genes.json

[
  {
    "id": "4d90d18fdcdd5f44a500002d",
    "slug": "art-informel",
    "name": "Art Informel",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Coined by the French critic Michel Tapié in 1950 to refer to an influential European movement that during the 1950s paralleled [Abstract Expressionism](/gene/abstract-expressionism) in the U.S. Like its American counterpart, Art Informel is expressive, artist-oriented abstraction rooted in the works of [Wassily Kandsinky](/artist/wassily-kandinsky), [Paul Klee](/artist/paul-klee), [Jean Dubuffet](/artist/jean-dubuffet), and Surrealist automatism. Note: This category also contains Tachiste works.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d18edcdd5f44a5000010",
    "slug": "painting",
    "name": "Painting",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_\"Painting completed my life.\"—[Frida Kahlo](/artist/frida-kahlo)_\n\nPainting—for many, the answer to the question \"What is art?\"—could be as old as humanity itself. Practiced across virtually all cultures, it is our primary visual record of the world, and as such has a history of incredible complexity. Important touchpoints include the traditional Western emphasis on illusionism; the difference between figuration and abstraction; the rise of oil painting; and the significant art-historical movements in which painting was central, such as the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance), the [Baroque](/gene/baroque), [Impressionism](/gene/impressionism), [Cubism](/gene/cubism), and [Abstract Expressionism](/gene/abstract-expressionism).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a5000047",
    "slug": "futurism",
    "name": "Futurism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Futurism began with the 1909 publication of [F.T. Marinetti](/artist/filippo-tommaso-marinetti)’s _Futurist Manifesto_, which announced a new literature that would glorify danger, energy, and war. While best known for a dynamic style in painting and sculpture that captured speed and movement as if in time-lapse, Futurist artists created “total works of art” (performance, installation, fashion, and more). Though many leading Futurists died in World War I, a “second Futurism” followed, which allied itself with the fascist politics of Mussolini.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d18edcdd5f44a5000013",
    "slug": "sculpture",
    "name": "Sculpture",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_“Sculpture is the art of the hole and the lump.” —[Auguste Rodin](/artist/auguste-rodin)_\n\nFrom the Parthenon frieze and the Easter Island _maoi_ to the Chinese Terracotta Warriors and the prehistoric _Venus of Willendorf_, sculpture is a medium as diverse as it is ancient. Traditionally worked in natural materials like stone, clay, and metal, sculpture encompasses both free-standing works “in-the-round” and reliefs, often serving as architectural elements. Sharing the viewer’s space more literally than any other medium, sculpture has given rise to some of the most iconic works in art history, including the classical Greek _Venus de Milo_ (c. 130-100 B.C.), [Michelangelo](/artist/michelangelo-buonarroti)’s [High Renaissance](/gene/high-renaissance) _David_ (1504), Rodin’s _The Thinker_ (1902), and [Constantin Brancusi](/artist/constantin-brancusi)’s [_The Kiss_](/artwork/constantin-brancusi-the-kiss-le-baiser) (1908). The 20th century saw the explosion of traditional sculpture, wherein virtually any material—like [John Chamberlain](/artist/john-chamberlain)’s car parts or [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp)’s readymades—could be used, as well as the rise of such diverse movements as [kinetic sculpture](/gene/kinetic-sculpture), sound sculpture, environmental art, and [Minimalist](/gene/minimalism) sculpture.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d18edcdd5f44a5000012",
    "slug": "photography",
    "name": "Photography",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_\"Photography helps people to see.\"  —[Berenice Abbott](/artist/berenice-abbott)_\n\nArguably the most popular medium in contemporary art, photography was invented in 1839. Since then, its various forms and styles have increased almost exponentially—longstanding approaches to the medium range from [documentary photography](/gene/documentary-photography) and [photojournalism](/gene/photojournalism) to [photo-abstraction](/gene/abstract-photography). At the same time, every age seems to come with its own photographic movements, and the past century has seen the influential rise of [Modern Photography](/gene/modernist-photography), [New American Color Photography](/gene/new-american-color-photography), [Diaristic Photography](/gene/diaristic), and the [Dusseldorf School](/gene/dusseldorf-school-of-photography), among countless other styles and groups.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a500003d",
    "slug": "constructivism",
    "name": "Constructivism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A 20th-century movement in painting, sculpture, photography, design, and architecture that began in Russia in the late teens and quickly reached an international audience. Its antecedents were [Cubism](/gene/cubism) and the [Futurism](/gene/futurism) exemplified in [Vladimir Tatlin’s](/artist/vladimir-tatlin) 1913 reliefs and three-dimensional geometric constructions. Influenced by Tatlin’s ideas—as well as by the optimism and confidence inspired by the Russian Revolution—such artists as [El Lissitzsky](/artist/el-lissitzky) and [Alexsandr Rodchenko](/artist/alexander-rodchenko) sought to ‘construct’ works that combined geometric compositions with images from modern technology and industry, considering themselves ‘artist-engineers.’",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d191dcdd5f44a500004a",
    "slug": "gutai",
    "name": "Gutai",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The Gutai Group was one of the most important artist collectives in postwar Japan. Founded by Yoshihara Jirō in 1954 near Osaka, its name translates as “concrete,” a reflection of the artists’ desire to push beyond the abstract painting of the day with experiments in pure materiality. Using everything from mud and Elmer’s glue to plastic tubing and sound art, these artists strove to create new, vital experiences that blurred the boundaries between art and life. Early experiments, such as [Kazuo Shiraga](/artist/kazuo-shiraga)’s calligraphic paintings made by smearing paint around on a canvas, evoking the gestural abstraction of [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock) or [Art Informel](/gene/art-informel), were soon followed by an emphasis on performances, immersive installations, and video. For a nation recently defeated in World War II and emerging from the shadow of totalitarianism, Gutai’s call for vitality, play, and new artistic frontiers served as a jolt to a culture of consensus. The group actively promoted itself abroad through the distribution of mail art and a well-circulated journal, and in 1958 prominent New York dealer Martha Jackson staged an exhibition of their work. Gutai’s focus on performance and materiality has often been cited as a precursor to [Arte Povera](/gene/arte-povera) and [performance art](/gene/performance-art) of the 1960s.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d191dcdd5f44a500005c",
    "slug": "nouveau-realisme",
    "name": "Nouveau Réalisme",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A movement founded in France in 1960 by the art critic Pierre Restany as a response to American [Neo-Dada](/gene/neo-dada) and [Pop art](/gene/pop-art). Nouveau Réalistes, including most prominently [Yves Klein](/artist/yves-klein), worked in a wide variety of forms, including painting, collage, assemblage, happenings, and installation.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d192dcdd5f44a5000065",
    "slug": "post-impressionism",
    "name": "Post-Impressionism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A movement primarily centered on four artists—[Pa​​ul Gauguin](/artist/paul-gauguin), [Georges Seurat](/artist/georges-seurat), [Vincent van Gogh](/artist/vincent-van-gogh), and [Paul Cézanne](/artist/paul-cezanne)—who in the late 1880s sought to break free from [Impression​​ism](/gene/impressionism). Though all markedly different,​​ these four artists—as well as other artists associated with the movement—were united both in their rejection of Impression​​ism’s emphasis on optical perception​​ and in their preference​​ for painting that expressed emotion and symbolism,​​ often through reduced colors and forms and an increased focus on subjective​​ imagery.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d192dcdd5f44a5000063",
    "slug": "pointillism",
