_4_1_2019.lc
@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+
+eval ex0 :
+ (\x -> x) apple
+ =b> apple
+
+eval ex1 :
+ (\f -> f (\x -> x)) (give apple)
+ =b> (give apple) (\x -> x)
+
+
+eval ex2 :
+ (\x -> (\y -> x)) y
+ =a> (\ike -> (\y -> ike)) y
+ =a> (\ike -> (\chip -> ike)) y
+ =b> (\chip -> y)
+
+
+eval ex3 :
+ (\x -> (\y -> y)) y
+ =a> (\x -> (\z -> z)) y
+ =b> (\z -> z)
+
+eval ex5 :
+ (\x -> (\y -> x y))
+ =a> (\apple -> (\y -> apple y))
+ =a> (\apple -> (\orange -> apple orange))
+
+
+eval ex6 :
+ (\f -> f (\x -> x)) (\x -> x)
+ =a> (\f -> f (\y -> y)) (\x -> x)
+ =b> (\x -> x) (\y -> y)
+ =b> (\y -> y)
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/static/raw/lec_4_8_2019.lc b/static/raw/lec_4_8_2019.lc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..330f751
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/lec_4_8_2019.lc
@@ -0,0 +1,88 @@
+
+let MICKEYMOUSE = (\x -> x)
+let FUNKY = \y -> y y
+
+let TRUE = \x y -> x
+let FALSE = \x y -> y
+let IF = \b stuff other -> b stuff other
+let NOT = \b -> IF b FALSE TRUE
+let AND = \b1 b2 -> IF b1 b2 FALSE
+let OR = \b1 b2 -> IF b1 TRUE b2
+
+eval exNOT:
+ NOT FALSE
+ =d> (\b -> IF b FALSE TRUE) FALSE
+ =b> IF FALSE FALSE TRUE
+ =d> (\b stuff other -> b stuff other ) FALSE FALSE TRUE
+ =b> (\stuff other -> FALSE stuff other ) FALSE TRUE
+ =b> (\other -> FALSE FALSE other) TRUE
+ =b> (FALSE FALSE TRUE)
+ =d> ((\x y -> y) FALSE TRUE)
+ =b> ((\ y -> y) TRUE)
+ =b> TRUE
+
+
+
+
+
+eval exTRUE:
+ (((IF TRUE) apple) banana)
+ =d> ((\b -> (\stuff other -> b stuff other)) TRUE) apple banana
+ =b> ((((\stuff other -> TRUE stuff other))) apple) banana
+ =b> ((((\other -> TRUE apple other)))) banana
+ =b> TRUE apple banana
+ =d> (\x y -> x) apple banana
+ =b> (\y -> apple) banana
+ =b> apple
+
+eval exFALSE:
+ (((IF FALSE) apple) banana)
+ =d> ((\b -> (\stuff other -> b stuff other)) FALSE) apple banana
+ =b> ((((\stuff other -> FALSE stuff other))) apple) banana
+ =b> ((((\other -> FALSE apple other)))) banana
+ =b> FALSE apple banana
+ =d> (\x y -> y) apple banana
+ =b> (\y -> y) banana
+ =b> banana
+
+
+
+
+
+eval mickey0 :
+ MICKEYMOUSE cheese
+ =d> (\x -> x) cheese
+ =b> cheese
+
+
+-- \x1 x2 x3 x4 -> e
+-- abbrev
+-- \x1 -> (\x2 -> (\x3 -> (\x4 -> e)))
+
+-- e1 e2 e3 e4 e5
+-- abbrev
+-- ((((e1 e2) e3) e4) e5)
+
+-- (\x y -> x) apple orange
+-- (((\x -> (\y -> x)) apple) orange)
+
+eval blurb:
+ (\a b -> a) (c a b)
+ =a> (\a b -> a) (c a b)
+
+
+ -- =b> ((\b -> (c a b)))
+ -- (\a -> (\b -> a)) (c a b)
+ -- ^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^
+
+-- eval piazza2:
+-- (\a b -> c b a)
+-- =b> (\b -> c b c)
+
+-- What's up with the below lambda terms?
+
+-- \a b -> a d
+-- \a b c -> a
+
+
+
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/static/raw/midterm-sp12.pdf b/static/raw/midterm-sp12.pdf
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9bb8843
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diff --git a/static/raw/midterm-sp14.pdf b/static/raw/midterm-sp14.pdf
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9946fb2
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diff --git a/static/raw/midterm-sp15.pdf b/static/raw/midterm-sp15.pdf
new file mode 100644
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diff --git a/static/raw/midterm-wi12.pdf b/static/raw/midterm-wi12.pdf
new file mode 100644
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diff --git a/static/raw/moo.hs b/static/raw/moo.hs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6f16c84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/moo.hs
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+import Text.Printf (printf)
+import System.Environment
+import System.IO
+
+main :: IO ()
+main = do
+ cow <- readFile "cow.txt"
+ msg <- getInput
+ cowSays cow msg
+
+cowSays :: String -> String -> IO ()
+cowSays cow msg = do
+ let out = blurb (msgLines lineSize msg)
+ putStrLn (out ++ cow)
+
+getInput :: IO String
+getInput = do
+ args <- getArgs
+ case args of
+ [] -> hGetContents stdin
+ _ -> return (unwords args)
+
+lineSize :: Int
+lineSize = 40
+
+blurb :: [String] -> String
+blurb lines = unlines
+ $ hdr
+ : [ printf "< %s >" (pad l) | l <- lines ]
+ ++ [ hdr ]
+ where
+ pad l = l ++ replicate (n - length l) ' '
+ n = min lineSize (maximum (map length lines))
+ hdr = " " ++ replicate (n + 2) '-' ++ " "
+
+msgLines :: Int -> String -> [String]
+msgLines n str = go [] (words str)
+ where
+ go acc [] = reverse acc
+ go acc ws = let (l, rest) = splitAtSize n ws
+ in go (unwords l: acc) rest
+
+splitAtSize :: Int -> [String] -> ([String], [String])
+splitAtSize n words = go n [] words
+ where
+ go k acc (w:ws)
+ | length w < k = go (k - length w - 1) (w:acc) ws
+ | otherwise = (reverse acc, w:ws)
+ go k acc [] = (reverse acc, [])
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/static/raw/prolog.pl b/static/raw/prolog.pl
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..71c3ea5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/prolog.pl
@@ -0,0 +1,300 @@
+append([] , Ys, Ys).
+append([H|T], Ys, [H|R]) :- append(T, Ys, R).
+
+isIn(X,[X|_]).
+isIn(X,[_|T]) :- isIn(X,T).
+
+headP([H|_],H).
+
+tailP([_|T],T).
+
+fibP(0, 1).
+fibP(1, 1).
+fibP(N, R) :- 1 < N
+ , N1 is N-1
+ , N2 is N-2
+ , fibP(N1, R1)
+ , fibP(N2,R2)
+ , R is R1+R2.
+
+
+% term1 is term2
+
+addP(X,Y,Out) :- Out is X + Y.
+
+% fact
+isMexican(pulpo).
+isMexican(barbacoa).
+isMexican(carnitas).
+
+% rule
+isDelicious(X) :- isMexican(X).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+% List of parent relationships
+
+parent(kim, holly).
+parent(margaret, kim).
+parent(herbert, margaret).
+parent(john, kim).
+parent(felix, john).
+parent(albert, felix).
+parent(albert, dana).
+parent(felix, maya).
+parent(alice, jum).
+
+anc(X, Y) :- parent(X, Y).
+anc(X, Y) :- parent(X, Z1), anc(Z1, Y).
+
+ancLoop(X, Y) :- ancLoop(Z1, Y), parent(X, Z1).
+ancLoop(X, Y) :- parent(X, Y).
+
+
+sib1(X, Y) :- parent(P, X), parent(P, Y), not(X = Y).
+sib2(X, Y) :- not(X = Y), parent(P, X), parent(P, Y).
+
+hasManyKids(X) :- parent(X, Y), parent(X, Z), Y \= Z.
+
+isSibling(X, Y) :- parent(P, X), parent(P, Y), X \= Y.
+
+isGrandParent(GPar, GKid) :- parent(GPar, Par), parent(Par, GKid).
+
+% IF parent(X, Y) and parent(X, Z) and Y \= Z
+% THEN hasManyKids(X)
+
+
+
+
+grandparent(X,Y) :- parent(X,Z), parent(Z,Y).
+
+greatgrandparent(X,Y) :- parent(X,Z),grandparent(Z,Y).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+has_family(X) :- parent(X,_).
+has_family(X) :- parent(_,X).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y).
+ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(Z,Y),ancestor(X,Z).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ancestor1(X,Y) :- ancestor1(X,Z), parent(Z,Y).
+ancestor2(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ancestor2(X,Y) :- parent(Z,Y),ancestor2(X,Z).
+ancestor2(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y).
+
+
+sib(X,Y) :- parent(Z,X), parent(Z,Y).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+sibling1(X,Y) :- not(X=Y),parent(P,X),parent(P,Y).
+
+sibling2(X,Y) :- parent(P,X), parent(P,Y),not(X=Y).
+
+sibling3(X,Y) :- X\=Y,parent(P,X),parent(P,Y).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
+
+factorial(N,R) :- 1 < N, N1 is N-1, factorial(N1,R1), R is N * R1.
+factorial(N,1) :- N < 2.
+
+
+fib(N, 1) :- N < 2.
+fib(N, R) :- 1 < N, N1 is N-1, N2 is N-2, fib(N1, R1), fib(N2,R2), R is R1+R2.
+
+
+app([],Y,Y).
+app([Hx|Tx],Y,[Hx|T]) :- app(Tx,Y,T).
+
+
+
+
+
+tailof([_|X],X).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+has3ormore([_,_,_|_]).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+barbaz([X,_,_,_,_,X|_]).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+isin(X,[X|_]).
+isin(X,[_|T]) :- isin(X,T).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+len([],0).
+len([_|T],N) :- len(T,Nt), N is Nt + 1.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+rev(X,Y) :- acc_rev(X,Y,[]).
+acc_rev([],Y,Y).
+acc_rev([H|T],Y,SoFar) :- acc_rev(T,Y,[H|SoFar]).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+foo(a).
+foo(b).
+foo(c).
+foo(d).
+
+
+
+
+
+allfoos(L) :- listallfoos(L,[]).
+
+
+
+
+
+listallfoos([X|L],SoFar) :-
+ foo(X),
+ not(isin(X,SoFar)),
+ append(SoFar,[X],NewSoFar),
+ listallfoos(L,NewSoFar).
+
+listallfoos([],_).
+
+
+move(A,B) :-
+ nl, write('Move topdisk from '),
+ write(A), write(' to '), write(B).
+
+
+transfer(1,A,B,_) :- move(A,B).
+transfer(N,A,B,X) :-
+ M is N-1,
+ transfer(M,A,X,B),
+ move(A,B),
+ transfer(M,X,B,A).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+change(e,w).
+change(w,e).
+
+
+
+
+move([X,X,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_wolf,[Y,Y,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y).
+move([X,P_Wolf,X,P_Cabbage],move_goat,[Y,P_Wolf,Y,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y).
+move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,X],move_cabbage,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,Y]) :- change(X,Y).
+move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_nothing,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y).
+
+
+one_equal(X,X,_).
+one_equal(X,_,X).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+safe([P_Farmer,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :-
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Goat,P_Wolf),
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Goat,P_Cabbage).
+
+
+
+solution([e,e,e,e],[]).
+solution(State,[FirstMove|RemainingMoves]) :-
+ move(State,FirstMove,NextState),
+ safe(NextState),
+ solution(NextState,RemainingMoves).
+
+
+
+
+
+% ?- length(X,7), solution([w,w,w,w],X).
diff --git a/static/raw/prolog.txt b/static/raw/prolog.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..845d4c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/prolog.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,1506 @@
+Logic Programming
+=========================================================================
+(adapted from lecture notes by Henri Casanova and Todd Millstein)
+
+
+=============================== lecture 1 ===============================
+
+------------------------------ introduction -----------------------------
+
+We now turn to a brand new paradigm, called "Logic Programming Languages"
+-- our vehicle for studying this paradigm is Prolog, whose roots are
+in logic and on automated theorem proving.
+Prolog was developed in the 1970s for AI applications. Some such applications
+have a knowledge base (or database) of facts, from which you'd like to
+ask queries and deduce other facts. For example, given facts in the
+knowledge base like "Carnitas is Mexican" and "Mexican food is delicious",
+then we can deduce "Carnitas is delicious".
+
+Prolog probably looks nothing like any language you've seen before.
+Fundamental difference between Prolog and most other languages:
+
+ You don't run a Prolog Program
+
+Instead, you ask questions and the system attempts to answer them using the
+rules and facts that it has been given.
+
+ Logic programs are "declarative": the specification of the
+ desired results are written, rather than how to obtain them.
+
+This approach is very good at expressing problems that involve searching
+a large space of possibilities. For example, given a list of cities and
+distances between them, find me the shortest route that passes through
+each one once (the travelling salesman problem).
+
+The philosophy of this approach is that it is often hard to specify a
+search algorithm -- and in such cases, it is easier to specify
+the characteristics of the solution.
+To do so, you specify *facts* and *rules* for deducing new
+facts from old facts, and then a *query*. So you just state what is
+true and then ask what (else) is true. The language implementation figures
+out how to actually compute appropriate solutions.
+Use the travelling salesman problem as an illustration: I say
+the constraints, not how to search the space of possible solutions.
+Of course, as we will see, this is a simplification, and often for reasons
+of efficiency, one has to impose constraints on the search.
+
+The original and principal applications for Prolog are in various AI
+settings such as (expert databases). Examples include using prolog-based
+databases to determine when credit card fraud has occurred (prolog is used
+to specify rules that indicate when a fraud occurs), and there are
+projects afoot to use ideas from prolog to determine suspicious
+people from phone/communication patterns.
+Note that currently AI researchers devise statistical techniques to
+complement (if not replace) logical approaches for such tasks.
+Another big application is as a database query language.
+E.g., my facts are things like the daily stock prices of various
+stocks over the last year. Queries can be things like: find me all
+pairs of stocks that had the same price on the same day at least 50
+times this year.
+Standard query languages like SQL are inspired by and are really subsets of Prolog.
+Of course, the reason we're studying it is that its a radically different
+way of thinking about computation: "programming as proving".
+You'll be surprised at how many places this paradigm fits beautifully, or
+leads to very elegant and readable systems.
+
+--------------------------- Terms --------------------------------------
+
+Based on propositional logic. The entire program comprises three kinds of
+elements: facts, rules, and queries. The basic unit of each of these are
+terms.
+
+Terms are Prolog's way of encoding data. They are very similar to the
+values of datatypes created in ML. There are three kinds of terms:
+constants, variables and compound terms.
+
+1. Constants: The simplest kind of terms are constants.
+ - integers and reals: are constants.
+
+ - atoms: are identifiers starting with a lowercase letter.
+ For example:
+
+ alice, bob, charlie
+
+ are all atoms.
+ Atoms are NOT variables -- the way to think of them is as TAGS,
+ or special constants, or elements of a giant enum datatype.
+ They are similar to the tags used in ML datatypes:
+
+ datatype day = Alice | Bob | Charlie ...
+
+ Only in ML, the tags start with a capital letter.
+
+ Atoms are *uninterpreted constants*: nothing is known about each tag
+ except that it is equal to itself.
+
+ Intuitively, Prolog knows that:
+ alice = alice
+
+ as the tags are the same. However, to it,
+ alice = bob
+ *never* makes sense, as it has a strange notion of equality, that we
+ will see shortly.
+
+ There are some built-in atoms such as "[]" that signifies the empty
+ list, "." which is used for list concatenation and so on, that we will
+ see shortly.
+
+2. Variables: Any identifier beginning with an upper case letter or an
+underscore is a variable.
+ For example,
+
+ X,Y, Head, Tail, Alfred
+
+ are all variables.
+ The variable "_" is like a "wildcard" variable, whose meaning is similar
+ to the "_" in ML, but more on that when we see what a variable means.
+ As we shall see:
+ -- x = a is nonsense (as x and a are two *different* constants/tags).
+ -- X = a has some sense (but isnt at all what one might think...).
+
+ WARNING: Upercase/Lowercase is a common source of error! Also, variables
+ are NOT declared before use (so be careful!).
+
+3. Compound Terms: These are terms of the form: atom(term,term,term,...)
+ where each "term" is either an atom or a variable or a compound term.
+ Examples include:
+ x(y,z)
+ parent(alice,bob). %here alice,bob are atoms
+ parent(alice,Child). %here alice is an atom, Child is a variable
+
+ In other words, (compound) terms are generated by the following grammar:
+
+ atom := [a-z][A-z,a-z,0-9]* | [0-9]* | ...
+
+ variable := [A-Z][a-z,A-Z,0-9]* | _
+
+ term := atom | variable | atom(term,term,term,...)
+
+ While you may be tempted to think of compound terms like:
+ parent(alice,bob)
+ as function calls, they are NOT! Instead, you should think about this
+ in the same way as we thought of ML the recursive, one-of types in ML.
+
+ type term = Atom of string
+ | Var of string
+ | Compound of string * term list
+
+ Thus, parent(alice,bob) in Prolog is equivalent to the ML value:
+
+ Compound ("parent", [Atom "alice"; Atom "bob"])
+
+ or equivalently represented as a tree:
+
+ parent
+ / \
+ / \
+ alice bob
+
+ and parent(alice, Charlie) in Prolog is "equivalent to" the ML value:
+
+ Compound ("parent", [Atom "alice"; Var "Charlie"]),
+
+ or represented as a tree:
+
+ parent
+ / \
+ / \
+ alice Var
+ |
+ |
+ Charlie
+
+
+ Consider a term: factorial(5)
+
+ NOT a function (despite what it looks like).
+ - there is no associated function implementation
+
+ Prolog has no idea of the meaning you intend for this term -- to it,
+ this is just a box containing "5" with a label "factorial".
+ Another way to view it is as a tree:
+
+ factorial
+ |
+ |
+ 5
+
+ Thus, the only thing Prolog knows is that:
+ factorial(5)=factorial(5)
+
+ i.e. the two terms are the same. In particular, to Prolog,
+ factorial(5)=120 is NOT true.
+
+ Thus Prolog compound terms are really just structured data -- like values
+ of a datatype in ML. Can also think of atoms that begin a compound term
+ as *uninterpreted functions*: e.g., factorial is a function about which
+ NOTHING is known, except that the result of applying this function to the
+ atom x, is the term "factorial(x)".
+ These atoms are called *function symbols*.
+
+-------------------------------------- Facts -------------------------------
+
+A fact is just a term, typically without any variables.
+You specify a fact by writing a term followed by a '.'.
+For example, here are a few facts that one might have in the system.
+
+ % List of parent relationships
+ parent(kim,holly).
+ parent(margaret,kim).
+ parent(herbert,margaret).
+ parent(john,kim).
+ parent(felix,john).
+ parent(albert,felix).
+
+
+Note that kim,holly,margaret,herbert,john,kim,felix,albert are all atoms.
+
+The Prolog interpreter maintains a collection of facts like the above --
+think of it as the underlying data in the database over which queries will be asked.
+You can define your own facts and add them to the database. The function
+symbols beginning a fact are called *predicates*: intuitively, they
+represent functions that evaluate to a boolean.
+
+Thus, (the atom) "parent" is a predicate that, intuitively, takes two arguements
+and returns a boolean -- we say that "parent" is a predicate of arity 2.
+The key thing to note, is that predicates have _no intrinsic meaning_.
+However, they are generally designed and named so that the programmer can
+easily "interpret" them.
+For example, as a programmer, I will decide that
+
+ parent(X,Y)
+
+means that 'X' is a parent of 'Y'. In other words, I will specify the fact:
+
+parent(a,b).
+
+only if the person corresponding to atom a is a parent of the person
+corresponding to atom b. Thus, the predicate is interpreted as a logical
+relation between X and Y.
+
+Prolog uses these facts to answer queries, as well as to infer new facts.
+Lets see how it does the first.
+
+-------------------------- Running Prolog : Queries --------------------------
+
+The standard interface to Prolog is in an interactive shell.
+To run it, first, lets put a bunch of facts into a file, and then load the
+file into the shell. Suppose the list of facts are stored in a file called
+"facts.pl". First, we load prolog, and get the shell prompt:
+
+Prolog prompt: "?-"
+
+At this prompt, enter something like:
+
+?- consult('facts.prolog').
+
+You can manually add the facts one by one by typing at the prompt:
+
+?- assert(parent(margaret,kim)).
+
+(or whatever fact you want to insert).
+
+Once this is done, the facts have been registered into the shell, we can query Prolog as follows:
+
+ 1. Prompts you to type a query
+ 2. You type a query
+ 3. Prolog tries to prove your query
+ 4. Prints out the result (or 'failure')
+ 5. Repeat
+
+The simplest query is a term followed by a '.'
+(looks like a fact, but is just typed at the prompt).
+For example, suppose you type the following query:
+
+?- parent(margaret, john).
+
+The meaning of a query is "is this fact in your database or can it be
+inferred from your database". In other words, we are asking Prolog if it
+can PROVE the fact. Prolog replies:
+
+False
+
+as this is not one of the facts (we have not yet given it any rules to
+infer new facts).
+Instead, if we were to ask:
+
+?- parent(margaret,kim).
+
+Prolog replies:
+
+True
+
+As this is in the database of facts we fed in.
+(Tip: If you forget the period then you can type it on the next line)
+Not bad, but not especially exciting -- we gave it a bunch of facts, and
+basically each query is effectively asking if the query term was one of the
+facts we supplied.
+
+Things get more fun, when we toss variables into the queries.
+
+ ?- parent(margaret,X).
+
+This is where we Prolog departs radically from other paradigms. The meaning
+of this query is:
+
+"What value(s) can you plug in for X such that the fact becomes provable for that value ?"
+Prolog replies:
+
+ X = kim [press enter if you're satisfied]
+ True
+
+This means that it can plug in "kim" for X, and thus, it can deduce the
+fact: parent(margaret,kim). Instead, you can enter the query:
+
+ ?- parent(X,kim).
+
+This asks prolog, for what values of X does the fact parent( _ , kim) hold.
+In other words, this innocent query is asking prolog -- who are the (known)
+parents of kim ? It replies:
+
+ X = margaret ; [press ';' if you want another answer]
+ X = john ;
+ False
+
+Thus, it returns, one-by-one, all the "solutions" for X that make the fact
+parent(X,kim) provable. We can make both the parameters variables:
+
+ ?- parent(X,Y).
+
+This asks prolog -- what are the pairs X,Y such that X is (provably) the
+parent of Y ? It responds:
+
+ X=kim Y=holly ;
+ X=margaret Y=kim;
+ ...
+
+Suppose you want to know if there are any strange circularities in your
+fact database -- for example, does there exist any person who is their own
+parent ? The following query does the trick:
+
+ ?- parent(X,X).
+ False
+
+------------------------------- Unification -----------------------------------
+
+In most other languages, a function designed to look up
+things like this would be less flexible -- it would require tedious
+parentOf() method or a childOf() method, loops, etc.
+With Prolog -- the queries are very flexible, and work like magic.
+Whats going on ?
+
+Turns out that Prolog's computational heart is a fancy pattern matching
+technique (also, btw, at the heart of ML's type system) borrowed from
+logicians, called "Unification". Regrettably, we won't have time to go
+into the details of unification -- and so, lets content ourselves with a
+cartoon version.
+
+
+ Intuitively, two terms can be unified if there a
+ way of assigning values to their variables so that
+ the terms become identical.
+
+This is really what " = " means in prolog -- when you ask it:
+
+ ?- t1 = t2.
+
+For any two terms t1 and t2, you are asking it whether the terms t1 and t2
+can be unified. So, if you ask:
+
+ ?- foo(bar) = foo(bar).
+ True
+
+Because there are no variables and the terms are the same.
+If instead you ask:
+
+ ?- foo(X) = foo(bar).
+
+It replies:
+ X = bar
+ True
+
+Meaning that foo(X) can be unified with foo(bar) by assigning the variable
+X to the term "bar".
+Note that we can ask this from Prolog without "declaring" any of the above
+atoms. This is because everything is symbolic -- everything is a term which
+is an arbitrary notation that can encode whatever concept.
+One can type the above right after starting the interpreter.
+
+
+The more interesting case is when there are several variable in the terms:
+
+ ?- p(X,dog) = p(cat,Y).
+ X = cat
+ Y = dog
+ True
+
+meaning that one can unify the terms p(X,dog) and p(cat,Y) by assigning
+appropriate values to X and Y. However, if we were to ask:
+
+ ?- p(cat) = p(dog).
+ False
+
+As the terms are different, and so, if we ask:
+ ?- q(X,dog,X) = p(cat,Y,Y).
+ False
+
+is the answer as to unify, X must be "cat" and Y must be "dog", but this
+ensures that the last parameter of the term can never be the same!
+
+Similarly, the unification happens "deep" into the terms:
+
+?- a(W,foo(W,Y),Y) = a(2,foo(X,3),Z).
+ W = 2
+ X = 2
+ Y = 3
+ Z = 3
+ True
+
+Intuitively, it first matches up the first position, and so W gets 2,
+next, it tries to match up the second position -- i.e.
+
+ foo(W,Y) with foo(X,3).
+
+now, W is already 2, so X also gets 2, and Y gets 3.
+Finally, it tries to match up the last position,
+and Y is 3 and so Z gets 3.
+
+Instead, the query:
+
+?- a(W,foo(W,Y),Y) = a(2,foo(X,3),X).
+ False
+
+Thus, by using W,X,Y in two places, we are forcing it to find a solution where
+those two places get exactly the same value. As a result, the constraints
+ensure that all the variables must get the same value. However, W and Y
+must get 2 and 3 and so there is no solution.
+
+Thus, this innocent "pattern matching" operation actually does a lot under
+its hood, and it turns out to be a surprisingly powerful and flexible way
+to encode all kinds of computation! All the queries that we asked before,
+were answered via unification.
+
+When we ask:
+
+ ?- parent(margaret, john).
+
+prolog checks if the term "parent(margaret,john)" can be unified with any
+of the known facts (that are also terms). If so, it says True, but as it
+cannot, it replies False.
+
+When we ask:
+
+ ?- parent(margaret,kim).
+
+it can unify the query term with a known fact term, and so it replies True.
+
+When we ask:
+
+ ?- parent(margaret,X).
+
+it tries to find all the known facts with which it can unify the query term
+-- there is only one, and so it "answers the query" by returning the
+substitution required for unification:
+ X = kim
+
+Similarly, when we ask:
+
+ ?- parent(X,kim).
+
+It attempts to find all the known terms with which this query can be
+unified -- this time, there are several terms, and the different
+valid unifying substitutions (called unifiers) yield the different parents
+of kim:
+ X = margaret ;
+ X = john ;
+ False
+
+Finally, to answer the query:
+
+ ?- parent(X,Y).
+
+It attempts to unify the query term with all known facts -- and the list of
+resulting unifiers is exactly the set of known parent child pairs.
+
+------------------------------- Conjunction ------------------------------
+
+Often, its more useful to ask questions about several terms.
+For example, to determine if margaret is holly's grandparent, we would like
+to find if there is some person who is both the child of margaret AND the
+parent of holly.
+To do so, we can issue a conjunctive query which is a list of terms
+separated by commas as follows:
+
+ ?- parent(margaret, X), parent(X, holly).
+
+To answer this query, Prolog attempts to find an X such that
+parent(margaret,X) unifies with the set of known facts, AND,
+parent(X,holly) unifies with the set of known facts.
+Upon finding a unifier that works, it replies:
+
+ X = kim
+ True
+
+Thus, as kim is the intermediate parent, we can conclude that margaret is
+indeed a grandparent of holly. Finally, consider the following query:
+
+ ?- parent(X,Y), parent(Y,Z), parent(Z,kim).
+
+It asks if there are X,Y,Z such that X is Y's parent, Y is Z's parent and Z
+is kim's parent. In other words, the query determines if kim has any
+"great-grandparent". Upon finding appropriate unifiers, prolog replies:
+
+ X = john
+ Y = felix
+ Z = albert
+ True
+
+------------------------------- Rules ------------------------------------
+
+The above is quite nifty -- it allows us to quickly mine the database to
+find interesting relationships. However, it gets somewhat cumbersome as we
+have to devise a complex conjunctive query ever time.
+Instead, it would be nice if we could define complex queries out of simpler
+queries.
+
+Rules serve exactly that purpose. They allow us to specify complex queries
+(i.e. predicates) using simpler ones. In general, the format of a rule is:
+
+ head :- condition1, condition2, condition3....
+
+Intuitively, it means, that the "head" query is true if condition1,
+condition2, condition3,... are all true. In other words, it tells prolog,
+to prove the head query, prove the conditions 1,2,3.
+
+For example, suppose we'd like to define a grandparent relationship
+(predicate). We do so as:
+
+ grandparent(GP,GC) :- parent(GP,P), parent (P,GC).
+
+Intuitively this states:
+
+ "GP is a grandparent of GC if GP is a parent of P AND P is a parent of GC".
+
+With this definition, we can now issue the following query:
+
+ ?- grandparent(X,kim).
+
+and prolog responds with:
+
+ X=herbert
+ True
+
+as it can find that parent(herbert,margaret) and parent(margaret,kim),
+therefore, applying the rule, grandparent(herbert,kim), to which fact the
+query term gets unified. We can use this predicate to write more
+predicates:
+
+ greatgrandparent(GGP,GGC) :- parent(GGP,GP) , grandparent (GP, GGC).
+
+We can now issue the query:
+
+ ?- greatgrandparent(X,holly).
+ X=herbert
+ True
+
+Program = Facts + Rules:
+------------------------
+Facts and Rules are the two kinds of "Clauses" (intuitively, a fact is
+just a rule without any conditions).
+Thus, a prolog program is a set of clauses -- partitioned into a
+database of facts and a set of rules for inferring new facts.
+
+Scope:
+------
+Notice that the same variable P appears twice in the grandparent rule.
+Indeed one may be tempted to reuse P across several rules. In Prolog, the
+scope of a variable is the clause (rule) that contains it. Thus, there is
+no connection whatsoever between variables across clauses.
+
+For example, consider the two clauses:
+
+ foo(P) :- bar(P). % There is no connection between P in
+ stuff(P) :- thing(P). % the 2 clauses.
+
+In other words, there are no global variables, all variables are local to
+the individual clauses.
+
+------------ Multiple Clauses = Disjunction and Recursion ---------------
+
+Suppose we want to define a predicate that is true for all those persons
+that have some family -- that is, those persons who have either a parent OR
+a child. We can do so as follows:
+
+ has_family(X) :- parent(X,_).
+ has_family(X) :- parent(_,X).