    "name": "Pointillism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The application of small dots of paint to canvas to form an image. One of the techniques associated with [George Seurat](/artist/georges-seurat), who also employed divisionism, in which colors are separated into individual dots or patches that interact optically. Such scientific approaches were a hallmark of Neo-Impressionism, which attempted to provide more rigor to the process of painting optical effects.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d192dcdd5f44a5000069",
    "slug": "purism",
    "name": "Purism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A European movement founded by [Amédée Ozenfant](/artist/amedee-ozenfant) and Charles-Edouard Jeanneret (later known as [Le Corbusier](/artist/le-corbusier)) after World War I that sought to purify [Cubism](/gene/cubism) from what Ozenfant and Jeanneret saw as its often arbitrary and fantastic forms. Instead, they emphasized clarity, elemental forms, and subdued colors.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d192dcdd5f44a500006b",
    "slug": "romanticism",
    "name": "Romanticism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "An artistic movement with its origins in literature, Romanticism was prominent in Western European art from roughly 1800-1850, embracing emotional intensity, subjectivity, and the imagination. Arising in Germany, England, and France, and opposing the rationalism and order of the church, state, Enlightenment thought, and [Neoclassical](/gene/neoclassicism) art, Romanticism was associated with some of the best known Western artists of the 19th century, including [Théodore Géricualt](/artist/jean-louis-andre-theodore-gericault), [Eugène Delacroix](/artist/eugene-delacroix), [Francisco de Goya](/artist/francisco-de-goya), [J.M.W. Turner](/artist/joseph-mallord-william-turner), and John Constable. The unpredictability, sublime power and chaos of nature were a common subject for Romantic works, as were exotic experiences in regions like what was called “The Orient” (the East) and North Africa, particularly Morocco and Algeria. Many of what we consider to be the major aspects of modern and contemporary art—including personal, emotional subjects, and the individuality of the artist—find their beginnings in Romanticism.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a5000045",
    "slug": "fluxus",
    "name": "Fluxus",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "An international group of artists working between the 1960s and early 1970s who renounced traditional forms of music and theater and instead explored the mundane and chance aspects of sound, film, and performance, evoking the rebelliousness of [Dada](/gene/dada). Although the American artist and composer [George Maciunas](/artist/george-maciunas) in 1962 published a manifesto explaining the movement’s experimental aspects under the rubric Neo-Dada, Fluxus resisted a formal agenda, spreading largely through spontaneous protean events referred to as happenings.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d191dcdd5f44a5000050",
    "slug": "kinetic-sculpture",
    "name": "Kinetic Sculpture",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Sculptures that include moving parts. [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp)'s 1913 _Bicycle Wheel_ is generally considered the first such work. Although they were made throughout the 20th century—by artists associated with [Constructivism](/gene/constructivism) and the [Bauhaus](/gene/bauhaus), for example—and continue to be made today, kinetic sculptures’ heyday was during the 1950s and 1960s, when [Alexander Calder](/artist/alexander-calder) and [Jean Tinguely](/artist/jean-tinguely) were the best-known practitioners. Calder became famous for his mobiles and Tinguely for his 1960 _Homage to New York_, a kind of junk machine that destroyed itself in the sculpture garden of the Museum of Modern Art.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d191dcdd5f44a500005b",
    "slug": "new-york-school",
    "name": "New York School",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A loose association of vanguard artists working in New York City during the 1940s and ’50s. At the center of the New York School were artists like [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock), [Willem de Kooning](/artist/willem-de-kooning), and [Mark Rothko](/artist/mark-rothko), who were associated with [Abstract Expressionism](/gene/abstract-expressionism) and helped establish a uniquely American avant-garde and propel New York City to eclipse Paris as the center of the art world. These artists created stylistically diverse, often monumental paintings that introduced bold innovations in form and content and reflected a desire to embrace spontaneity and individual expression. The New York School also encompasses the poets, filmmakers, composers, and photographers such as [Aaron Siskind](/artist/aaron-siskind) who formed close relationships, collaborated, and shared inspiration with New York School painters.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d18fdcdd5f44a500002c",
    "slug": "art-deco",
    "name": "Art Deco",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Used since the 1960s to refer to a highly decorative style of design, characterized by streamlined geometric forms and bright colors, that was influential in Europe and the United States in the 1920s and 1930s. With roots in [Art Nouveau](/gene/art-nouveau), it was originally promoted by the 1925 Paris Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes, but one could also argue that it emerged from such 20th-century avant-garde movements as [Cubism](/gene/cubism), [Fauvism](/gene/fauvism), and [Constructivism](/gene/constructivism).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d18edcdd5f44a500000d",
    "slug": "glass-as-material",
    "name": "Glass as Material",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "_\"All the effects of glass are marvelous… it must be used and kept in mind as an example of the life of man and of the things of this world which, though beautiful, are transitory and frail.\" —Vannoccio Biringuccio_\n\nGlass—a hard, transparent material based in silica—is occasionally found in nature, but most often man-made. Since the invention of the glass-blowing process in first-century Syria, a wide array of techniques and uses for the malleable material have been developed around the world. Notable historical examples include Byzantine mosaics, Medieval stained glass, and [Art Nouveau](/gene/art-nouveau) glass in the late-19th century. Modern and contemporary artists have used glass to various optical and conceptual ends; [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp), [Robert Smithson](/artist/robert-smithson), and [Larry Bell](/artist/larry-bell), for instance, continued to explore the potential of the material, while glass has been integral to pioneering works by architects and engineers since the industrial revolution. Capitalizing on advancements in glass and structural engineering, [Joseph Paxton](/artist/joseph-paxton)'s _Crystal Palace_, [Mies Van der Rohe](/artist/mies-van-der-rohe)'s _Seagram Building_, Phillip Johnson's _Glass House_, and [I.M. Pei](/artist/i-dot-m-pei)'s Pyramide at the Louvre each have shown the ability of glass to be the primary building material.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d18edcdd5f44a5000011",
    "slug": "performance-art",
    "name": "Performance Art",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A genre of art-making in which the artwork is the artist performing—usually live but often in a film or video. Performances started occurring in art contexts—galleries, artists studios, museums—in the 1960s, with the rise of [Happenings](/gene/happenings) and [Fluxus](/gene/fluxus). In the '60s and '70s, artists such as [Vito Acconci](/artist/vito-hannibal-acconci), [Bruce Nauman](/artist/bruce-nauman), [Marina Abramovic](/artist/marina-abramovic-1), [Chris Burden](/artist/chris-burden), and [Yoko Ono](/artist/yoko-ono) explored the possibilities of performance particularly in works which focused on the body (and often the abuse of it). The rise of performance was directly linked to the rise of [Conceptual Art](/gene/conceptual-art) and [Process Art](/gene/process-art) in the late 1960s: Conceptual Art privileged an object-less art, while Process Art foregrounded the act of making a work over the final piece.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a5000031",
    "slug": "ashcan-school",
    "name": "Ashcan School",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "First applied in the 1930s to early twentieth century American urban realist painters such as the Eight, whose members included [George Luks](/artist/george-benjamin-luks), [Robert Henri](/artist/robert-henri), [John Sloan](/artist/john-sloan), and [William Glackens](/artist/william-james-glackens). Ashcan artists presented ordinary aspects of [city life](/gene/city-scenes) with a particular vitality in opposition to the late nineteenth century aesthetic, which stressed refined painting techniques, appropriate subject matter, and art for art’s sake. Generally considered revolutionary in the [United States](/gene/united-states), the movement had clear precedents in the French nineteenth century avant-garde.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d191dcdd5f44a5000059",
    "slug": "neo-expressionism",
    "name": "Neo-Expressionism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A style of painting—and, to a lesser extent, sculpture—that emerged in the early 1980s, characterized by a return to figuration in expressive, gestural, and sometimes brashly aggressive works. Though most closely associated with a group of New York-based artists that included [Julian Schnabel](/artist/julian-schnabel), [David Salle](/artist/david-salle), and [Eric Fischl](/artist/eric-fischl), the term is also often used—not without controversy—to encompass trends in European painting at the time, including the Italian Transavanguardia and the generation of German painters born during World War II ([Georg Baselitz](/artist/georg-baselitz), [Markus Lüpertz](/artist/markus-lupertz), [A.R. Penck](/artist/a-r-penck), and [Anselm Kiefer](/artist/anselm-kiefer)), as well as the German [New Fauves](/gene/the-new-fauves). Neo-Expressionism signaled a break away from the intellectual distance, abstraction, and formalism of [Conceptual art](/gene/Conceptual art), the predominant movement of the 1970s.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d192dcdd5f44a500005f",
    "slug": "outsider-art",
    "name": "Outsider Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A label applied to artworks that have little connection with the art world or are created by people with no formal art training. The term is also applied to artworks by people with psychiatric disabilities and others on the margins of society. However, as more and more examples have been exhibited and subsumed into the historical canon, some have argued that the ‘outsider’ label should be retired.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a5000034",
    "slug": "bauhaus",
    "name": "Bauhaus",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A school of art, architecture, and design founded in Germany by Walter Gropius and based between 1919 and 1925 in Weimar, between 1925 and 1932 in Dessau, and between 1932 and 1933 in Berlin, where it was shut down by the Nazis. Named after the medieval Bauhütten, or masons’ lodges, and inspired by the ideas of John Ruskin and William Morris, the Bauhaus is best known for reintroducing workshop training in lieu of traditional studio art education; unifying artistic creativity and manufacturing; emphasizing functionalism in architecture; and revolutionizing streamlined industrial design. After the closure of the Bauhaus, many former students and teachers fled the Nazi dictatorship, spreading the tenets of the school to many parts of the world. [Josef Albers](/artist/josef-albers), for example, helped to mold the fledgling graphic design program at Yale while [Laszlo-Moholy Nagy](/artist/laszlo-moholy-nagy) founded the Institute of Design at IIT in Chicago, often dubbed the “New Bauhaus,” where a generation of prominent American photographers—from [Aaron Siskind](/artist/aaron-siskind) to [Harry Callahan](/artist/harry-callahan)—imparted new vigor to experiments in modernist photography. The so-called “Ulm Bauhaus” (Ulm School of Design, Germany) operated from 1953-1968 under the direction of former Bauhaus student [Max Bill](/artist/max-bill), and its innovative curriculum in design education remains influential even today.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d191dcdd5f44a500004c",
    "slug": "hudson-river-school",
    "name": "Hudson River School",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The first homegrown American artistic school and the dominant American artistic movement of the 19th century, holding sway between approximately 1825 and 1870. The name derives from the fact that many, although not all, the members were inspired by the natural beauty of the Hudson River Valley and the surrounding area. The school’s style is romantic, celebrating nature and its contemplation through plein air painting.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d18fdcdd5f44a5000016",
    "slug": "work-on-paper",
    "name": "Work on Paper",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Includes manuscripts, prints, drawings, collages, and paintings on paper. With its invention in China in the 2nd century, paper has served as the support for an extraordinarily diverse body of work. When paper production was firmly established in Europe in the 15th century, the material was used widely for [manuscripts](gene/manuscript) and [prints](gene/prints). During this time artists like [Leonardo da Vinci](artist/leonardo-da-vinci) developed [drawings](gene/drawing) on paper to explore ideas in preparation for creating paintings and sculptures. At the outset of the 20th century, paper would become not only the support, but also the medium itself, as [Pablo Picasso](artist/pablo-picasso) and [Georges Braque](artist/georges-braque) explored [collage](gene/collage), layering numerous fragments of paper onto paper to create dense compositions. Contemporary works on paper show an inventive amalgamation of materials and techniques, featuring drawing over prints and interspersed collage elements with painting.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d18edcdd5f44a500000f",
    "slug": "mixed-media",
    "name": "Mixed-Media",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A general label for artworks made from more than one material. Combining materials—especially those associated with different mediums, such as painting and sculpture–is closely associated with a number of important developments in Modern art. [Cubist](/gene/cubism) collages, [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp)'s readymades, and [Dada](/gene/dada) assemblage formed key precedents for later generations working in mixed-media. Notably, [Robert Rauschenberg](/artist/robert-rauschenberg) and [Jasper Johns](/artist/jasper-johns)—commonly associated with [Neo-Dada](/gene/neo-dada)—were instrumental in including different media on the painted canvas in the 1950s and '60s. [Installation](/gene/installation), which emerged in the 1960s, continues to be a major practice in contemporary art and often includes a range of media. Central to many contemporary mixed-media works is the inclusion of materials that fall far outside the accepted mediums of art; a commonly-cited example is [Damien Hirst](/artist/damien-hirst)'s provocative use of dead animals in his sculptures.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d18edcdd5f44a500000e",
    "slug": "installation",
    "name": "Installation",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A three-dimensional artwork meant to transform a viewer's experience of an interior space, through a combination of mediums, interactivity, and immersive elements.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a5000033",
    "slug": "barbizon-school",
    "name": "Barbizon School",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A group of French landscape artists active in the 1830s to the 1870s who eschewed the classical conventions of [Claude Lorraine](/artist/claude-gellee-called-claude-lorrain) and [Nicolas Poussin](/artist/nicolas-poussin) and instead emulated 17th-century Dutch landscape painters and [John Constable](/artist/john-constable). Although often considered a transitional movement between classical 18th-century landscape painting and Impressionism, this group is important in its own right as the first to focus strictly on nature. Barbizon paintings are also antiheroic, unpretentious, and painted in a simplified manner.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a5000037",
    "slug": "body-art",
    "name": "Body Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The use of the human body as the basis for performance art by such practitioners as [Vito Acconci](/artist/vito-acconci), [Marina Abramovic](/artist/marina-abramovic), [Chris Burden](/artist/chris-burden), and the Vienna Actionists. Characterized by transgression, violence, and endurance, the practice began in the 1960s and 1970s, with connections to [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp)’s performative works, [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock)’s painting process, and Allan Kaprow’s 1960s [Happenings](/gene/happenings).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d191dcdd5f44a5000053",
    "slug": "mexican-muralism",
    "name": "Mexican Muralism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A movement, inspired by the idealism of the Mexican Revolution, that stressed the country’s indigenous, pre-European history and culture. The works were typically political, epic in scope, and executed in public places to increase the Mexican people’s awareness of and pride in their heritage. The best-known muralists are [José Clemente Orozco](/artist/jose-clemente-orozco) and [Diego Rivera](/artist/diego-rivera)",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a5000049",