+
+If we have multiple rules for the same predicate, effectively we are
+specifying a disjunction. The first rule says:
+
+ "X has a family if there is some _ such that X is the parent of _"
+
+The second rule says:
+
+ "X has a family if there is some _ such that _ is the parent of X"
+
+If either of these clauses fire then, has_family(X) becomes true.
+Like in ML, the symbol "_" represents a "wildcard" or dont-care
+variable that we will use only in one place and so we not bother
+to name it.
+
+Thus,
+ ?- has_family(holly).
+ True
+
+as the second rule fires for holly. While,
+
+ ?- has_family(mugatu).
+ False
+
+as neither rule fires for mugatu.
+
+For those of you who are economical with the keystrokes, there is another
+way to specify disjunctive rules -- via a semicolon:
+
+ has_family(X) :- parent(X,_) ; parent(_,X).
+
+
+Suppose you want to specify an predicate ancestor(X,Y) which is true if
+X is an ancestor of Y, i.e. if by following the parent relationship from Y
+one eventually reaches X. Intuitively, X is an ancestor of Y either if:
+
+ 1. X is the parent of Y, or,
+ 2. Z is the parent of Y, and X is an ancestor of Z.
+
+Thus, we can specify this predicate recursively as follows:
+
+ ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y). %[Base case]
+ ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(Z,Y),ancestor(X,Z) %[Recursive case]
+
+This works quite niftily:
+
+ ?- ancestor(kim,X).
+ X = holly ;
+ False
+
+i.e. holly is the only "descendant" of kim, and:
+
+ ?- ancestor(X,kim).
+ X = margaret ;
+ X = john ;
+ X = herbert ;
+ X = felix ;
+ X = albert ;
+ False
+
+i.e. kim has a long ancestry.
+
+----------------------------- Backtracking Search ---------------------------
+
+At this point, its worth looking into how exactly prolog pulls off this
+trick of answering queries in this manner, as it has its limits, which one
+needs to know to phrase the queries appropriately. Turns out, there's no
+real magic -- just brute force "proof" search.
+
+We can view each clause as a "proof rule":
+
+ goal :- subgoal_1, subgoal_2,...
+
+Thus, the rules for ancestor are as follows:
+
+ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y). %rule 1
+ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(Z,Y),ancestor(X,Z). %rule 2
+
+To prolog, these rules mean the following -- to prove ancestor(X,Y), try to:
+
+ 1. prove the subgoal parent(X,Y), or, failing that,
+ 2. prove the subgoal parent(X,Z), and then the subgoal ancestor(X,Z).
+
+Thus, suppose we ask it the query:
+
+ ?- ancestor(felix,holly).
+
+To prove this query, it undertakes the following backtracking search:
+
+
+ ancestor(felix,holly)?
+ / \
+ parent(felix,holly) parent(Z,holly)
+ NO ancestor(felix,Z)
+ |
+ | Z = kim (by fact)
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,kim)
+ / \
+ parent(felix,kim) parent(Z',kim)
+ NO ancestor(felix,Z') ----------|
+ | | Z'=john
+ Z'=margaret | |
+ | ancestor(felix,john)
+ ancestor(felix,margaret) |
+ / \ parent(felix,john)
+ parent(felix,margaret) parent(Z'',margaret) YES
+ NO ancestor(felix,Z'')
+ |
+ Z'' = herbert |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,herbet)
+ / |
+ parent(felix,herbert) parent(Z''',herbert)
+ NO NO
+
+Thus, it first tries the base rule i.e. to prove the subgoal parent(felix,holly).
+As it cannot unify this query with any known fact, it fails (NO),
+and so it backtracks and tries the other recursive rule.
+The only Z such that parent(Z,holly) unifies with a known fact is when
+Z=kim, thus, it tries to prove the second subgoal ancestor(felix,kim).
+To do so, again it first applies the base rule, which fails, and so it
+backtracks and applies the recursive rule.
+
+This time, there are two different Z (written Z' in the figure to
+distinguish from the upper part of the tree), such that parent(Z,kim) --
+namely Z=margaret and Z=john. It picks margaret first (as that is the first
+unification that succeeds, and tries to prove the the second subgoal
+ancestor(felix,margaret). As we can see, from the subtree, this search
+fails, (as margaret's sole parent is herbert who has no parent).
+
+Thus, prolog backtracks and tries the second Z=john, and tries to prove the
+second subgoal, ancestor(felix,john). This time, the base rule works as
+parent(felix,john) is a known fact, and thus the proof search succeeds and
+prolog returns:
+
+ ?- ancestor(felix,holly).
+ True
+
+This same process is repeated for any query. When there is a variable in
+the query, eg.
+
+ ?- ancestor(X,kim).
+
+Prolog attempts the proof search and returns all the unifiers for X for which
+the proof succeeds. Thus, prolog is literally programming by proving.
+
+
+Hint: Trace mode in prolog shows the tree:
+
+ ?- trace.
+
+The subsequent query is traced: use the on-line help on the ACS Prolog interpreter
+
+ ?- help(trace).
+
+Order Matters:
+--------------
+The rub is that the order of the clauses and terms influences greatly the order
+in which the unification and backtracking happens. This is because, to
+prove a particular goal query, the different clauses are selected in
+order, and further, within each clause, the subgoals are selected from
+left-to-right, which affects how the unification happens.
+
+In the above example, if we had entered the branch Z'=john rather than
+than the branch Z'=margaret, then we would have proven the query faster.
+Similarly, if we had swapped the order of the conjunctions (subgoals) in
+the recursive clause, we would have a rather different tree (try as an
+exercise). Thus, order matters for performance.
+Hint: Try simple things first!
+
+More importantly, there are cases where the program may not even work (may
+not terminate), depending on the order:
+
+ ancestor(X,Y) :- ancestor(X,Z), parent(Z,Y).
+ ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y).
+
+Now lets try the same query:
+
+ ?- ancestor(felix,holly).
+ ERROR: Out of local stack
+
+Why ? Well, if you try to build the search tree, you'll see it goes forever:
+
+ ancestor(felix,holly)?
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,Z) %prove first subgoal,
+ | %then parent(Z,holly)
+ |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,Z') %prove first subgoal,
+ | %then parent(Z',Z)
+ |
+ |
+ ancestor(felix,Z'')
+ .
+ .
+ .
+
+So, to avoid this, we must place the parent subgoal first (in the recursive
+rule). If this is done, the unification with the base facts (parent),
+fix the possible unifiers for Z, thereby guaranteeing termination.
+
+Lets see another example. Suppose we want to define a sibling predicate,
+where sibling(X,Y) holds if X and Y have the same parent. How about:
+
+ sibling(X,Y) :- parent(P,X), parent(P,Y).
+
+Almost:
+
+ ? sibling(kim,kim).
+ True
+
+Ah, we have to ensure that X and Y are not the same. Ok, how about:
+
+ sibling(X,Y) :- not(X=Y), parent(P,X), parent(P,Y).
+
+Surely this works ? Nope. The reason is prolog's semantics of equality
+(i.e. unification). This clause is read by prolog as:
+
+first, find a X,Y such that X cannot be unified with Y,
+then, find a P such that parent(P,X), and parent(P,Y).
+
+Now the catch is that to process the first subgoal, prolog finds it can
+always unify (two unconstrained variables) X and Y, by simply assigning X to Y!
+ ?- X=Y.
+ X=Y
+ True
+
+ ?- not(X=Y).
+ False
+
+Thus, the very first subgoal always fails, thereby ensuring that:
+
+ ?- sibling(X,Y).
+ False
+
+Thus, to get the rule right, we must make sure that the goal that ensures
+that X and Y are not the same, is fired AFTER X and Y have been unified
+with appropriate atoms. We can do so by simply placing the subgoal at the
+end.
+ sibling(X,Y) :- parent(P,X), parent(P,Y), not(X=Y).
+
+ ?- sibling(X,Y).
+ X = john
+ Y = maya ;
+
+ X = felix
+ Y = dana ;
+
+ X = dana
+ Y = felix ;
+
+ X = maya
+ Y = john ;
+ False
+
+This shows a major weakness: You can's just rely on the logical
+meanings and you sort of need to know how things work.
+Oh well, nothing's perfect.
+We'll see that many, many things break down the pure philosophy
+that says: "Just write what you need logically"
+
+
+
+
+---------------------------- Numeric Computation --------------------------
+Although Prolog is mostly symbolic, there is a need for numeric
+computation.
+
+ - '=' is the unification operator
+ ?- X = 2+3.
+ X = 2+3
+ True
+ - 'is' evaluates arithmetic expressions before doing unification
+ ?- X is 2+3.
+ X = 5
+ True
+When prolog tries to solve an "is" goal it evalutes the second argument
+and then unifies, as opposed to "=" which just does the unification.
+
+ ?- Y is X+2, X=1.
+ ERROR: Args are not sufficiently instantiated
+
+ ?- X=1, Y is X+2.
+ X=1
+ Y=3
+ True
+
+Again, order of evaluation matters!
+
+Functions are Predicates:
+-------------------------
+Lets try to write a factorial function in Prolog. We need to somehow encode
+functions as predicates. Here's the deal:
+Whenever you have a function f(x), you can write a predicate
+
+ pred_f(X,Y)
+
+that captures the behavior of f by being true for all those pairs X,Y
+where Y is f(X).
+
+Thus, we can write a predicate capturing the input/output relationship of
+the factorial function -- i.e. a predicate factorial(X,Y), that is true for
+those pairs X,Y where Y is the factorial of X.
+
+ factorial(0,1). % base case
+ factorial(X,N):- X1 is X-1, factorial(X1,N1), N is X1*N1.
+
+We "call" the function with a query.
+
+ ?- factorial(0,X).
+ X = 1
+ True
+
+ ?- factorial(5,X).
+ X = 120
+
+
+---------------------------- Data Structures: Lists --------------------------------
+
+Let us now see how we can encode lists in Prolog. Again, its useful to
+recall how lists were encoded as a datatype in ML.
+ -- There is a "base atom": [] denoting the empty list
+ -- There is a "cons"tructor: | (different syntax for this).
+
+Thus, ML's list Cons(1,Cons(2,Cons(3,Nil))) is equivalent
+to the prolog term:
+
+ [1|[2|[3|[]]]]
+
+where (1) | is Cons, and (2) [] is Nil.
+
+Also, as they are heavily used, Prolog lets you write the above term as:
+[1,2,3].
+
+ ?- [1,2,3] = [1|[2|[3|[]]]].
+ True
+
+To "deconstruct" a list into head and tail, we use pattern-matching (very
+much like in ML). So:
+
+ [X|Y] unifies with any non-empty list (like h::t),
+ X unified to the first element (head)
+ Y unified to the rest of the list (tail).
+
+ ?- [X|Y] = [1,2,3,4,5].
+ X = 1
+ Y = [2,3,4,5]
+ True
+
+ ?- [X|Y] = [1].
+ X = 1
+ True
+
+ ?- [X|Y] = [].
+ False
+
+ [1|Y] unifies with any list starting with 1 (like 1::t),
+ Y unified to the rest of the list.
+
+
+ However, prolog also lets you write:
+
+ [1,2|X] which unifies with any list that starts with 1 and then 2.
+ ?- [1,2|X] = [1,2,3,4,5].
+ X = [3,4,5]
+ True
+
+ ?- [1,2|X] = [1,2]
+ X = []
+ True
+
+ ?- [1,2|X] = [1,3]
+ False
+
+ One can place variables wherever in the term, so:
+ ?- [X,Y|Z] = [1,2,3].
+ X = 1
+ Y = 2
+ Z = [3]
+
+Ok -- how do we do interesting things with lists. For example, how might we
+"append" two lists ? Well, there is no "concatenation" or sticking
+together. In prolog you write a predicate:
+
+ append(X,Y,Z)
+
+which is true if Z is the result of appending the lists X and Y.
+Turns out such a predicate is built-in, so lets see what it does.
+
+ ?- append([1,2],[3,4],Z).
+ Z=[1,2,3,4]
+ True
+
+It simply "solves" for the right Z that happens to be the result of
+appending [1,2] and [3,4], but wait, predicates can do more:
+
+ ?- append(X,[3,4],[1,2,3,4]).
+ X=[1,2]
+
+whoa! backwards computation -- what X is such that when appended to [3,4]
+you get [1,2,3,4] ? And now, the full power of multiple solutions:
+
+ ?- append(X,Y,[1,2,3]).
+ X = []
+ Y = [1,2,3] ;
+
+ X = [1]
+ Y = [2,3] ;
+
+ X = [1,2]
+ Y = [3] ;
+
+ X = [1,2,3]
+ Y = []
+ True
+
+Try doing that in another language.
+
+There are several such predicates for reverse, sort, append, built-in, but
+lets try to roll our own.
+
+ How would you write append(X,Y,Z) in Prolog?
+
+Well, the base case is that if X is empty then, Z is just Y.
+
+ append([], Y, Y). % base case
+
+The recursive case is when X is of the form [H|Tx], in which case, Z must
+begin with H, and the tail of Z is obtained by appending Tx to Y:
+
+ append([H|Tx], Y, [H|Tz]) :- append(Tx,Y,Tz). % recursive case
+
+Very different way of thinking than imperative languages. Lets see what
+happens with the query:
+ ?- append([1],[2],Z).
+
+ Prolog tries to prove the term append([1],[2],Z)
+ ---> recursive case fires.
+ H unifies to 1
+ Tx unifies to []
+ Y unifies to [2]
+ Z unifies to [1|Tz]
+ ---> prove: append(Tx,Y,Tz)
+ ---> i.e. prove: append([], [2], Tz)
+ base case fires.
+ ---> Tz unifies to [2]
+ ---> therefore: Z = [1,2]
+
+But, because of the magic of pattern matching, proving and predicates, you
+get the backwards computations by the same "proving" process !
+
+Lets do a few more. Lets write a predicate tailof(X,Y) which is true if Y
+is the tail of the list X.
+
+ tailof([_|X],X).
+
+Again, note the judicious use of the wildcard "_". If you actually named
+the variable there, eg.
+
+ tailof([H|X],X).
+
+The compiler would warn you that you named a variable but used it only
+once -- a "Singleton Variable".
+
+Lets write a predicate which is true of lists with three or more elements:
+
+ has3orMoreElements([_,_,_|_]).
+
+What does this predicate do ?
+
+ foo([X,_,_,_,X|_]).
+
+One more tricky one. Lets write a predicate isin(X,L) which is true if
+X is an element of the list L. How ?
+
+base case: if X is the first element of the list L.
+
+ isin(X,[X|_]).
+
+recursive case: if X appears in the tail of the list L.
+
+ isin(X,[_|T]) :- isin(X,T).
+
+Let's give it a spin:
+
+ ?- isin(2,[1,2,3]).
+ True
+
+ ?- isin(X,[1,2]).
+ X=1 ;
+ X=2 ;
+ False
+
+ ?- isin(1,[2,3]).
+ False
+
+
+Let's write another predicate:
+
+ mylength(L,X)
+
+which is true if X is the length of list L
+
+ mylength([],0).
+ mylength([_|Tail],Len) :- mylength(Tail,TailLen),
+ Len is TailLen +1.
+
+ ?- mylength([1,2],L).
+ does not unify with mylength([],0)
+ unifies with mylength([_|Tail],Len) with the bindings:
+ Tail = [2] and Len = L
+
+ now I need to prove the two things:
+ mylength([2],TailLen) and Len is TailLen + 1
+
+ can I prove the first one?
+ mylength([2],TailLen) does not unify with mylength([],0)
+ mylength([2],TailLen) unifies with mylength([_|Tail'],Len')
+ with the bindings:
+ Tail' = [] and Len' = TailLen
+
+ now I need to prove the two conditions:
+ mylength([],TailLen'') and Len' is TailLen'' + 1
+ can I prove the first one?
+ mylength([],TailLen'') unifies with mylength([],0)
+ with the bindings: TailLen'' = 0
+ Len' is TailLen'' + 1 then leads to the binding
+ Len' = 1
+ therefore TailLen is equal to Len', and thus to 1
+ therefore Len is equal to Len' + 1, and thus to 2
+ therefore L is equal to Len, and thus to 2
+ Prolog answers L = 2.
+
+=============================== Lecture 2 ===============================
+
+-------------------------- Accumulators ---------------------------
+
+ - There are cases in which you want to add an argument to a predicate
+ just to keep track of useful information
+
+Example: List Reverse:
+----------------------
+
+We will now write a predicate:
+
+ rev(X,Y)
+
+that is true if the list Y is the reverse of the list X.
+To do so, we will use an accumulator that tracks the elements seen so far
+in X.
+
+ rev(X,Y) :- acc_rev(X,Y,[]).
+
+The third parameter is the "accumulator". We will "push" elements into it
+in the order they appear in X. Thus, when we have pushed all the elements,
+the third parameter is the "reversed" version of X.
+
+ acc_rev([],Y,Y). %base case
+ acc_rev([H|T],Y,SoFar) :- acc_rev(T,Y,[H|SoFar]). %recursive case
+
+
+ ?- rev([1,2,3],Y).
+ Y = [3,2,1]
+ Yes
+
+ ?- rev(X,[3,2,1]).
+ X = 1,2,3
+ Yes
+
+The nice thing about predicates, is one can go forwards or backwards! Its
+completely symmetric...
+
+
+
+
+Example: Finding all solutions:
+-------------------------------
+
+Suppose we have a predicate foo(X), defined:
+
+ foo(a).
+ foo(b).
+ foo(c).
+ foo(d).
+
+and say we want to find all the terms X such that foo(X) is true.
+We will use an accumulator to define a predicate:
+
+ allfoos(L)
+
+that is true for a list of terms iff every term in the list satisfies foo.
+
+
+ allfoos(L) :- listallfoos(L,[]).
+
+listallfoos is a helper predicate, whose second argument is an accumulator
+that "tracks" which terms satisfying foo are already known. We shall then
+"add" those terms that satisfy foo, but are not in the "accumulator".
+
+ % recursive case
+ listallfoos([X|L],SoFar) :- foo(X),
+ not(isin(X,SoFar)),
+ append(SoFar,[X],NewSoFar),
+ listallfoos(L,NewSoFar).
+ % base case
+ listallfoos([],_).
+
+ ?- allfoos(A).
+ must prove listalllfoos(A,[]).
+ unifies with listallfoos([X|L],[])
+ must prove four things: foo(X)
+ not(isin(X,[])
+ append([],[X],NewSoFar)
+ listallfoos(L,NewSoFar)
+ foo(a) true (X is bound to a)
+ not(isin(a,[])) true
+ append([],[a],NewSoFar) true with NewSoFar=[a]
+ must prove listallfoos(L,[a])
+ unifies with liastallfoos([Y|L'],[a])
+ must prove four things: foo(Y)
+ not(isin(Y,[a]).
+ append([a],[Y],NewSoFar')
+ listallfoos(L',NewSoFar')
+ foo(a) true
+ not(isin(a,[a])) false BACKTRACK
+ foo(b) true (Y is bound to b)
+ not(isin(b,[b])) true
+ append([a],[b],NewSoFar') true with NewSoFar' = [a,b]
+ must prove listallfoos(L',[a,b])
+ unifies with listallfoos([Z|L''],[a,b])
+ must prove four things: foo(Z)
+ not(isin(Z,[a,b])
+ one can see that will fail BACKTRACK
+ unifies with listallfoos([],[a,b]).
+ therefore: L' unifies with []
+ therefore: [Y|L'] unifies with [b]
+ therefore L unifies with [b]
+ therefore [X|L] unifies with [a,b]
+ therefore A unifies with [a,b]
+ therefore allfoos([a,b])
+
+If you try this code, and hit ';', you'll get multiple answers
+Try to figure out why (using the "trace" mode)
+Solution: add a cut
+
+ listallfoos_cut([X|L],SoFar) :-
+ foo(X),
+ not(isin(X,SoFar)),
+ append(SoFar,[X],NewSoFar),
+ listallfoos(L,NewSoFar),!.
+
+ listallfoos_cut([],_).
+
+What happens when you flip order of base case and recursion ?
+
+---------------------------- Puzzle Solving ----------------------------
+
+We now have a good feel for what Prolog programs look like. Lets finish, by
+seeing how succinctly and elegantly prolog allows us to write code to solve
+tricky logical puzzles.
+
+
+Towers of Hanoi:
+---------------
+ | | |
+ =|= | |
+ ===|=== | |
+ =====|===== | |
+ =======|======= | |
+ --------------------------------------------------
+ Peg 1 Peg 2 Peg 3
+
+Puzzle: There are three pegs. On the first one, there is a stack of rings
+of decreasing radius (that forms a tower). In each step, you are allowed
+to move the top ring from one peg to another, but only if the rings in
+the new peg form a conical tower -- i.e. as long as the sequences of
+radii from top to bottom is increasing (as shown in the figure).
+
+ - Goal: Find the sequence of moves (move top ring from from peg X to peg Y)
+ that moves the tower from peg 1 to peg 3.
+ - The basic action is to move 1 disk, with printing
+
+ move(A,B) :-
+ nl, write ('Move topdisk from '),
+ write(A), write(' to '), write(B).
+
+ - the main predicate is transfer(N,A,B,X):
+ represents "Move N disks from peg A to peg B by using peg X as a helper"
+ - base case:
+ transfer(1,A,B,X) :- move(A,B).
+ Better written as: transfer(1,A,B,_) :- move(A,B).
+
+ - inductive case:
+ transfer(N,A,B,X) :-
+ transfer the top N-1 disks to X
+ transfer the (bottom) disk from A to B
+ transfer the top N-1 disks from X to B
+
+ transfer(N,A,B,X) :-
+ M is N-1,
+ transfer(M,A,X,B),
+ move(A,B),
+ transfer(M,X,B,A).
+
+Lets see how these work -- lets name the pegs using atoms: peg1, peg2,
+peg3. Here's the sequence of moves to transfer a tower of size 3 across
+(you can try this at home!).
+
+
+ ?- transfer(3,peg1,peg3,peg2).
+ Move topdisk from peg1 to peg3
+ Move topdisk from peg1 to peg2
+ Move topdisk from peg3 to peg2
+ Move topdisk from peg1 to peg3
+ Move topdisk from peg2 to peg1
+ Move topdisk from peg2 to peg3
+ Move topdisk from peg1 to peg3
+
+
+
+
+Farmer/ Wolf / Goat / Cabbage:
+------------------------------
+
+ *West* *East*
+
+ Goat | | Goat eats cabbage if no farmer
+ Wolf | river | Wolf eats goat if no farmer
+ Cabbage | | Only one spot on the boat(farmer+1)
+
+Configure the "state" of the program as a list with the location of the
+four objects (farmer, wolf, goat, cabbage). There are two locations: West (w)
+and East (e).
+
+ initial state: [w,w,w,w]
+
+ desired state: [e,e,e,e]
+
+There are four kinds of moves:
+ with the cabbage, (move_cabbage)
+ with the goat, (move_goat)
+ with the wolf, (move_wolf)
+ with nothing. (move_nothing)
+
+Here is how the "state" changes with a given move:
+
+For instance, [w,w,w,w] ---"move wolf"--> [e,e,w,w]
+
+We encode this as:
+
+ move([w,w,w,w],move_wolf,[e,e,w,w]).
+
+ (this just says that the state transformation above is true)
+
+We could write all the possible moves as facts, but there would be a lot. However,
+it is clear that when the farmer and wolf move, the goat and the cabbage do not
+move, so a more general fact is:
+
+ move([w,w,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_wolf,[e,e,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]).
+ move([e,e,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_wolf,[w,w,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]).
+
+therefore, a more general goal is:
+
+ move([X,X,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_wolf,[Y,Y,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y)
+
+where we have:
+ change(e,w).
+ change(w,e).
+
+In addition to ensuring that X and Y are different, this predicate ensures
+that they cannot be any random atom -- they must be either "e" or "w".
+
+Now we can just write the whole program:
+
+ move([X,X,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_wolf,[Y,Y,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y).
+ move([X,P_Wolf,X,P_Cabbage],move_goat,[Y,P_Wolf,Y,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y).
+ move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,X],move_cabbage,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,Y]) :- change(X,Y).
+ move([X,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cabbage],move_nothing,[Y,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :- change(X,Y).
+
+At this point we have encoded all the possible moves. But there is nothing about
+moves being safe or unsafe. We need a safe predicate that takes a state as input and
+is true if the state is sage (nobody eats nobody).
+
+ "if at least one of the goat or the wolf is on the same bank as the farmer, AND
+ at least one of the goat or cabbage is on the same bank as the farmer,
+ then we're safe"
+
+We define the one_equal(X,Y,Z) predicate that returns true if at least one
+of Y or Z is equal to X:
+
+ one_equal(X,X,_).
+ one_equal(X,_,X).
+
+then we can have:
+
+ safe([P_Farmer,P_Wolf,P_Goat,P_Cabbage]) :-
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Goat,P_Wolf),
+ one_equal(P_Farmer,P_Goat,P_Cabbage).
+
+this encodes the logical statement we made above.
+
+A solution is defined as a sequence of moves such that we are either:
+-- in the target configuration, all on the east bank, or,
+-- in a state from which there is a single move, which takes us into
+a safe state, from which we can get to the target configuration.
+
+ solution([e,e,e,e],[]).
+ solution(State,[FirstMove|RemainingMoves]) :-
+ move(State,FirstMove,NextState),
+ safe(NextState),
+ solution(NextState,RemainingMoves).
+
+The program is complete.
+
+Example run:
+
+If you just type solution([w,w,w,w],X), we get into an infinite loop as there are
+infinitely solutions. So:
+
+ ?- length(X,7), solution([w,w,w,w],X).
+
+ X = [goat, nothing, wolf, goat, cabbage, nothing, goat]
+
+In fact, 7 steps is the shortest solution.
+
+ ?- length(X,12), solution([w,w,w,w],X). (needs an odd number of moves)
+ No
+
+ ?- length(X,13423), solution([w,w,w,w],X).
+ [goat, goat, goat, goat, goat, goat, goat, ....., +7 steps] is one of the solutions
+
+
+------------------- Cuts (Not Covered, Bonus Material, Not on Final) ---------------
+
+ - Ordering clauses and goals is a way to somewhat control the search and
+ backtracking process, but it is very limited.
+ - There is something called a "cut" that prevents Prolog from backtracking.
+ - Example: Let's say we're writing a program to compute the following step function:
+ X < 3 phi(X) = 0
+ 3 <= X < 6 phi(X) = 2
+ 6 <= X phi(X) = 4
+
+ In Prolog we can implement this with a binary predicate, f(X,Y), which
+ is true if Y is the function value at point X. For instance, f(0,0) is
+ true, f(4,2) is true, but f(2,4) is false. Here is the program:
+
+ f(X,0) :- X < 3. [rule 1]
+ f(X,2) :- 3 =< X, X < 6. [rule 2] note '=<'
+ f(X,4) :- 6 =< X. [rule 3]
+
+ There are two sources of inefficiency in this program, that we'll see
+ on one example:
+
+ ?- f(1,Y), 2 < Y. [find a Y such that Y = f(1) and 2 < Y]
+ [ we can see this is going to fail]
+
+ what does Prolog do?
+
+ f(1,Y)
+ 2 < Y ----------
+ rule 1 / \ \
+ Y = 0 / \ rule 2 \ rule 3
+ / | Y = 2 | Y = 4
+ | | |
+ 1 < 3 3 <= 1 6 <= 1
+ 2 < 0 1 < 6 2 < 4
+ | 2 < 2 NO
+ | NO
+ 2 < 0
+ NO
+
+ There is really no point in trying rule 2 and rule 3 because since X < 3, we
+ know that rule 2 and rule 3 will fail. Basically, the three rules are mututally
+ exclusive. We know that. Prolog doesn't.
+
+ So, we can "cut" the backtracking by using the '!' operator:
+
+ f(X,0) :- X < 3, !.
+ f(X,2) :- 3 <= X, X < 6, !.
+ f(X,4) :- 6 <= X.
+
+
+ The new execution looks like:
+
+ f(1,Y)
+ 2 < Y
+ rule 1 /
+ Y = 0 /
+ /
+ |
+ 1 < 3
+ 2 < 0
+ |
+ CUT
+ |
+ 2 < 0
+ NO
+
+ Lessons: cuts can be used to prevent Prolog from going into branches
+ of the search tree that we know, due to our understanding and
+ knowledge of the problem, will not succeed anyway.
+
+ - There are many more things possible with cuts and using them well is
+ an art. A program with no cuts at all will run orders of magnitude
+ slower than an equivalent program with a few '!' thrown in.
+
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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+ CS 130 Fall 07: Sample Questions for Final
+_________________________________________________________________________
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 1:
+---------
+
+For each ML function given below, if the function is well typed, then
+write down its type, otherwise explain in less than two lines why Ocaml
+rejects the function.
+
+(a)
+let rec rev l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) -> (rev t)::h
+
+(b)
+let rec f l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) -> (List.hd h)::t
+
+
+(c)
+let rec f (tup,l) =
+ match l with
+ [] -> 0
+ | (h::t) -> tup.h + f (tup,t)
+
+(d)
+let rec f (x,y) =
+ if x then (List.hd y) + 20
+ else if not x then 0 else y
+
+(e)
+let rec f l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | f (h::t) -> h @ (flatten t)
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+Problem 2:
+---------
+
+Which of the functions below are tail recursive ?
+Also, for each function, write down its type.
+For the ones that are not, write down tail
+recursive versions that achieve the same task.
+
+(a)
+let rec map f l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) -> (f h) :: (map f t)
+
+(b)
+let rec fold f b l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> b
+ | (h::t) -> fold f (f (h,b)) t
+
+(c)
+let rec len l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> 0
+ | (h::t) -> 1 + len t
+
+(d)
+let rec f (n,l) =
+ match l with
+ [] -> n
+ | (n,h::t) = if (h>n) then f (h,t) else f(n,t)
+
+
+
+Solution: run Ocaml to get types.
+--------
+
+(a) Not tail recursive.
+ let map f l =
+ let rec helper (acc,l') =
+ match l' with
+ [] -> acc
+ | (acc,h::t) = helper((f h)::acc,t)
+ in
+ List.rev(helper([],l))
+
+(b) Tail recursive.
+
+(c) Not tail recursive.
+ let len l =
+ let rec helper (n,l') =
+ match l' with
+ [] -> n
+ | helper (n,_::t) = helper(s+1,t)
+ in
+ helper(0,t)
+
+
+(d) Tail recursive.
+
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 3:
+---------
+
+The following datatype can be used to represent arbitrarily nested
+lists.
+
+type 'a nlist = Nil | Cons of 'a elt * 'a nlist
+and 'a elt = E of 'a | NL of 'a nlist
+
+The list [1,2] could be represented as Cons(E 1,Cons(E 2,Nil)),
+the list [[1],2] as Cons(NL(Cons((E 1),Nil)),Cons(E 2,Nil))
+and the list [[[],[1]],2] as Cons(NL(Cons(NL Nil,Cons (E 1,Nil))), Cons(E 2,Nil)).