    "slug": "group-zero",
    "name": "Group Zero",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A movement, forged in the late 1950s by the German artists [Otto Piene](/artist/otto-piene) and [Heinz Mack](/artist/heinz-mack), that fostered artistic discovery by promoting a new environment unconstrained by past artistic traditions. The “zero” in the name was not intended to have the negative connotations of nihilism or abjection but instead highlighted the group's affinities with [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism) and Italian [Arte Povera](/gene/arte-povera) in calling for simple forms and colors and expressions of light and using everyday materials. [Lucio Fontana](/artist/lucio-fontana), [Yves Klein](/artist/yves-klein), Hans Haacke, and [Piero Manzoni](/artist/piero-manzoni) were all notable members.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d18fdcdd5f44a500002a",
    "slug": "collage",
    "name": "Collage",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Collage generally refers to two-dimensional works created from an assemblage of different materials, although the distinction between collage and [assemblage](/gene/assemblage) (which refers to three-dimensional works) can be quite fluid. Though long a popular pastime amongst scrapbookers, the technique’s art-historical beginnings are generally traced back to one of its earliest appearances in Western art: Pablo Picasso’s [_Still Life with Chair Caning_](/artwork/pablo-picasso-still-life-with-chair-caning) of 1912, which incorporated real-life objects into a work of art for the first time. In the collage, a printed oilcloth simulated chair caning and a piece of rope functioned as both a frame and the border of a café table. Collage was an assault on painting and its proposal of imaginary space as well as the proper materials of art. For example, [Kurt Schwitters](/artist/kurt-schwitters)' collages and assemblages brought the detritus of street life and modern life's [printed ephemera](/gene/printed-matter)—ticket stubs, newspapers, postage stamps—into the realm of high art. The development of collage in art ran parallel to experiments in poetry and literature in the early 20th century, where aesthetic principles of fragmentation, reassembly, and multiple meanings reflected the rapid societal and technological changes ushered in by modernism and urbanization.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d18fdcdd5f44a500002f",
    "slug": "arte-povera",
    "name": "Arte Povera",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "An Italian variant of Conceptualism during the late 1960s and early 1970s that was linked to the political radicalism of the period, which reached its zenith with the student uprisings of 1968. It was marked by an attempt to rescue individuals from the stifling effects of consumer culture and, according to Arte Povera pioneer Germano Celant, the group’s critical mouthpiece, the attempt to break down the separation between art and life. Arte Povera works were either happenings or sculptures that were created with unglamorous everyday materials and often displayed surprising juxtapositions.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a5000042",
    "slug": "east-village-art",
    "name": "East Village Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The East Village scene, active in downtown New York in the early [1980s](/gene/1980s), comprised a group of incredibly diverse young artists. Encompassing music, poetry, writing, and the visual arts, the period saw the rise of [Punk](/gene/related-to-punk), No Wave, [graffiti art](/gene/graffiti-slash-street-art), and [Neo-Expressionist](/gene/neo-expressionism) painting. It also witnessed an explosion of galleries in the neighborhood, often run by the artists themselves, as well as alternative spaces and collectives. Social life and artistic life blurred, with artists making work directly on the street and clubs providing an important new type of venue for introducing novel forms of expression. The free-for-all of the East Village scene introduced a pantheon of big names, like [Jean-Michel Basquiat](/artist/jean-michel-basquiat), [Keith Haring](/artist/keith-haring), [Jenny Holzer](/artist/jenny-holzer), [Jeff Koons](/artist/jeff-koons), and [David Wojnarowicz](/artist/david-wojnarowicz), in addition to the musicians [Patti Smith](/artist/patti-smith), [Blondie](/tag/blondie), [Madonna](/tag/madonna-singer), [Sonic Youth](/tag/sonic-youth), and the Strokes. While no single style united these artists, their work often embraced [figuration](/gene/figurative-art), a notable development following the dominance of abstract art in prior decades. The East Village scene reached its peak from 1982 to 1984, responding to the Reaganomic boom of the 1980s, and by 1986 had run its course.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d191dcdd5f44a5000052",
    "slug": "luminism",
    "name": "Luminism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "An American movement active in the late 19th century—although identified with that label only in the 1950s, by the art historian John I. H. Baur—that was influenced by the [Hudson River School](/gene/hudson-river-school), emphasizing the painting of light in land- and seascapes.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d192dcdd5f44a5000060",
    "slug": "pattern-and-decoration-movement",
    "name": "Pattern and Decoration Movement",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "An American art movement that emerged in the 1970s in reaction to [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism) and [Conceptualism](/gene/conceptual-art). Championed by the New York gallery owner Holly Solomon and inspired by 1960s liberation politics, particularly feminism, as well as by African, Middle Eastern, and Asian art, these artists produced large paintings, fabric pieces, and sculptures emphasizing pattern and all-over decoration—traditionally secondary aspects of artmaking and virtually absent from the works being produced at the time.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d192dcdd5f44a500006f",
    "slug": "socialist-realism",
    "name": "Socialist Realism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The official, state-sanctioned style of the Soviet Union that dominated artistic practice from 1932 through the republic's demise. Artists such as Aleksandr Laktionov and Isaak Brodsky, among many others, sought to idealize the \"dictatorship of the proletariat\" in the arts and found precedents in the 19th century Realism of Russian painter Ilya Repin as well as the French [Gustave Courbet](/artist/gustave-courbet). The highly propagandistic style of Soviet Realism was specifically dictated by Soviet ministers as a truthful artistic portrayal combined with an ideological “remolding” of the toiling masses.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d18fdcdd5f44a500002e",
    "slug": "art-nouveau",
    "name": "Art Nouveau",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "An international movement that originated in the mid 1890s in Belgium and France and was known in other countries by other names, such as Jugendstil (Germany and Austria), Modernisme (Catalonia), and Tiffany style (United States). Practitioners sought to break with the past, creating a style of ornamentation applicable to architecture, interior design, and objects that was not based on Classical or Renaissance forms. Instead Japanese art was a particular influence, as were exotic flowers and plants.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a5000032",
    "slug": "bad-painting",
    "name": "Bad Painting",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Arising in the late 1970s as a result of the the New Museum of Contemporary Art’s exhibition \"Bad Painting,\" curated by Marcia Tucker, the term refers to a predominantly figurative, purposely raw style of painting developed in reaction to the dominant [Minimalist](/gene/minimalism) and [Conceptualist](/gene/conceptual-art) schools, which lacked gesture and emotion.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a500003a",
    "slug": "color-field-painting",
    "name": "Color Field Painting",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A style characterized by large, highly simplified compositions in which the use of color is independent of line and figuration. The term stems from Clement Greenberg’s 1955 description of the paintings being made by [Barnett Newman](/artist/barnett-newman), [Clyfford Still](/artist/clyfford-still), and [Mark Rothko](/artist/mark-rothko) as comprising large fields of color. Historically, color-field painting represents one-half of [Abstract Expressionism](/gene/abstract-expressionism), with the ‘gestural abstraction’ of artists like [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock) and [Willem de Kooning](/artist/willem-de-kooning) representing the other half.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a5000040",