+
+Using only pattern-matching (i.e. no if-then-else expressions):
+
+(a) Write a function: nlist_toString: ('a -> string) -> 'a nlist -> string
+ such that if nl is bound to Cons(NL(Cons(NL Nil,Cons (E 1,Nil))), Cons(E 2,Nil)),
+ then (nlist_toString Int.toString nl) evaluates to: "[[[],[1]],2]".
+
+(b) Write a function flatten: 'a nlist -> 'a list that returns
+ the list of elements appearing in the nested list in order.
+ Thus when applied to any of the lists shown above, flatten
+ returns the list [1,2].
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 4:
+---------
+
+We say that two expressions e1 and e2 are semantically equivalent
+if in every environment E, evaluating e1 and evaluating e2 produces
+the same result. For each of the following pairs of expressions,
+explain why they are semantically equivalent, or if not, then give
+an environment that distinguishes the two, i.e. in which evaluating
+the two expressions gives different results.
+
+(a)
+ (* e1 *) let x = 0 in x
+
+ (* e2 *) let x = (f 1) * 0 in x
+
+(b)
+ (* e1 *) (fun a -> fun b -> a + b) p q
+
+ (* e2 *) (fun b -> fun a -> b + a) p q
+
+(c)
+ (* e1 *)
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ let y = b + 2 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+
+ (* e2 *)
+ let y = b + 2 in
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+
+(d)
+ (* e1 *)
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ let y = x + 2 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+
+ (* e2 *)
+ let y = x + 2 in
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+Solution:
+--------
+
+(a) Not equivalent: as f may not terminate or throw an exception!
+ Distinguishing environment: where f is: fun f x = f x
+
+(b) Equivalent -- as the arguments or "formals" for the two functions
+ have just been renamed.
+
+(c) Equivalent -- as only difference is order but the same expressions
+ are evaluated in both cases giving same values.
+
+(d) Not Equivalent -- a distinguishing environment is where
+ x is bound to 0 and a is bound to 0,a are bound to 0,0. The "free"
+ occurrence of x gets its value 0 from the environment, and thus y
+ gets bound differently leading to different evaluations.
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 5:
+---------
+
+Does the following code work correctly ? If not, find and fix the bug.
+
+(a) For PA #2, Problem #1 (c):
+
+ let rec ffor (i,j,f) = if i=j then () else ((f i); ffor (i+1,j,f))
+
+(b) For PA #2, Problem #1 (b): Recall that isMember (x,l) returns true if the value x
+ appears in the list l, and listReverse l returns a list with the the
+ elements of l in reversed order.
+
+ let cleanList l =
+ let rec helper (seen,rest) =
+ match rest with
+ [] -> seen
+ | h::t ->
+ let seen' = if isMember (h,t) then seen else (h::seen) in
+ let rest' = t in
+ helper (seen',rest')
+ in
+ listReverse (helper ([],l))
+
+(c) Implementation of a function pow : 'a list -> 'a list list which takes a
+ list [x1,...,xn] and returns the list of all subsets of {x1,...,xn}. That
+ is: pow [1,2,3] should return [[],[1],[2],[3],[1,2],[1,3],[2,3],[1,2,3]],
+ though the actual "order" of the subsets doesnt matter (i.e. its ok to
+ also return [[1,2,3],[1,2],[1],[2,3],[2],[1,3],[3],[]] (or any other
+ permutation).
+
+ let pow l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) ->
+ let val sub = pow t in
+ (map (fun l -> h::l) sub)
+
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 6:
+---------
+
+Consider the following structure:
+
+module L : LSIG =
+ struct
+ type my int list = Empty | Cons of int * my int list
+ exception BadList
+ let makeOne i = Cons(i,Empty)
+ let makeCons (i,l) = Cons(i,l)
+ let my hd lst = ________________________
+ let my tl lst = ________________________
+ end
+
+(a) Write bodies for my_hd and my_tl such that each takes a value of type
+ my_int_list, raises BadList if the value is Empty, and evaluates to the
+ first (for my_hd) or second (for my_tl) element of the pair that Cons carries.
+
+(b) For each of the following LSIG definitions, determine if a client of
+ L can make BadList get raised. If so, give an example client for which
+ BadList is raised. If not, briefly explain why not.
+
+ (i)
+ module type LSIG =
+ sig
+ datatype my_int_list = Empty | Cons of int * my_int_list
+ val my_hd : my_int_list -> int
+ val makeOne : int -> my_int_list
+ end
+
+ (ii)
+ module type LSIG =
+ sig
+ type my_int_list
+ val makeCons : int * my_int_list -> my_int_list
+ val my_hd : my_int_list -> int
+ val makeOne : int -> my_int_list
+ end
+
+ (iii)
+ module type LSIG =
+ sig
+ type my_int_list;
+ val makeCons : int * my_int_list -> my_int_list
+ val my_tl : my_int_list -> my_int_list
+ val makeOne : int -> my_int_list
+ end
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 7:
+---------
+
+Below we list some Scala functions and two inputs for each function.
+Describe the result of running each function on the two inputs shown.
+Report what value is computed if the function finishes successfuly, or
+write "error" if an exception is thrown.
+
+
+(a)
+def rev[A](xs: List[A]) : List[A] =
+ xs match {
+ case Nil => List()
+ case h::t => rev(t) ++ List(h)
+ }
+
+Inputs:(i) List(1,2,3) (ii) List(List(), 1, List(2))
+
+
+(b)
+def f[A](xs: List[List[A]] : List[A] =
+ xs match {
+ case Nil => List()
+ case h::t => List(h(0)) ++ f(t)
+ }
+
+Inputs:(i) [1,2,3] (ii) [[0],[1,2],[2, 3, 4]]
+
+(d)
+def f(x: Boolean, y: List[Int]) =
+ if (x) { y(0) + 10 } else { 0 }
+
+Inputs:(i) (false, List(1,2,3)) (ii) (true, List(1,2,3))
+
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 10:
+----------
+
+Consider the following Scala code.
+
+class E1 extends Throwable
+
+class E2 extends E1
+
+class E3 extends E2
+
+def f(){
+ println("begin f")
+ try{ g() }
+ catch { case _:E1 => () }
+ println("end f")
+
+def g(){
+ println("begin g")
+ try { h() }
+ catch { case _:E3 => () }
+ println("end g")
+
+def h(){
+ println("begin h")
+ throw (new E2)
+ println("end h")
+
+What is the result of:
+
+scala> f()
+
+i.e. of calling the function f ?
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 11:
+----------
+
+Consider the following Scala code:
+
+trait A {
+ def m(y: A): Unit
+}
+
+trait C extends A {
+ def n(y: C): A
+}
+
+class B extends A {
+ val x : Int
+
+ def m(y: A){
+ return
+ }
+}
+
+class D extends B {
+ val y: Int = 0
+}
+
+class E extends B with C {
+ def n(z: C): A = {
+ return z;
+ }
+}
+
+(a) Name the types, classes and interfaces that have been created.
+
+
+(b) Which of the following is true ?
+ (i) A <: B
+ (ii) A <: C
+ (iii) B <: A
+ (iv) D <: C
+ (v) D <: B
+ (vi) E <: C
+ (vii) E <: B
+ (viii) E <: A
+
+(c) Which of the following is true ?
+ (i) A inherits from B
+ (ii) A inherits from C
+ (iii) B inherits from A
+ (iv) D inherits from C
+ (v) D inherits from B
+ (vi) E inherits from C
+ (vii) E inherits from B
+ (viii) E inherits from A
+
+(d) Consider the following methods. Which of them typecheck ?
+ (i) def fa(A x): Unit = { x.m(x); };
+
+ (ii) def fb(B x): Unit = { x.n(x); };
+
+ (iii) def fc(C x): Unit = { x.n(x); };
+
+(e) Suppose that there were methods:
+
+ def fa(x: A): Unit = { return }
+
+ def fb(x: B): Unit = { return }
+
+ def fc(x: C): Unit = { return }
+
+ Which of the following typecheck ? Explain.
+
+ (i) val a:A = new A
+ fa(a)
+
+ (ii) val b:B = new B
+ fa(b)
+
+ (iii) val b:B = new B
+ fc(b)
+
+ (iv) val d:D = new D
+ fa(d)
+
+ (v) val d:D = new D
+ fa(d)
+ fb(d)
+ fc(d)
+
+ (vi) val e:E = new E
+ fa(e)
+ fb(e)
+ fc(e)
+
+Solution:
+--------
+
+(a) Types: A,B,C,D,E.
+ Classes: B,D,E
+ Interfaces: A,C
+
+(b) True: (i),(iii),(v),(vi),(vii),(viii)
+
+(c) True: (v),(vii)
+
+(d) (i) and (iii) typecheck.
+
+(e) (i) No. Cannot instantiate an interface!
+ (ii) Yes. B <: A
+ (iii) No. B is not a subtype of C.
+ (iv) Yes. D <: A
+ (v) No. D is not a subtype of C.
+ (vi) Yes. E <: A,B,C.
+
+_______________________________________________________________________
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/static/raw/sample-questions1.txt b/static/raw/sample-questions1.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ec91ab9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/sample-questions1.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,615 @@
+ CS 130 Fall 07: Sample Questions for Final
+_________________________________________________________________________
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 1:
+---------
+
+For each ML function given below, if the function is well typed, then
+write down its type, otherwise explain in less than two lines why Ocaml
+rejects the function.
+
+(a)
+let rec rev l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) -> (rev t)::h
+
+(b)
+let rec f l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) -> (List.hd h)::t
+
+
+(c)
+let rec f (tup,l) =
+ match l with
+ [] -> 0
+ | (h::t) -> tup.h + f (tup,t)
+
+(d)
+let rec f (x,y) =
+ if x then (List.hd y) + 20
+ else if not x then 0 else y
+
+(e)
+let rec f l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | f (h::t) -> h @ (flatten t)
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+Problem 2:
+---------
+
+Which of the functions below are tail recursive ?
+Also, for each function, write down its type.
+For the ones that are not, write down tail
+recursive versions that achieve the same task.
+
+(a)
+let rec map f l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) -> (f h) :: (map f t)
+
+(b)
+let rec fold f b l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> b
+ | (h::t) -> fold f (f (h,b)) t
+
+(c)
+let rec len l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> 0
+ | (h::t) -> 1 + len t
+
+(d)
+let rec f (n,l) =
+ match l with
+ [] -> n
+ | (n,h::t) = if (h>n) then f (h,t) else f(n,t)
+
+
+
+Solution: run Ocaml to get types.
+--------
+
+(a) Not tail recursive.
+ let map f l =
+ let rec helper (acc,l') =
+ match l' with
+ [] -> acc
+ | (acc,h::t) = helper((f h)::acc,t)
+ in
+ List.rev(helper([],l))
+
+(b) Tail recursive.
+
+(c) Not tail recursive.
+ let len l =
+ let rec helper (n,l') =
+ match l' with
+ [] -> n
+ | helper (n,_::t) = helper(s+1,t)
+ in
+ helper(0,t)
+
+
+(d) Tail recursive.
+
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 3:
+---------
+
+The following datatype can be used to represent arbitrarily nested
+lists.
+
+type 'a nlist = Nil | Cons of 'a elt * 'a nlist
+and 'a elt = E of 'a | NL of 'a nlist
+
+The list [1,2] could be represented as Cons(E 1,Cons(E 2,Nil)),
+the list [[1],2] as Cons(NL(Cons((E 1),Nil)),Cons(E 2,Nil))
+and the list [[[],[1]],2] as Cons(NL(Cons(NL Nil,Cons (E 1,Nil))), Cons(E 2,Nil)).
+
+Using only pattern-matching (i.e. no if-then-else expressions):
+
+(a) Write a function: nlist_toString: ('a -> string) -> 'a nlist -> string
+ such that if nl is bound to Cons(NL(Cons(NL Nil,Cons (E 1,Nil))), Cons(E 2,Nil)),
+ then (nlist_toString Int.toString nl) evaluates to: "[[[],[1]],2]".
+
+(b) Write a function flatten: 'a nlist -> 'a list that returns
+ the list of elements appearing in the nested list in order.
+ Thus when applied to any of the lists shown above, flatten
+ returns the list [1,2].
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 4:
+---------
+
+We say that two expressions e1 and e2 are semantically equivalent
+if in every environment E, evaluating e1 and evaluating e2 produces
+the same result. For each of the following pairs of expressions,
+explain why they are semantically equivalent, or if not, then give
+an environment that distinguishes the two, i.e. in which evaluating
+the two expressions gives different results.
+
+(a)
+ (* e1 *) let x = 0 in x
+
+ (* e2 *) let x = (f 1) * 0 in x
+
+(b)
+ (* e1 *) (fun a -> fun b -> a + b) p q
+
+ (* e2 *) (fun b -> fun a -> b + a) p q
+
+(c)
+ (* e1 *)
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ let y = b + 2 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+
+ (* e2 *)
+ let y = b + 2 in
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+
+(d)
+ (* e1 *)
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ let y = x + 2 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+
+ (* e2 *)
+ let y = x + 2 in
+ let x = a + 1 in
+ 2*x + 3*y
+
+Solution:
+--------
+
+(a) Not equivalent: as f may not terminate or throw an exception!
+ Distinguishing environment: where f is: fun f x = f x
+
+(b) Equivalent -- as the arguments or "formals" for the two functions
+ have just been renamed.
+
+(c) Equivalent -- as only difference is order but the same expressions
+ are evaluated in both cases giving same values.
+
+(d) Not Equivalent -- a distinguishing environment is where
+ x is bound to 0 and a is bound to 0,a are bound to 0,0. The "free"
+ occurrence of x gets its value 0 from the environment, and thus y
+ gets bound differently leading to different evaluations.
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 5:
+---------
+
+Does the following code work correctly ? If not, find and fix the bug.
+
+(a) For PA #2, Problem #1 (c):
+
+ let rec ffor (i,j,f) = if i=j then () else ((f i); ffor (i+1,j,f))
+
+(b) For PA #2, Problem #1 (b): Recall that isMember (x,l) returns true if the value x
+ appears in the list l, and listReverse l returns a list with the the
+ elements of l in reversed order.
+
+ let cleanList l =
+ let rec helper (seen,rest) =
+ match rest with
+ [] -> seen
+ | h::t ->
+ let seen' = if isMember (h,t) then seen else (h::seen) in
+ let rest' = t in
+ helper (seen',rest')
+ in
+ listReverse (helper ([],l))
+
+(c) Implementation of a function pow : 'a list -> 'a list list which takes a
+ list [x1,...,xn] and returns the list of all subsets of {x1,...,xn}. That
+ is: pow [1,2,3] should return [[],[1],[2],[3],[1,2],[1,3],[2,3],[1,2,3]],
+ though the actual "order" of the subsets doesnt matter (i.e. its ok to
+ also return [[1,2,3],[1,2],[1],[2,3],[2],[1,3],[3],[]] (or any other
+ permutation).
+
+ let pow l =
+ match l with
+ [] -> []
+ | (h::t) ->
+ let val sub = pow t in
+ (map (fun l -> h::l) sub)
+
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 6:
+---------
+
+Consider the following structure:
+
+module L : LSIG =
+ struct
+ type my int list = Empty | Cons of int * my int list
+ exception BadList
+ let makeOne i = Cons(i,Empty)
+ let makeCons (i,l) = Cons(i,l)
+ let my hd lst = ________________________
+ let my tl lst = ________________________
+ end
+
+(a) Write bodies for my_hd and my_tl such that each takes a value of type
+ my_int_list, raises BadList if the value is Empty, and evaluates to the
+ first (for my_hd) or second (for my_tl) element of the pair that Cons carries.