    "slug": "de-stijl",
    "name": "De Stijl",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A movement started by group of Dutch artists based in Amsterdam—the best known being [Piet Mondrian](/artist/piet-mondrian) and Theo van Doesburg—who sought to express an ideal of balance and harmony in both art and life and whose ideas were disseminated by the magazine _De Stijl_, launched by Van Doesburg in 1917. The major creative influence within the group was Mondrian, who in pursuit of a purer nonobjective abstraction (lacking a representational tie to any object or form) than that achieved in [Cubism](/gene/cubism), created reductive works composed of only straight lines, rectangles, and blocks of primary colors. The organizational principles and aesthetic look of Mondrian’s canvases are taken into three dimensions in De Stijl architecture, such as Gerrit Rietveld’s 1924 Schröder House, in Utrecht. The movement’s ideas had a pivotal role in the formation of Bauhaus practices and the emergence of the International Style.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a5000046",
    "slug": "folk-art",
    "name": "Folk Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A contested label for works made by those with no formal training or those belonging to non-Western cultures.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d191dcdd5f44a500004e",
    "slug": "impressionism",
    "name": "Impressionism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A revolutionary 19th-century movement in French painting, lasting from roughly 1867 to 1886, that rebelled against the academic tradition’s historical subject matter and methods. Striving to capture the transient aspects of visual reality, especially light and color, Impressionists—the most familiar being [Claude Monet](/artist/claude-monet) and [Pierre Auguste Renoir](/artist/pierre-auguste-renoir)—emphasized firsthand observation of their subjects and focused on landscapes and everyday urban scenes. Like many subsequent avant-garde movements, it derived its name from a derisive label applied in a negative review. The 1874 Paris exhibition that introduced the group to the public contained Monet’s 1872 painting _Impression: Sunrise_, leading the critic Louis Leroy to coin the mocking term Impressionism, which the group co-opted. In the years following, Impressionism spread beyond France, most notably to Great Britain and the United States.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d191dcdd5f44a5000056",
    "slug": "nabis",
    "name": "Nabis",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A group of influential 19th-century Post-Impressionists who, inspired by the work of [Paul Gauguin](/artist/paul-gauguin) and the [Symbolists](/gene/symbolism) as well as Japanese woodcuts, emphasized personal style and the capacities of painting over observed reality. Notable Nabis include Maurice Denis and [Pierre Bonnard](/artist/pierre-bonnard).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d192dcdd5f44a5000061",
    "slug": "photorealistic",
    "name": "Photorealistic",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_\"Perhaps because I’m sorry for the photograph, because it has such a miserable existence even though it is such a perfect picture, I would like to make it valid, make it visible—just make it […] That is why I keep painting on and on from photographs, because I can’t make it out, because the only thing to do with photographs is paint from them.\" –[Gerhard Richter](/artist/gerhard-richter)_\n\nThough it has come to refer generally to painting that emulates the look of photographs, typically with hyperrealistic clarity, the term \"photorealistic\" traces its roots to Photorealism, the American art movement of the 1960s and ’70s. An outgrowth of Pop Art, Photorealism is most closely associated with artists who replicate the highly-focused look of well-composed, sharply-focused photographs, such as [Chuck Close](/artist/chuck-close), [Richard Estes](/artist/richard-estes), and [Malcolm Morley](/artist/malcolm-morley). However, in Europe, artists like [Gerhard Richter](/artist/gerhard-richter) and [Franz Gertsch](artist/franz-gertsch) have likewise been referred to as photorealists, but for a different reason: the hazy quality and unexpected angles in their candid portraits resemble casual, often blurred snapshots. Today, artists who emulate the look of photographs make work in both ways (and in between), and as a result, push the boundaries of what constitutes a photorealistic image. Is it the crisp, extreme focus of a well-lit photograph, or the imitation of poor, faded, or murky photographic scenes?",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d192dcdd5f44a5000071",
    "slug": "surrealism",
    "name": "Surrealism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A movement embracing the irrational as a means of creating art and experiencing life, whose founding document is the _Surrealist Manifesto_ composed by [André Breton](/artist/andre-breton) in 1924. Taking pure psychic automatism as the ideal state of man, Surrealists believed that one could express the true functioning of thought in the unconscious. Initially, the most important aspect of the unconscious was desire, which they felt was central to humanity—the authentic voice of the inner self and the key to understanding human beings. Dreams, childhood, madness, non-Western art, and chance situations became central to discovering the irrational in Surrealist art.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a5000044",
    "slug": "fauvism",
    "name": "Fauvism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The first modern-art movement of the 20th century, characterized by an expressive, often rough style of painting emphasizing bright colors and simplified forms and inspired by such Post-Impressionists as [Paul Gauguin](/artist/paul-gauguin), [Paul Cézanne](/artist/paul-cezanne), and [Vincent van Gogh](/artist/vincent-van-gogh). The first Fauvist exhibition, at the Salon d’Automne in 1905, began the long tradition of modern and contemporary art, shocking the public and prompting the critic Louis Vauxcelles (who also gave [Cubism](/gene/cubism) its name) to dub the painters fauves, French for “wild beasts.” [Henri Matisse](/artist/henri-matisse), who would become one of the most important figures in modern art, was the most significant member of the group. By 1908 in France, Fauvism had been eclipsed by Cubism as the most powerful influence on avant-garde artists.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d191dcdd5f44a500004f",
    "slug": "institutional-critique",
    "name": "Institutional Critique",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "The critique of art institutions, such as museums, galleries, private collections, or publications, through artworks. A frequent target of avant-garde attacks since the late 19th-century, the institutions of art were condemned perhaps most fervently in the _Futurist Manifesto_ (1909), which called upon artists to “set fire to the library shelves! Turn aside the canals to flood the museums!” The term “institutional critique,” however, has come to designate a strand of conceptual art beginning in the 1960s and associated with [Michael Asher](/artist/michael-asher), [Marcel Broodthaers](/artist/marcel-broodthaers), [Daniel Buren](/artist/daniel-buren), and [Hans Haacke](/artist/hans-haacke). These artists sought to expose the ideologies and power structures underlying the circulation, display, and discussion of art. In his seminal 1972 work _the eagle from the Oligocene to the present_, for example, Broodthaers brought together 266 found objects and displayed a wall text alongside each one that read “This is not a work of art,” thus questioning museums’ role in exhibiting and conferring status to artworks, as well as the role of the artist as the maker of original artworks.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d191dcdd5f44a5000058",
    "slug": "neo-dada",
    "name": "Neo-Dada",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A style appearing in the United States in the late 1950s that in its methods and concerns recalls [Dada](/gene/dada), whose ideas were introduced to American artists by the composer John Cage. Rejecting the overblown rhetoric and adamant nonfiguration of Abstract Expressionism, which then dominated the American avant-garde, Neo-Dadists embraced depictions of the real world and strove to integrate art and life through the use of real objects in paintings and sculpture. Two principal adherents are [Robert Rauschenberg](/artist/robert-rauschenberg) and [Jasper Johns](/artist/jasper-johns).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d192dcdd5f44a500006d",
    "slug": "pittura-metafisica",