+
+(b) For each of the following LSIG definitions, determine if a client of
+ L can make BadList get raised. If so, give an example client for which
+ BadList is raised. If not, briefly explain why not.
+
+ (i)
+ module type LSIG =
+ sig
+ datatype my_int_list = Empty | Cons of int * my_int_list
+ val my_hd : my_int_list -> int
+ val makeOne : int -> my_int_list
+ end
+
+ (ii)
+ module type LSIG =
+ sig
+ type my_int_list
+ val makeCons : int * my_int_list -> my_int_list
+ val my_hd : my_int_list -> int
+ val makeOne : int -> my_int_list
+ end
+
+ (iii)
+ module type LSIG =
+ sig
+ type my_int_list;
+ val makeCons : int * my_int_list -> my_int_list
+ val my_tl : my_int_list -> my_int_list
+ val makeOne : int -> my_int_list
+ end
+
+_________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 7:
+---------
+
+Below we list some Python functions and two inputs for each function.
+Describe the result of running each function on the two inputs shown.
+Report what value is computed if the function finishes successfuly, or
+write "error" if an exception is thrown.
+
+
+(a)
+def rev(l):
+ if l==[]: return []
+ else:
+ h,t = l[0],l[1:]
+ return (rev(t).append(h))
+
+Inputs:(i) [1,2,3] (ii) [[],1,[2]]
+
+
+(b)
+def f(l):
+ if l==[]: return []
+ else:
+ h,t = l[0],l[1:]
+ return [h[0]] + f(t)
+Inputs:(i) [1,2,3] (ii) [[[]],[1],[[2],3]]
+
+
+(c)
+def f(tup,l):
+ if l==[]: return 0
+ else:
+ h,t = l[0],l[1:]
+ return tup[h] + f(tup,t)
+
+Inputs:(i) ([0,1,2],(0,1,2)) (ii) ([[1],[2],[3,4]],(0,2))
+
+(d)
+def f(x,y):
+ if x: return y[0] + 10
+ elif not x: return 0
+ else: return y
+
+Inputs:(i) (0,[1,2,3]) (ii) (1,[1,2,3])
+
+(e)
+def f(l):
+ if l==[]: return []
+ else:
+ h,t = l[0],l[1:]
+ return h + f(t)
+
+Inputs:(i) [1,2,3] (ii) [[1],[[2]],[]]
+
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+Problem 8:
+---------
+
+Which of the following does not terminate ? Explain.
+
+
+(a) l = [1,2,3]
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ l = l + x
+
+
+(b) l = [1,2,3]
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ l = l + [x]
+
+
+(c) l = [1,2,3]
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ l.append(x)
+
+
+(d) l = [1,2,3]
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ l = l + [x]
+ m = l
+ m.append(x)
+
+
+(e) l = [1,2,3]
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ m = l
+ m.append(x)
+
+
+(f) l = [1,2,3]
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ m = l
+ l = l + [x]
+ m.append(x)
+
+
+(g) l = [1,2,3]
+ m = l
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ l = l + [x]
+ l.append(x)
+
+
+(g) l = [1,2,3]
+ m = l
+ for x in l:
+ print x
+ l = l + [x]
+ m.append(x)
+
+
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+Problem 9: subclassing/disp
+---------
+
+Consider the following Python code.
+
+def foo(C,go):
+ class D(C):
+ def g(self):
+ C.g(self)
+ return go(self)
+ return D
+
+
+class A:
+ def f(self):
+ print "A:f"
+ self.g()
+
+ def g(self):
+ print "A:g"
+
+
+def g(self): print "B:g"
+
+B = foo(A,g)
+
+a = A()
+b = B()
+
+What gets printed if you evaluate:
+
+(i) a.f()
+
+(ii) a.g()
+
+(iii) b.f()
+
+(iv) b.g()
+
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 10:
+----------
+
+Consider the following Python code.
+
+class E1(Exception): pass
+
+class E2(E1): pass
+
+class E3(E2): pass
+
+def f():
+ print "begin f"
+ try: g()
+ except E1: pass
+ print "end F"
+
+def g():
+ print "begin g"
+ try: h()
+ except E3: pass
+ print "end g"
+
+def h():
+ print "begin h"
+ raise E2
+ print "end h"
+
+
+What is the result of:
+
+>>> f()
+
+i.e. of calling the function f ?
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+Problem 11:
+----------
+
+Consider the following Java code:
+
+interface A {
+ void m(A y);
+}
+
+interface C extends A {
+ A n(C y);
+}
+
+class B implements A {
+ int x;
+ void m(A y){
+ return;
+ }
+}
+
+class D extends B {
+ int y;
+}
+
+class E extends B implements C {
+ A n(C z){
+ return z;
+ }
+}
+
+(a) Name the types, classes and interfaces that have been created.
+
+
+(b) Which of the following is true ?
+ (i) A <: B
+ (ii) A <: C
+ (iii) B <: A
+ (iv) D <: C
+ (v) D <: B
+ (vi) E <: C
+ (vii) E <: B
+ (viii) E <: A
+
+(c) Which of the following is true ?
+ (i) A inherits from B
+ (ii) A inherits from C
+ (iii) B inherits from A
+ (iv) D inherits from C
+ (v) D inherits from B
+ (vi) E inherits from C
+ (vii) E inherits from B
+ (viii) E inherits from A
+
+(d) Consider the following methods. Which of them typecheck ?
+ (i) void fa(A x){ x.m(x); };
+
+ (ii) void fb(B x){ x.n(x); };
+
+ (iii) void fc(C x){ x.n(x); };
+
+(e) Suppose that there were methods:
+ void fa(A x){ return; };
+
+ void fb(B x){ return; };
+
+ void fc(C x){ return; };
+
+ Which of the following typecheck ? Explain.
+
+ (i) A a = A();
+ fa(a);
+
+ (ii) B b = B();
+ fa(b);
+
+ (iii) B b = B();
+ fc(b);
+
+ (iv) D d = D();
+ fa(d);
+
+ (v) D d = D();
+ fa(d);
+ fb(d);
+ fc(d);
+
+ (vi) E e = E();
+ fa(e);
+ fb(e);
+ fc(e);
+
+Solution:
+--------
+
+(a) Types: A,B,C,D,E.
+ Classes: B,D,E
+ Interfaces: A,C
+
+(b) True: (i),(iii),(v),(vi),(vii),(viii)
+
+(c) True: (v),(vii)
+
+(d) (i) and (iii) typecheck.
+
+(e) (i) No. Cannot instantiate an interface!
+ (ii) Yes. B <: A
+ (iii) No. B is not a subtype of C.
+ (iv) Yes. D <: A
+ (v) No. D is not a subtype of C.
+ (vi) Yes. E <: A,B,C.
+
+_______________________________________________________________________
+________________________________________________________________________
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
diff --git a/static/raw/sample-questions2.html b/static/raw/sample-questions2.html
new file mode 100644
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+<HTML><head>
+ <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../styles.css">
+ <title>Practice Problems for Midterm</title></head>
+<TITLE> </TITLE>
+
+<BODY>
+<BODY BGCOLOR="WHITE">
+
+<br>
+<P>
+<H2> Practice Problems for Midterm </H2>
+
+<hr>
+<H3>Programming Assignments 1, 2 and 3</H3>
+
+<p>PA 1, 2, and 3 are all practice problems for the mideterm, and you
+will get questions similar in nature to those assignments.
+
+<p>In addition, here are some additional practice problems.
+
+<hr>
+<h3>Additional Practice Problem 1</h3>
+Suppose that the following list of bindings was entered into the OCaml
+interpreter.
+For each binding, the interpreter responds with either:
+(a) the name of the variable, its value, and its type, as shown for the
+first binding in <i> italics </i>, or (b) a type error.<br>
+Fill in the blanks ("<tt>...</tt>") with how the interpreter
+would respond if each of the bindings was entered in the sequence shown
+below. Recall that if a type error occurs, then the variable binding does not
+happen. Note that you could just enter this sequence into the interpreter
+and see what happens, but this is a luxury you will not have during the
+quiz.
+
+
+<tt>
+ <p>- let x = 2 ;; </p>
+ <p> <i>val x : int = 2 </i> </p>
+
+
+ <p>- let x = 2 + 3 - 4.0 ;; </p>
+
+ <p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let x = 2 + 3 ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let x = "a" ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let x = (x,3) ;; </p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let y = ((snd x)^"b" , 2) ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let y = ((fst x)^"c" , 4) ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let z = if (x = y) then (snd x) else (snd y) ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- type myrecord = {f1 : int; f2 : string ; f3 : int} ;;</p>
+
+<p>- let a = {f1 = x; f2 = (fst y); f3 = z} ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let b = z::(snd y)::[] ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let c = (x;y;z) ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let c = (x,y,z) ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let m = if (snd x) = (snd y) then b else [] ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let n = if (1 > 2) then ["a";"b"] else [] ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+<p>- let o = if (m = n) then 2 else 3 ;;</p>
+<p>...</p>
+
+</tt>
+
+
+<P>
+
+<hr>
+<h3>Additional Practice Problem 2</h3>
+
+Suppose that the following list of bindings was entered into the OCaml
+interpreter in the sequence shown. For each binding, write down : <br>
+(a) If the expression is accepted, the value bound ("fn" for functions) and its type,<br>
+(b) If the expression is rejected due to a type error, "type error",<br>
+(c) If the expression is rejected due to an unbound variable,
+the name of the variable that is not bound.
+Recall that if a type error occurs, then the variable binding does not
+happen. Check your answers by entering this sequence into the interpreter.
+
+<code>
+ <pre>
+- let a =
+ let x = 20 in
+ let y =
+ let x = 5 in
+ x + x
+ in
+ x + y
+ ;;
+
+- let b =
+ let x = "ab" in
+ let y = (let x = "cd" in x) ^ x in
+ x ^ y
+ ;;
+
+- let c =
+ let x = 22 in
+ x::y
+ ;;
+
+</pre>
+</code>
+
+<hr>
+<h3>Additional Practice Problem 3</h3>
+In each part below you are required to complete the implementation of a
+function by filling in the appropriate expressions in the blanks (parts marked
+<code> ... </code>).
+
+<ul>
+<li>
+<b> (a) </b>
+<tt> everyOther : 'a list -> 'a list </tt>, a function that takes a list and
+returns every other element of the list, i.e. the application <tt>
+ everyOther [v1;v2;3;v4;v5;...] </tt> evaluates to <tt> [v1;v3;v5;...]
+</tt>. <br>
+<pre>
+<code>
+let everyOther l =
+ let rec helper (b,l) =
+ match l with
+ [] -> ...
+ | h::t -> if b then ... else ...
+ in
+ helper (true,l)
+;;
+</code>
+</pre>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+<b> (b) </b>
+<tt> zip : 'a list * 'b list -> ('a * 'b) list </tt>, a function that
+takes two lists (of equal length) and returns a list of pairs of
+corresponding elements, i.e. the application <tt>
+ zip ([x1;x2;x3;...;xn],[y1;y2;y3;...;yn]) </tt> evaluates to <tt>
+ ([(x1,y1);(x2,y2);(x3,y3);...;(xn,yn)]).
+</tt>.
+<br>
+<pre>
+<code>
+let rec zip (l1,l2) =
+ match (l1,l2) with
+ ([],_) -> ...
+ | (_,[]) -> ...
+ | (h1::t1,h2::t2) -> (...) :: (...)
+</code>
+</pre>
+</li>
+
+<li>
+<b> (c) </b>
+<tt> unzip : 'a * 'b list -> ('a list * 'b list ) </tt>, a function that
+takes a list of pairs and returns two lists (of equal length) of the first
+elements of the second elements of the pairs, respectively, i.e. the application <tt>
+ unzip [(x1,y1);(x2,y2);(x3,y3);...;(xn,yn)] </tt> evaluates to <tt>
+ ([x1;x2;x3;...;xn],[y1;y2;y3;...;yn]) </tt>.
+<br>
+<pre>
+<code>
+let rec unzip l =
+ match l with
+ (...) -> ([],[])
+ | (...) ->
+ let ... = ... in
+ ((...)::(...),(...)::(...))
+ ;;
+</code>
+</pre>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<P>
+<HR><P>
+
+<h3>Additional Practice Problem 4</h3>
+Suppose that the following list of bindings was entered into the OCaml
+interpreter in the sequence shown. For each binding, write down : <br>
+(a) If the expression is accepted, the value bound ("fn" for functions) and its type,<br>
+(b) If the expression is rejected due to a type error, "type error",<br>
+(c) If the expression is rejected due to an unbound variable,
+the name of the variable that is not bound.
+Recall that if a type error occurs, then the variable binding does not
+happen. Check your answers by entering this sequence into the interpreter.
+
+<code>
+ <pre>
+# type tree =
+ Leaf of int
+ | Node of tree * tree;;
+
+# let b = Leaf [3];;
+
+# let c = Node (Leaf 3,Leaf 5);;
+
+# let d = Node (Leaf 0,c);;
+
+# let b = Node (c,d);;
+
+# let f = fun a -> fun b -> a < b;;
+
+# let g = f 0;;
+
+# let z = g 4;;
+
+# let x = g (-3);;
+
+
+
+</pre>
+</code>
+
+<hr>
+<h3>Additional Practice Problem 5</h3>
+For each function below, determine if the function is tail recursive.
+
+<code>
+ <pre>
+# let rec fact1 x = x * (fact (x-1));;
+
+# let fact2 x =
+ let rec helper (n,r) =
+ match n with
+ 0 -> r
+ | _ -> helper ((n-1),(x*r))
+ in
+ helper (x,1)
+ ;;
+
+
+# let rec add1 (n,y) =
+ match n with
+ 0 -> y
+ | _ -> 1 + add1 (n-1,y)
+ ;;
+
+# let rec add2 (n,y) =
+ match n with
+ 0 -> y
+ | _ -> add2 (n-1,y+1);;
+
+</pre>
+</code>
+
+<hr>
+
+<h3>Additional Practice Problem 6</h3>
+Write the following functions on trees described using the datatype <tt> tree </tt>
+shown in Problem 4.
+<ul>
+ <li> <tt> depth : tree -> int </tt> where the depth of a leaf is 0 and
+ the depth of an internal node is 1 greater than the maximum depths of its
+ children.