    "name": "Pittura Metafisica",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Pittura Metafisica or Arte Metafisica (\"Metaphysical Painting\" or \"Metaphysical Art\") is associated with Italian painters [Carlo Carrà](/artist/carlo-carra) and [Giorgio de Chirico](/artist/giorgio-de-chirico). While Western European art, and in particular [Cubism](/gene/cubism), was tending towards increasing abstraction and flatness around the time of World War I, Pittura Metafisica was figurative, adopting the classical paradigm of modeled forms in illusionistic space to explore what de Chirico called “a new metaphysical psychology of objects.” Marked by a strong sense of solitude and melancholy, the uncanny and dreamlike urban spaces and enigmatic iconography characteristic of this work speak to these artists’ interest in exploring space as the “astronomy of objects,” revealing prophetic relationships behind the artifice of appearances. Their embrace of motifs from classical antiquity foreshadowed a [broad European interest during the postwar period](/gene/post-world-war-i-european-classicism) in the enduring past and Neoclassical modes of representation.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d18fdcdd5f44a5000025",
    "slug": "1970-present",
    "name": "1970–present",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "Contemporary art refers to work made by living artists.  By this definition, all art has been contemporary at the moment of its creation.  However, the art world often narrowly limits the use of this term to artwork made after 1970 as a successor to [modern art](/gene/modern-1).  Distinguished by a lack of medium specificity and ideological “-isms,” contemporary art reflects the diversity of our current culture and society.  Today’s artists are responding to complex concepts such as [identity politics](/gene/identity-politics-1), [institutional critique](/institutional-critique), and [globalization](/gene/globalization), often through artwork with challenging aesthetics.  Defying the status quo, contemporaries like [Tania Bruguera](/artist/tania-bruguera), [Kara Walker](/artist/kara-walker), and [Ai Weiwei](/artist/ai-weiwei) are forging paths for [emerging talents](/gene/emerging-art) and future provocateurs.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d191dcdd5f44a500005a",
    "slug": "neue-sachlichkeit",
    "name": "Neue Sachlichkeit",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The “New Objectivity\" movement—as it is typically translated—emerged in 1920s Weimar Germany as an umbrella term for a new modern, urban sensibility. Though most closely associated with the biting cultural satires of painters like [Max Beckmann](/artist/max-beckmann), [Otto Dix](/artist/otto-dix), and [George Grosz](/artist/george-grosz), the movement’s stark realism also found expression in the photographs of [August Sander](/artist/august-sander) and Albert-Renger Patzsch. Abandoning aestheticizing techniques, these artists presented a sober portrait of contemporary society. While critics derided its distanced, sterile vision of daily life, advocates like Thomas Mann prided its ability to bring to light marginal places, objects, and members of society.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d192dcdd5f44a500006e",
    "slug": "social-realism",
    "name": "Social Realism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Art drawing attention to social injustice, exemplified by the work of American artists of the 1920s and ’30s like [Ben Shahn](/artist/ben-shahn), [Thomas Hart Benton](/artist/thomas-hart-benton), [Walker Evans](/artist/walker-evans), and Dorothea Lange, as well [Ashcan School](/gene/ashcan-school) painters. The label has also been applied to the approach of 19th-century French Realism, the [Mexican muralism](/gene/mexican-muralism) of the 1920s and ‘30s, and the [Neue Sachlichkeit](/gene/neue-sachlichkeit) of Weimar Germany.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a5000072",
    "slug": "symbolism",
    "name": "Symbolism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A late 19th-century European movement, generally rooted in Romanticism, that was originally literary but expanded to the visual arts, where it was manifested as the painting of ideas. Although the term itself was much debated and the works to which it applied involved a vast array of concepts and concerns, Symbolism generally sought to counter 19th-century materialist thought and the Industrial Revolution with an involvement in emotions, the artificial and unnatural, spiritual life, and earlier models of experience.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d18fdcdd5f44a5000030",
    "slug": "arts-and-crafts-movement",
    "name": "Arts and Crafts Movement",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "A movement that emerged during the late 19th century in reaction to the Industrial Revolution in England, at the time the most industrialized nation in the world. It focused on craftsmanship and forms of art and design belonging to the age before mass production. Although the movement did not promote a specific style, many Arts & Crafts works emphasize ties to medieval architecture and nature and stress formal simplicity.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a500003e",
    "slug": "cubism",
    "name": "Cubism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Cubism was the most important movement of the 20th century and marked the birth of abstract art. Invented and pursued by [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) and [Georges Braque](/artist/georges-braque) in Paris between 1907 and 1914 and inspired by the simplified landscapes of [Paul Cézanne](/artist/paul-cezanne), Cubism took the revolutionary step of rejecting the 500-year-old idea that a painting was like a window, thus ruled by perspective. Instead, Picasso and Braque created more conceptual, subjective paintings that sought to represent the underlying structure of existence. The best-known Cubist works look like shattered glass in dim browns and yellows, and are composed of various sharp planes that combine to form people or objects. Cubism took its name from an insult delivered by the critic Louis Vauxcelles, who commented that one of Braque’s paintings looked as if it were “full of little cubes.” After 1910, Picasso and Braque’s Cubism was quickly adopted by many other artists in Paris and beyond and ended up being the primary influence on most or all abstract art before the outbreak of World War II.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a500003f",
    "slug": "dada",
    "name": "Dada",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A movement originating in Zurich in 1916 as a reaction both to the chaos of Western society in the wake of World War I and to bourgeois society, which was seen as having produced the war. It is characterized by the rejection of old forms of artmaking in favor of an anti-art that asserts art’s irrelevance and explores new forms of creation. Dadaists are usually divided into two camps: those creating from anger and frustration and those embracing the absurd. Prominent adherents include [Francis Picabia](/artist/francis-picabia) and [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp), both of whom sought in their work to destabilize artistic dogmas, particularly traditional formal strategies and concepts of artistic meaning. From Zurich, Dada spread across Europe—most notably the German cities of Berlin, Cologne, and Hannover—and eventually into the United States, particularly New York City. Its emphasis on the bizarre had a major influence on [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism), founded in 1924.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d192dcdd5f44a5000062",
    "slug": "pictorialism",
    "name": "Pictorialism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Pictorialism was the dominant tendency in photography during the early stages of its establishment in the second half of the 19th century. In an effort to establish this new, technical medium as a fine art form, practitioners of the pictorialist approach sought to make their photographs look artistic through the use of “painterly” techniques like soft focus, staged or stylized scenes, or the manipulation of negatives or prints. Encouraged by [Henry Peach Robinson's](/artist/henry-peach-robinson) _Pictorial Effect in Photography_, first published in 1869, this artistic style was pursued throughout the U.S., Europe, and Latin America by photographers such as [Julia Margaret Cameron](/artist/julia-margaret-cameron), Robinson himself, and later groups such as [Alfred Stieglitz](/artist/alfred-stieglitz)'s Photo-Secession, founded in New York in 1902. Beginning around 1910, this style largely gave way to the “straight” approach of [Modernist Photography](/gene/modernist-photography).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d190dcdd5f44a500003c",
    "slug": "comic-slash-cartoon",
    "name": "Comic/Cartoon",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A general category for artworks that incorporate comics and cartoons. While today comics are a popular art form incorporating simplified forms, immediacy of line, and humorous exaggeration, often in a narrative series of images accompanied by text, the term originally referred to a preparatory outline drawing for frescoes, tapestries, and stained glass. The development of the modern comic strip of the 18th and 19th centuries is indebted to artists, particularly the social- and political-themed print series of renowned artists such as [William Hogarth](/artist/william-hogarth), [Francisco de Goya](/artist/francisco-jose-de-goya-y-lucientes-1), and [Honoré Daumier](/artist/honore-daumier). Comic strips began heavily influencing artists in the 1960s. Pop artists like [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol) and Roy Lichtenstein used the style to showcase their interest in \"low\" or popular imagery, consumerism, and mechanical reproduction techniques, rejecting the artist's hand. Since the 1960s, [graffiti and street art](/gene/graffiti-slash-street-art) have continued to draw upon both the wit and mass appeal of cartoons, as in the politically charged work of [Keith Haring](/artist/keith-haring).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d191dcdd5f44a500004b",
    "slug": "harlem-renaissance",
    "name": "Harlem Renaissance",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "An influential movement in African-American art, literature, music, and theater, occurring roughly between World War I and II, that took as its symbolic capital the predominantly African-American New York neighborhood of Harlem and sought to define selfhood apart from dominant historical white conceptions.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d192dcdd5f44a5000066",
    "slug": "postminimalism",
    "name": "Postminimalism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A style that evolved as a reaction to Minimalism during the late 1960s and early 1970s. It is characterized by an emphasis on process and conception over the finished object, the demystification of the artistic process through the employment of chance methods, and the use of nontraditional, ‘poor’ materials, such as latex and felt. The term was coined by the art historian and critic Robert Pincus-Witten to describe the artistic tendency evinced in pieces in the 1966 exhibition “Eccentric Abstraction,” curated by Lucy Lippard.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d192dcdd5f44a500006c",
    "slug": "mosaics",
    "name": "Mosaics",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Mosaic, the art of arranging small pieces of material to create a larger image, is one of the oldest and most durable artistic techniques, having its start as wall decoration in ancient [Mesopotamia](/gene/mesopotamian-art). By 200 BCE, the invention of tiny square tiles called “tesserae” allowed [Greek](/gene/greek-art-and-architecture) artisans to create highly detailed mosaics that rivaled the clarity of painting. During the [Byzantine](/gene/byzantine-art) era, mosaic became the leading pictorial art for cathedrals and mosques alike. At the [Hagia Sophia](/artwork/ola-kolehmainen-hagia-sophia-year-537-v) in Istanbul and the [Cordoba Mosque](/artwork/cordoba-spain-dome-in-front-of-the-mihrab-the-great-mosque-of-cordoba) in Spain, artisans adhered thousands of gold-leaf tiles to domed ceilings, transforming them into shimmering spaces symbolic of the heavenly realm. While mosaic was reserved for religious spaces for much of its history, modern and contemporary artists like [Antoni Gaudí](/artist/antoni-gaudi) and [Niki de Saint Phalle](/artist/niki-de-saint-phalle) have brought this medium to public spaces by adorning parks and city walls with playful ceramic tiles.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a5000073",
    "slug": "synchromism",
    "name": "Synchromism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Synchromism’s principal founders, [Stanton Macdonald-Wright](/artist/stanton-macdonald-wright) and [Morgan Russell](/artist/morgan-russell), believed that color in art should be like a musical composition: rhythmic, sensational, and fully abstract. To achieve this, the Synchromist painters invented their own [color theory](/gene/color-theory) linking the color spectrum to the musical scale that was inspired by the sensory phenomenon of synesthesia—the condition whereby a person can hear a color or see a sound. Synchromist works combined the fractured forms of [Cubism](/gene/cubism) with a new emphasis on color, becoming the first American abstract movement to gain international attention. [American Regionalist](/gene/american-regionalism) [Thomas Hart Benton](/artist/thomas-hart-benton) and [Ashcan](/gene/ashcan-school) painter [Arthur Bowen Davies](/artist/arthur-bowen-davies) both participated in this short-lived movement, which lasted from 1913 until 1919.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d195dcdd5f44a50000b5",
    "slug": "waterscapes",
    "name": "Waterscapes",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that depict seas, rivers, and other bodies of water, as well as maritime subjects—sailors, naval battles, ports, ships, and the like. Although these motifs are most commonly associated with artists and movements pre-dating the industrial revolution, contemporary artists like [Sean Landers](/artist/sean-landers), [Vera Lutter](/artist/vera-lutter), and [Hiroshi Sugimoto](/artist/hiroshi-sugimoto) continue to explore a fascination with life on the water.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d194dcdd5f44a50000ae",
    "slug": "mannerism",
    "name": "Mannerism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Applied to a style of Italian art practiced between roughly 1520 and 1590—from the end of the High Renaissance to the beginning of the [Baroque](/gene/baroque)—which began in Rome and Florence and eventually spread north into other areas of Europe. Generally understood as a response to the classical order and idealization of the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance), Mannerism is characterized by a greater emphasis on style and technique, as well as artificial and sometimes bizarre compositions, in which figures could have elongated limbs and appear in difficult poses involving dramatic contortions.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a500007c",
    "slug": "human-figure",
    "name": "Human Figure",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Representations of the human figure are some of the earliest depictions found in art across the globe. Drawn, painted, and sculpted images of human beings can be found in [Han Dynasty](/gene/han-dynasty) tombs in China, in [Mayan art](/gene/mayan-art-and-architecture), and even in the nearly 30,000-year-old wall drawings of the [Chauvet Caves](/artwork/wall-painting-with-horses-rhinoceroses-and-aurochs-chauvet-cave) in southern France. The human figure has also been central to [Christian art](/gene/christian-art-and-architecture) for thousands of years and fundamental to the art of the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance). Importantly though, many cultures throughout history have not sought to include human figures in their art. [Islamic art](/gene/islamic-art-and-architecture), for example, did not include people in images due to the belief that only God is able to create living beings. Jewish art similarly refrained from the representation of figures due to its condemnation of idolatry. With its tendency toward [abstraction](/gene/abstract-art) and pursuit of a realm beyond the visible, Modern Art generally moved away from the figure. It was not until the 1980s that figures started to reappear in many avant-garde artists’ works. Human figures have remained a significant subject in contemporary art alongside the continuing interest in abstract and conceptual art.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a500007d",
    "slug": "landscapes",
    "name": "Landscapes",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“Landscape is a creation of the mind and is intrinsically a superior art.” —Mi Fu_\n\nWhile nature themes—plants, animals, or spirits—have been central to art since pre-history, the landscape genre, which favors sweeping topographical surveys over mere individual natural elements, emerged in ancient Greece in scenic theater backdrops and domestic frescoes. After the fall of the Roman Empire, landscape motifs were largely absent from European art until the 14th century, but they flourished in Asia, particularly in the mist-shrouded mountains and visions of untamed nature of Song Dynasty (10th-13th century China) ink paintings. In European art since the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance), artists and theorists have debated whether landscapes should depict “real” or “ideal” views of the natural world. An example of the latter is [Annibale Carracci](/artist/annibale-carracci)’s _Flight into Egypt_ (1604), in which tranquil skies and neatly tailored hills make for an impossible idyll, as if ordered by divine law. Whether verdant or barren, serene or sublime, depictions of the landscape capture an artist’s subjectivity just as much as they do the world around us.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a5000076",