+ </li>
+ <li> <tt> size : tree -> int </tt> which computes the number of leaf
+ nodes of a tree.</li>
+ <li> <tt> sum : tree -> int </tt> which adds up the values of all the
+ leaves of the tree </li>
+ <li> <tt> isLeaf : tree * int -> bool </tt> which given a tree and an
+ integer returns true if and only if the integer appears in a leaf of the
+ tree. </li>
+ <li> <tt> duplicate : tree -> bool </tt> which given a tree returns true
+ if and only if the tree has two distinct leaves with the same value.</li>
+</ul>
+<P>
+<HR><P>
+
+
+
+</BODY>
+</HTML>
+
diff --git a/static/raw/seating.txt b/static/raw/seating.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..52c0f14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/static/raw/seating.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,193 @@
+StudentID,Group
+A15600406,0
+A15939512,0
+A15585639,0
+A15430318,0
+A13641119,0
+A15883913,0
+A16076542,1
+A15498776,1
+A15316485,1
+A15520395,1
+A15724489,1
+A15570119,1
+A16068976,2
+A15427804,2
+A15072300,2
+A15431969,2
+A15535999,2
+A15754061,2
+A14423280,3
+A15670264,3
+A15421981,3
+A14498203,3
+A15071719,3
+A12864749,3
+A15628146,4
+A15752958,4
+A15559804,4
+A14339013,4
+A14993193,4
+A15697622,4
+A15947364,5
+A15584259,5
+A15414703,5
+A15581936,5
+A15730835,5
+A15440484,5
+A14452168,6
+A16105613,6
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+A14955335,14
+A15430496,14
+A15470755,14
+A14997940,15
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+A15552970,15
+A13832741,15
+A15592650,15
+A16060200,16
+A14425127,16
+A15397529,16
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+A15662196,16
+A15627968,16
+A15006526,17
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+A15571525,17
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+A16053152,18
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+A15614008,18
+A14353395,18
+A16109847,18
+A06824201,18
+A15653719,19
+A15359513,19
+A14854419,19
+A14976629,19
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+A15774590,20
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+A14907343,23
+A14227191,23
+A15579051,23
+A15618220,24
+A15575572,24
+A15832245,24
+A15754235,24
+A15468909,24
+A15491621,24
+A15428331,25
+A15897974,25
+A15485795,25
+A14645764,25
+A15798587,25
+A15160910,25
+A15503591,26
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+A15820193,26
+A15550423,26
+A14935612,26
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+A15630289,27
+A15501930,27
+A16061925,27
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+A16010471,27
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+A15963882,28
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+A15446173,31
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+A15807086,31
+A15017999,31
+A15577451,31
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/templates/archive.html b/templates/archive.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31c1f27
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/archive.html
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+
+<!-- Post Header -->
+<header class="intro-header" style="background-image: url('$baseUrl$/static/img/$headerImg$')" alt="" title="">
+ <div class="container">
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-lg-8 col-lg-offset-2 col-md-10 col-md-offset-1">
+ <div class="post-heading">
+ <h1>$title$</h1>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</header>
+
+<!-- Post Content -->
+<article>
+ <div class="container">
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-lg-8 col-lg-offset-2 col-md-10 col-md-offset-1">
+
+ $body$
+
+ <br>
+
+ <h2>All Posts</h2>
+
+ $partial("templates/post-list-new.html")$
+
+ <hr>
+
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</article>
+<hr>
diff --git a/templates/blog.html b/templates/blog.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a4fb611
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/blog.html
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+
+<!-- Post Header -->
+<header class="intro-header" style="background-image: url('$baseUrl$/static/img/$headerImg$')" alt="" title="">
+ <div class="container">
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-lg-8 col-lg-offset-2 col-md-10 col-md-offset-1">
+ <div class="post-heading">
+ <h1>$title$</h1>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</header>
+
+<!-- Post Content -->
+<article>
+ <div class="container">
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-lg-8 col-lg-offset-2 col-md-10 col-md-offset-1">
+
+ $body$
+
+ <h2>Recent Posts</h2>
+ $partial("templates/post-list-new.html")$
+
+ <h2>Tags</h2>
+ $partial("templates/tag-list-new.html")$
+
+ <br>
+
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</article>
+<hr>
diff --git a/templates/default.html b/templates/default.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..beb1317
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/default.html
@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+ $partial("templates/head.html")$
+ <body>
+
+ <!--
+ <div id="preloader">
+ <div id="status">
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ -->
+ $partial("templates/nav.html")$
+
+ <div id="content">
+ $body$
+ </div>
+ <div id="footer">
+ </div>
+ $partial("templates/footer.html")$
+ </body>
+</html>
diff --git a/templates/disqus-old.html b/templates/disqus-old.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8410c3e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/disqus-old.html
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+<script type="text/javascript">
+ var disqus_shortname = '$disqus_short_name$';
+ $if(comments)$
+ // `page.comments` can be only be set to true on pages/posts, so we embed the comments here.
+ // var disqus_developer = 1;
+ var disqus_identifier = '$baseUrl$$url$';
+ var disqus_url = '$baseUrl$$url$';
+ var disqus_script = 'embed.js';
+ $else$
+ // As `page.comments` is empty, we must be on the index page.
+ var disqus_script = 'count.js';
+ $endif$
+ (function () {
+ var dsq = document.createElement('script'); dsq.type = 'text/javascript'; dsq.async = true;
+ dsq.src = 'http://' + disqus_shortname + '.disqus.com/' + disqus_script;
+ (document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0] || document.getElementsByTagName('body')[0]).appendChild(dsq);
+ }());
+</script>
diff --git a/templates/disqus.html b/templates/disqus.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d6dce7f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/disqus.html
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+<div id="disqus_thread"></div>
+<script>
+ /**
+ * RECOMMENDED CONFIGURATION VARIABLES: EDIT AND UNCOMMENT THE SECTION BELOW TO INSERT DYNAMIC VALUES FROM YOUR PLATFORM OR CMS.
+ * LEARN WHY DEFINING THESE VARIABLES IS IMPORTANT: https://disqus.com/admin/universalcode/#configuration-variables
+ */
+ var disqus_config = function () {
+ this.page.url = '$baseUrl$$url$'; // Replace PAGE_URL with your page's canonical URL variable
+ this.page.identifier = '$url$'; // Replace PAGE_IDENTIFIER with your page's unique identifier variable
+ };
+ (function() { // REQUIRED CONFIGURATION VARIABLE: EDIT THE SHORTNAME BELOW
+ var d = document, s = d.createElement('script');
+ s.src = '//$disqus_short_name$.disqus.com/embed.js'; // IMPORTANT: Replace EXAMPLE with your forum shortname!
+ s.setAttribute('data-timestamp', +new Date());
+ (d.head || d.body).appendChild(s);
+ })();
+</script>
+<noscript>Please enable JavaScript to view the <a href="https://disqus.com/?ref_noscript" rel="nofollow">comments powered by Disqus.</a></noscript>
diff --git a/templates/footer.html b/templates/footer.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ee3be97
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/footer.html
@@ -0,0 +1,80 @@
+<!-- Footer -->
+<footer>
+ <div class="container">
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-lg-8 col-lg-offset-2 col-md-10 col-md-offset-1">
+ <ul class="list-inline text-center">
+ <li>
+ <a href="$baseUrl$/feed.xml" data-datatype="json" data-type="GET" data-target="#frame" class="reload" id="clickme">
+ <span class="fa-stack fa-lg">
+ <i class="fa fa-circle fa-stack-2x"></i>
+ <i class="fa fa-rss fa-stack-1x fa-inverse"></i>
+ </span>
+ </a>
+ </li>
+ $if(twitter_username)$
+ <li>
+ <a href="https://twitter.com/$twitter_username$" data-datatype="json" data-type="GET" data-target="#frame" class="reload" id="clickme" target="_blank">
+ <span class="fa-stack fa-lg">
+ <i class="fa fa-circle fa-stack-2x"></i>
+ <i class="fa fa-twitter fa-stack-1x fa-inverse"></i>
+ </span>
+ </a>
+ </li>
+ $endif$
+ $if(google_username)$
+ <li>
+ <a href="https://plus.google.com/$google_userid$" data-datatype="json" data-type="GET" data-target="#frame" class="reload" id="clickme" target="_blank">
+ <span class="fa-stack fa-lg">
+ <i class="fa fa-circle fa-stack-2x"></i>
+ <i class="fa fa-google-plus fa-stack-1x fa-inverse"></i>
+ </span>
+ </a>
+ </li>
+ $endif$
+ $if(github_username)$
+ <li>
+ <a href="https://github.com/$github_username$" target="_blank">
+ <span class="fa-stack fa-lg">
+
+ <i class="fa fa-arrow-circle-o-down"></i>
+ <i class="fa fa-circle fa-stack-2x"></i>
+ <i class="fa fa-github fa-stack-1x fa-inverse"></i>
+ </span>
+ </a>
+ </li>
+ $endif$
+ $if(instagram_username)$
+ <li>
+ <a href="https://instagram.com/$instagram_username$" target="_blank">
+ <span class="fa-stack fa-lg">
+
+ <i class="fa fa-arrow-circle-o-down"></i>
+ <i class="fa fa-circle fa-stack-2x"></i>
+ <i class="fa fa-instagram fa-stack-1x fa-inverse"></i>
+ </span>
+ </a>
+ </li>
+ $endif$
+ </ul>
+ <p class="copyright text-muted">
+ $if(author)$
+ Copyright © $author$ 2016-17.
+ $endif$
+ Generated by <a href="http://jaspervdj.be/hakyll">Hakyll</a>,
+ template by <a href="http://lucumr.pocoo.org">Armin Ronacher</a>,
+ suggest improvements <a href="https://github.com/ucsd-progsys/liquidhaskell-blog/">here</a>.
+ </p>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</footer>
+
+
+<!-- jQuery -->
+<script src="$baseUrl$/static/js/jquery.min.js"></script>
+<script src="$baseUrl$/static/js/spaceg.stylesheets.min.js"></script>
+<script src="$baseUrl$/static/js/bootstrap.min.js"></script>
+<script src="https://cdn.rawgit.com/google/code-prettify/master/loader/run_prettify.js"></script>
+<script src="$baseUrl$/static/js/anim.js"></script>
+<script src="$baseUrl$/static/js/scripts.js"></script>
diff --git a/templates/head.html b/templates/head.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..64ea957
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/head.html
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+
+ <head>
+ <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" />
+ <!--
+ loads the http over https ssl -
+ welcome to my website!
+
+ this theme is based off the Ice & Fire theme created by Lucas Gatsas
+ https://www.twitter.com/LucasGatsas
+ www.lucasgatsas.ch - switzerland.
+ -->
+
+
+<!-- Microsoft Internet Explorer documentMode compatMode setting IE Modus -->
+<script type="text/javascript">
+var IE = null;
+if (window.navigator.appName == "Microsoft Internet Explorer") {
+ if (document.documentMode) {
+
+ IE = document.documentMode;
+ } else {
+
+ IE = 5;
+ if (document.compatMode) {
+ if (document.compatMode == "CSS1Compat")
+ IE = 11;
+ }
+ }
+ }
+</script>
+
+ <meta charset="utf-8">
+ <!-- X-UA -->
+ <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge">
+ <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=11"/>
+ <link rel="author" title="Ranjit Jhala" href="http://ranjitjhala.github.io"/>
+
+ <meta name="google" content="notranslate" />
+ <!-- Viewport -->
+ <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
+ <!-- index ROBOTS follow -->
+ <meta name="robots" content="index, follow" />
+ <!-- Site Desciption -->
+ <meta name="description" content="$site_description$">
+ <!-- Site Desciption -->
+ <meta name="keywords" content="haskell, refinement types, liquid types, formal methods, type systems">
+ <!-- Favicon -->
+ <link rel="shortcut icon" href="$baseUrl$/static/img/ico.png" type="image/x-icon" />
+ <!-- Blog Title -->
+ <title>$site_name$</title>
+
+ <!-- <title>{% if page.title %}{{ page.title }} - {{ site.title }}{% else %}{{ site.title }}{% endif %}</title>
+-->
+ <!-- Property Metas -->
+ <meta property="og:image" content="$baseUrl$/static/img/ix.png"/>
+ <meta property="og:title" content="$site_description$"/>
+ <meta property="og:site_name" content="$site_description$"/>
+ <!-- Canonical -->
+ <link rel="canonical" href="{{ page.url | replace:'index.html','' | prepend: site.baseUrl | prepend: site.url }}">
+ <!-- StyleSheet -->
+ <link rel="stylesheet" href="$cssUrl$/static/css/bootstrap.min.css">
+ <link rel="stylesheet" href="$cssUrl$/static/css/ronacher.css" type="text/css">
+ <link rel="stylesheet" href="$cssUrl$/static/css/syntax.css">
+ <link rel="stylesheet" href="$cssUrl$/static/css/liquid-light.css">
+
+ <!-- Fonts
+ <link href='https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Merriweather:400,300,300italic,400italic,700,700italic,900,900italic' rel='stylesheet' type='text/css'>
+ <link href="https://maxcdn.bootstrapcdn.com/font-awesome/4.2.0/css/font-awesome.min.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css">
+ <link href='https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Lora:400,700,400italic,700italic' rel='stylesheet' type='text/css'>
+ <link href='https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Open+Sans:300italic,400italic,600italic,700italic,800italic,400,300,600,700,800' rel='stylesheet' type='text/css'>
+ <link href='https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Playfair+Display:400,700,900,400italic,700italic,900italic' rel='stylesheet' type='text/css'>
+ -->
+
+ <!-- HTML5 Shim and Respond.js IE8 support of HTML5 elements and media queries -->
+ <!-- WARNING: Respond.js doesn't work if you view the page via file:// -->
+ <!--[if lt IE 9]>
+ <script src="https://oss.maxcdn.com/libs/html5shiv/3.7.0/html5shiv.js"></script>
+ <script src="https://oss.maxcdn.com/libs/respond.js/1.4.2/respond.min.js"></script>
+ <![endif]-->
+ <style>
+ #preloader {position:fixed;top:0;left:0;right:0;bottom:0;background-color:#fff; /* change if the mask should have another color then white */z-index:99; /* makes sure it stays on top */}
+ #status {width:200px;height:200px;position:absolute;left:50%; /* centers the loading animation horizontally one the screen */top:50%; /* centers the loading animation vertically one the screen */background-image:url("/static/img/preloader.gif"); /* path to your loading animation */background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center;margin:-100px 0 0 -100px; /* is width and height divided by two */}
+ ul, ol {margin-top: 0;margin-bottom: 10px;}
+ .navbar-inverse {background-color: #FFF;border-color: #FFFFFF;}
+</style>
+<style>
+ /* HEADER IMAGE */
+ header.intro-header {background: #6f5499;background: no-repeat center center;background-attachment: scroll;-webkit-background-size: cover;-moz-background-size: cover;background-size: cover;-o-background-size: cover;}
+
+ /* Preloader */#preloader {position:fixed;top:0;left:0;right:0;bottom:0;background-color:#fff; /* change if the mask should have another color then white */z-index:99; /* makes sure it stays on top */}
+ #status {width:200px;height:200px;position:absolute;left:50%; /* centers the loading animation horizontally one the screen */top:50%; /* centers the loading animation vertically one the screen */background-image:; /* path to your loading animation */background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center;margin:-100px 0 0 -100px; /* is width and height divided by two */}
+ li {list-style: none;}
+ body.modal-open
+ {overflow: hidden;padding-right: 0px;
+ }
+ article li {list-style: inherit;}
+ article .figure {text-align: center}
+ </style>
+ <!-- end Loading front stylesheet here -->
+ </head>
diff --git a/templates/index.html b/templates/index.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a37a0cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/index.html
@@ -0,0 +1,195 @@
+
+<!-- Post Header -->
+<header class="intro-header" style="background-image: url('/static/img/logo.png')" alt="" title="">
+ <div class="container">
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-lg-8 col-lg-offset-2 col-md-10 col-md-offset-1">
+ <div class="post-heading">
+ $if(title)$
+ <p> </p>
+ $endif$
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</header>
+
+<!-- Splash Page -->
+
+
+<!-- Post Content -->
+<article>
+<div class="container">
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-lg-8 col-lg-offset-2 col-md-10 col-md-offset-1">
+ $body$
+
+ LiquidHaskell (LH) <i>refines</i> Haskell's types
+ with logical predicates that let you enforce critical
+ properties at <i>compile time</i>. (Hover on images to animate.)
+
+ <br>
+ <h2>Guarantee Functions are Total</h2>
+ <br>
+
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-md-4">
+ LH warns you that <code>head</code> is not total as it
+ is missing the case for <code>[]</code> and checks that
+ it is total on <code>NonEmpty</code> lists.
+ <a href="./2013/01/31/safely-catching-a-list-by-its-tail.lhs/">(more...)</a>
+ </div>
+
+ <div class="col-md-8">
+ <img id="splash-head" class="center-block" src="/static/img/splash-head.png">
+ </div>
+ </div>
+
+ <br>
+
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-md-8">
+ <img id="splash-unstutter" class="center-block" src="/static/img/splash-unstutter.png">
+ </div>
+ <div class="col-md-4">
+ The input contract propagates to uses of <code>head</code>
+ which are verified by ensuring the arguments are
+ <code>NonEmpty</code>.
+ </div>
+ </div>
+
+ <br>
+ <h2>Keep Pointers Within Bounds</h2>
+ <br>
+
+ <br>
+
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-md-4">
+ LH lets you avoid off-by-one errors that can lead to crashes
+ or buffer overflows. <a href="./2013/03/04/bounding-vectors.lhs/">(more...)</a>
+ </div>
+
+ <div class="col-md-8">
+ <img id="splash-vectorsum" class="center-block" src="/static/img/splash-vectorsum.png">
+ </div>
+ </div>
+
+ <br>
+
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-md-9">
+ <img id="splash-dotproduct" class="center-block" src="/static/img/splash-dotproduct.png">
+ </div>
+
+ <div class="col-md-3">
+ Dependent contracts let you specify, e.g. that
+ <code>dotProduct</code> requires equal-sized vectors.
+ </div>
+ </div>
+
+ <!--
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-md-4">
+ This is some text that explains how <code>unsafeTake</code> works.
+ </div>
+
+ <div class="col-md-8">
+ <img class="center-block" src="/static/img/splash-unsafeTake.gif">
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ -->
+
+ <br>
+ <h2>Avoid Infinite Loops</h2>
+ <br>
+
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-md-5">
+ LH checks that functions <i>terminate</i> and so
+ warns about the infinite recursion due to the missing
+ case in <code>fib</code>. <a href="./tags/termination.html">(more...)</a>
+ </div>
+
+ <div class="col-md-7">
+ <img id="splash-fib" class="center-block" src="/static/img/splash-fib.png">
+ </div>
+ </div>
+
+ <br>
+
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-md-9">
+ <img id="splash-merge" class="center-block" src="/static/img/splash-merge.png">
+ </div>
+ <div class="col-md-3">
+ <i>Metrics</i> let you check that recursive functions
+ over complex data types terminate.
+ </div>
+ </div>
+
+ <br>
+ <h2>Enforce Correctness Properties</h2>
+ <br>
+
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-md-5">
+ Write correctness requirements, for example a list is <i>ordered</i>,
+ as refinements. LH makes illegal values be <i>unrepresentable</i>.
+ <a href="./2013/07/29/putting-things-in-order.lhs/">(more...)</a>
+ </div>
+
+ <div class="col-md-7">
+ <img id="splash-ups" class="center-block" src="/static/img/splash-ups.png">
+ </div>
+ </div>
+
+ <br>
+
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-md-9">
+ <img id="splash-insertsort" class="center-block" src="/static/img/splash-insertsort.png">
+ </div>
+
+ <div class="col-md-3">
+ LH automatically points out logic bugs, and proves
+ that functions return correct outputs
+ <i>for all inputs</i>.
+ </div>
+ </div>
+
+ <br>
+ <h2>Prove Laws by Writing Code</h2>
+ <br>
+
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-md-3">
+ Specify <i>laws</i>, e.g. that the append
+ function <code>++</code> is associative,
+ as Haskell functions.
+ </div>
+
+ <div class="col-md-9">
+ <img id="splash-assocthm" class="center-block" src="/static/img/splash-assocthm.png">
+ </div>
+ </div>
+
+ <br>
+
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-md-9">
+ <img id="splash-assocpf" class="center-block" src="/static/img/splash-assocpf.png">
+ </div>
+
+ <div class="col-md-3">
+ Verify laws via <i>equational proofs</i> that are plain Haskell
+ functions. Induction is simply recursion, and case-splitting is
+ just pattern-matching. <a href="./tags/reflection.html">(more...)</a>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</div>
+</article>
+<hr>
diff --git a/templates/nav.html b/templates/nav.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bb37724
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/nav.html
@@ -0,0 +1,93 @@
+<!-- Navigation -->
+<nav class="navbar navbar-default navbar-custom navbar-fixed-top">
+ <div class="container-fluid">
+ <!-- Brand and toggle get grouped for better mobile display -->
+ <div class="navbar-header page-scroll">
+ <button type="button" class="navbar-toggle collapsed" data-toggle="collapse" data-target="#bs-example-navbar-collapse-1" aria-expanded="false">
+ <span class="sr-only">Toggle navigation</span>
+ <span class="icon-bar"></span>
+ <span class="icon-bar"></span>
+ <span class="icon-bar"></span>
+ </button>
+ <a class="navbar-brand" href="$baseUrl$/index.html" id="blog-title-left-top">$site_name$</a>
+ </div>
+ <!-- Collect the nav links, forms, and other content for toggling -->
+ <div class="collapse navbar-collapse" id="bs-example-navbar-collapse-1">
+ <ul class="nav navbar-nav navbar-right">
+ <li><a href="$baseUrl$/calendar.html">Calendar</a></li>
+ <li><a href="$baseUrl$/contact.html">Contact</a></li>
+ <li><a href="$baseUrl$/grades.html">Grades</a></li>
+ <li><a href="$baseUrl$/lectures.html">Lectures</a></li>
+ <li><a href="$baseUrl$/assignments.html">Assignments</a></li>
+ <li><a href="$baseUrl$/links.html">Links</a></li>
+ <li><a href="https://www.piazza.com/$piazza_classid$" id="roundbutton" target="_blank"><i class="fa fa-twitter"></i>Piazza</a></li>
+ <li><a href="$canvasUrl$" id="roundbutton" target="_blank"><i class="fa fa-twitter"></i>Canvas</a></li>
+ </ul>
+ </div>
+ <!-- /.navbar-collapse -->
+ </div>
+ <!-- /.container -->
+</nav>
+<!-- Portfolio Modals -->
+ <div class="portfolio-modal modal fade" id="portfolioModal1" tabindex="-1" role="dialog" aria-hidden="true" style="padding-right:0px; overflow: hidden;">
+ <div class="modal-content">
+ <div class="close-modal" data-dismiss="modal">
+ <div class="lr">
+ <div class="rl">
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ <div class="container">
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-lg-8 col-lg-offset-2">
+ <div class="modal-body">
+ <h1 class="font-style-inline-small-h1">Ranjit Jhala</h1>
+ <hr class="star-primary">
+ <img src="$baseUrl$/static/img/ico.png" class="img-responsive img-centered" alt="" title="">
+ <p class="font-style-inline-small">
+ <a href="https://www.twitter.com/$twitter_username$" target="_blank">follow me</a>. <br>
+ <a href="https://www.github.com/$github_username$" target="_blank"> <i class="fa fa-github" id="spaceg-social-modal"></i> </a>
+ <a href="https://www.twitter.com/$twitter_username$" target="_blank"><i class="fa fa-twitter" id="spaceg-social-modal"></i> </a>
+ <a href="https://plus.google.com/$google_userid$" target="_blank"> <i class="fa fa-google-plus" id="spaceg-social-modal"></i></a>
+ </p>
+ <button type="button" class="btn btn-default" data-dismiss="modal"><i class="fa fa-times"></i> Close</button>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+<!-- Menu Modals Add New Sa.21.Feb.2015 03:22:25 -->
+ <div class="portfolio-modal modal fade" id="portfolioModal2" tabindex="-1" role="dialog" aria-hidden="true" style="padding-right:0px; overflow: hidden;">
+ <div class="modal-content">
+ <div class="close-modal" data-dismiss="modal">
+ <div class="lr">
+ <div class="rl">
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ <div class="container">
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-lg-8 col-lg-offset-2">
+ <div class="modal-body">
+ <h1 class="font-style-inline-small-h1">$site_username$</h1>
+ <hr class="star-primary">
+ <p class="font-style-inline-small">
+ <a href="https://www.twitter.com/$twitter_username$" target="_blank">follow</a>. <br>
+ <a href="https://www.github.com/$github_username$" target="_blank"> <i class="fa fa-github" id="spaceg-social-modal"></i> </a>
+ <li><a href="$baseUrl$/calendar.html">Calendar</a></li>
+ <li><a href="$baseUrl$/contact.html">Contact</a></li>
+ <li><a href="$baseUrl$/grades.html">Grades</a></li>
+ <li><a href="$baseUrl$/lectures.html">Lectures</a></li>
+ <li><a href="$baseUrl$/assignments.html">Assignments</a></li>
+ <li><a href="$baseUrl$/links.html">Links</a></li>
+ <li><a href="https://www.piazza.com/$piazza_classid$" id="roundbutton" target="_blank"><i class="fa fa-twitter"></i>Piazza</a></li>
+ <li><a href="$canvasUrl$" id="roundbutton" target="_blank"><i class="fa fa-twitter"></i>Canvas</a></li>
+ </p>
+ <button type="button" class="btn btn-default" data-dismiss="modal"><i class="fa fa-times"></i>Close</button>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
diff --git a/templates/page.html b/templates/page.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9214db7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/page.html
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+<!-- Post Header -->
+ <header class="intro-header" style="background-image: url('$baseUrl$/static/img/$headerImg$')" alt="" title="">
+
+ <div class="container">
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-lg-8 col-lg-offset-2 col-md-10 col-md-offset-1">
+ <div class="post-heading">
+ <h1>$title$</h1>
+ $if(subtitle)$
+ <h2 class="subheading">$subtitle$</h2>
+ $endif$
+ <span class="meta">
+ $if(author)$
+ Posted by $author$
+ $endif$
+ </span>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</header>
+
+<!-- Post Content -->
+
+
+<article>
+ <div class="container">
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-lg-8 col-lg-offset-2 col-md-10 col-md-offset-1">
+ $body$
+ <hr>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</article>
diff --git a/templates/post-list-new.html b/templates/post-list-new.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f6a70f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/post-list-new.html
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+<ul>
+ $for(posts)$
+ <div class=entry-overview>
+ <div class=date>$date$</div>
+ <div class=detail>
+ <h1><a href="$url$">$title$</a></h1>
+ <!-- <div class=summary><p>$summary$</p></div> -->
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ $endfor$
+</ul>
diff --git a/templates/post-list.html b/templates/post-list.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a7eb961
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/post-list.html
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+<ul>
+ $for(posts)$
+ <li><a href="$url$">$title$</a> - $date$</li>
+ $endfor$
+</ul>
diff --git a/templates/post.html b/templates/post.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0e86019
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/post.html
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+<!-- Post Header -->
+<header class="intro-header" style="background-image: url('$baseUrl$/static/img/sea.jpg')" alt="" title="">
+ <div class="container">
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-lg-8 col-lg-offset-2 col-md-10 col-md-offset-1">
+ <div class="post-heading">
+ <h1>$title$</h1>
+ $if(subtitle)$
+ <h2 class="subheading">$subtitle$</h2>
+ $endif$
+ <span class="meta">
+ $if(author)$
+ Posted by $author$
+ $endif$
+ $date$
+ </span>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</header>
+
+<!-- Post Content -->
+<article>
+ <div class="container">
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-lg-8 col-lg-offset-2 col-md-10 col-md-offset-1">
+
+ <br>
+
+ <div class="info">
+ $if(tags)$
+ Tags: $tags$
+ $endif$
+ </div>
+
+ <br>
+ $body$
+ <hr>
+ <ul class="pager">
+ $if(previous.url)$
+ <li class="previous">
+ <a href="{{ page.previous.url | prepend: site.baseUrl | replace: '//', '/' }}" data-toggle="tooltip" data-placement="top" title="{{page.previous.title}}">← Previous Post</a>
+ </li>
+ $endif$
+ $if(next.url)$
+ <li class="next">
+ <a href="{{ page.next.url | prepend: site.baseUrl | replace: '//', '/' }}" data-toggle="tooltip" data-placement="top" title="{{page.next.title}}">Next Post →</a>
+ </li>
+ $endif$
+ </ul>
+
+ $partial("templates/disqus.html")$
+
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</article>
diff --git a/templates/tag-list-new.html b/templates/tag-list-new.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9652c45
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/tag-list-new.html
@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+<ul>
+ $for(tags)$
+ <div class=entry-overview>
+ <div class=date> - </div>
+ <div class=detail><h1><a href="/tags/$tag$.html">$tag$</a></h1></div>
+ </div>
+ $endfor$
+</ul>
diff --git a/templates/tag-list.html b/templates/tag-list.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cb8cbc7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/tag-list.html
@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+
+<ul>
+ $for(tags)$
+ <li><a href="/tags/$tag$.html">$tag$</a></li>
+ $endfor$
+</ul>
diff --git a/templates/tags.html b/templates/tags.html
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b0655d7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/tags.html
@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+
+<!-- Post Header -->
+<header class="intro-header" style="background-image: url('$baseUrl$/static/img/$headerImg$')" alt="" title="">
+ <div class="container">
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-lg-8 col-lg-offset-2 col-md-10 col-md-offset-1">
+ <div class="post-heading">
+ <h1>$title$</h1>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</header>
+
+<!-- Post Content -->
+<article>
+ <div class="container">
+ <div class="row">
+ <div class="col-lg-8 col-lg-offset-2 col-md-10 col-md-offset-1">
+
+ $body$
+
+$partial("templates/post-list-new.html")$
+
+ <hr>
+
+ </div>
+ </div>
+ </div>
+</article>
+<hr>
diff --git a/templates/template.revealjs b/templates/template.revealjs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fd298cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/templates/template.revealjs
@@ -0,0 +1,49 @@
+<!doctype html>
+<html>
+ <head>
+ <meta charset="utf-8">
+ <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, maximum-scale=1.0, user-scalable=no">
+
+ <title>reveal.js</title>
+
+ <link rel="stylesheet" href="css/reveal.css">
+ <link rel="stylesheet" href="css/theme/black.css">
+
+ <!-- Theme used for syntax highlighting of code -->
+ <link rel="stylesheet" href="lib/css/zenburn.css">
+
+ <!-- Printing and PDF exports -->
+ <script>
+ var link = document.createElement( 'link' );
+ link.rel = 'stylesheet';
+ link.type = 'text/css';
+ link.href = window.location.search.match( /print-pdf/gi ) ? 'css/print/pdf.css' : 'css/print/paper.css';
+ document.getElementsByTagName( 'head' )[0].appendChild( link );
+ </script>
+ </head>
+ <body>
+ <div class="reveal">
+ <div class="slides">
+ $body$
+ </div>
+ </div>
+
+ <script src="lib/js/head.min.js"></script>
+ <script src="js/reveal.js"></script>
+
+ <script>
+ // More info https://github.com/hakimel/reveal.js#configuration
+ Reveal.initialize({
+ history: true,
+
+ // More info https://github.com/hakimel/reveal.js#dependencies
+ dependencies: [
+ { src: 'plugin/markdown/marked.js' },
+ { src: 'plugin/markdown/markdown.js' },
+ { src: 'plugin/notes/notes.js', async: true },
+ { src: 'plugin/highlight/highlight.js', async: true, callback: function() { hljs.initHighlightingOnLoad(); } }
+ ]
+ });
+ </script>
+ </body>
+</html>
]]>
+ 