    "slug": "metallic",
    "name": "Metallic",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Works that have a metallic sheen. Historically such a sheen—as in the works of [Donatello](/artist/donatello) or [Constantin Brancusi](/artist/constantin-brancusi)—has signified opulence (because of metal's rarity) or otherworldly radiance. Contemporary artists such as [Jeff Koons](/artist/jeff-koons), [Anselm Reyle](/artist/anselm-reyle), [Subodh Gupta](/artist/subodh-gupta), and [Anish Kapoor](/artist/anish-kapoor) continue to make works emphasizing this reflective quality.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a500007e",
    "slug": "portrait",
    "name": "Portrait",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Loosely speaking, portraiture refers to any representation of a single [human figure](https://www.artsy.net/gene/human-figure). More strictly defined in the Western tradition, portraiture has sought to capture the likeness, character, and/or status of a specific individual. This concept has its roots in Western [antiquity](https://www.artsy.net/gene/antiquity-as-subject), when Roman [emperors](https://www.artsy.net/gene/royalty-slash-aristocracy) like Augustus sent idealized portrait statues to the far reaches of his empire to reinforce his authority. The renewed interest in humanism during the [Renaissance](https://www.artsy.net/gene/renaissance) brought a flourish in portraiture, from the highly detailed likenesses of Henry VIII by [Hans Holbein](https://www.artsy.net/artist/hans-holbein-the-younger) to the frank courtiers painted by [Sofonisba Anguissola](https://www.artsy.net/artist/sofonisba-anguissola). During the Dutch Golden Age, the growing merchant class used portraits to display their economic success, as in the work of [Frans Hals](https://www.artsy.net/artist/frans-hals) or [Rembrandt van Rijn](https://www.artsy.net/artist/rembrandt-van-rijn). The invention of [photography](https://www.artsy.net/gene/photography) in the mid-1800s made portraits affordable to a wider segment of the population, while the advent of abstraction pushed painters to consider how avant-garde styles like [Cubism](https://www.artsy.net/gene/cubism) could tackle portraiture, such as [Picasso](https://www.artsy.net/artist/pablo-picasso)'s [fragmented](https://www.artsy.net/gene/fragmented-geometry) depictions of Dora Maar. Contemporary artists continue to test the definition of portraiture; [Cajsa van Zeipel](https://www.artsy.net/artist/cajsa-von-zeipel)'s all-white, life-sized sculptures apply a traditional portrait format to anonymous stock characters, while [Wanda Bernardino](https://www.artsy.net/artist/wanda-bernardino)  [obscures](https://www.artsy.net/gene/erased-and-obscured) the faces of portraits, confounding the ability of the work to convey likeness.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a500007b",
    "slug": "cityscapes",
    "name": "Cityscapes",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that depict cities viewed from afar. In Western Art, some of the earliest images of architecture date to ancient Rome, such as those in the Etruscan wall paintings at the Villa Boscoreale (ca. 40 B.C.). Though its exact origins are debatable, the modern practice of depicting cityscapes and skylines is often traced to 15th-century developments in the Netherlands, when small views of towns—seen through windows or dotting the background of sweeping landscapes— often adorned paintings, as in the [Limbourg Brothers](/artist/limbourg-brothers)' _Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry_. These depictions were further developed in 17th-century Venice in the convention of the _veduta_ (Italian for “view”), which reached its apogee as a popular souvenir purchased by aristocrats on the Grand Tour. While the [Impressionists](/gene/impressionism) captured the hectic and hazy quality of modern life with their views of the boulevards of Europe, the task of truthfully depicting the city in the 19th century fell more and more to photographers",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dc7ed538101da00010001da",
    "slug": "anthropomorphism",
    "name": "Anthropomorphism",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Attributing to nonhuman animals and objects human traits or forms.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a5000077",
    "slug": "wiener-werkstatte",
    "name": "Wiener Werkstätte",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "_\"Our guiding principle is function, utility our first condition, and our strength must lie in good proportions and the proper treatment of material.\" —[Josef Hoffmann](/artist/josef-hoffmann) and [Koloman Moser](/artist/koloman-moser)_\n\nInspired by the [Arts and Crafts Movement](/gene/arts-and-crafts-movement), two members of the Vienna Secession, Josef Hoffmann and Koloman Moser, founded the _Wiener Werkstätte_ (\"Viennese Workshops\") in 1903 with the aim to produce handcrafted furniture and everyday objects by uniting buyer, designer, and worker. Funded by the industrialist Fritz Wärndorfer, the enterprise included workshops dedicated to glass, ceramic, silver, as well as textiles, jewelry, bookbinding, and enamel. Other figures who designed works produced by the Werkstätte before its closing in 1932 included [Gustav Klimt](/artist/gustav-klimt) and [Egon Schiele](/artist/egon-schiele).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a500008d",
    "slug": "feminist-art",
    "name": "Feminist Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Works created from the late 1960s through the early ’70s that focused on women’s lives and experiences—primarily in domestic contexts—building on the so-called second wave of feminism. The term encompasses a wide range of approaches, including collaborative installations and performance.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d194dcdd5f44a5000092",
    "slug": "isolation-slash-alienation",
    "name": "Isolation/Alienation",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“Amid those scenes of solitude...the mind is cast into the contemplation of eternal things.” —[Thomas Cole](/artist/thomas-cole)_\n\nAs it is typically the fate of an artist to work alone, isolation and alienation are frequent themes throughout the history of art. Whether a painting of a solitary figure or a photograph of a barren landscape, these works carry a pervading sense of emptiness or sadness. Especially in the modern world, figures don't have to be by themselves to feel isolated or alienated. Impressionist painters like [Edgar Degas](/artist/edgar-degas) portrayed figures who were surrounded by people yet entirely bored and alone, a theme picked up some decades later in [Edward Hopper](/artist/edward-hopper)'s _Nighthawks_. [Vincent van Gogh](/artist/vincent-van-gogh) and [Edvard Munch](/artist/edvard-munch), alluded to their own and others’ isolation explicitly in chilling portraits, often produced in series.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d195dcdd5f44a50000b8",
    "slug": "automatism",
    "name": "Automatism",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A term from the field of psychology that denotes the separation between a person’s behavior and his or her consciousness of it, which the [Surrealists](/gene/surrealism) applied to techniques of writing and artmaking that they believed unlocked the creative forces of the unconscious. Many later artists—notably the [Abstract Expressionists](/gene/abstract-expressionism) and Tachists—adopted the idea, resorting to chance, hallucination, hypnosis, and intoxication to guide their production.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d9396db17cb132537000480",
    "slug": "nude",
    "name": "Nude",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that contain artistic depictions of the naked human figure. A universal focus of art, the nude is often associated with either fertility or moral taboos. In Western art, depictions of an idealized nude, male figure emerged out of ancient Greece. The [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) witnessed the first female nudes in such works as [Titian](/artist/titian-vecelli)'s [_Venus of Urbino_](/artwork/titian-vecelli-venus-of-urbino). From the Renaissance onward, most depictions of the nude obscured sexual references or bodily imperfections. Then, during the late 19th century, [Édouard Manet](/artist/edouard-manet) challenged propriety with his unabashed, realistic portrayal of a naked prostitute in his [_Olympia_](/artwork/edouard-manet-olympia) (1863), a work that greatly expanded the possibilities for the subject in the 20th and 21st centuries.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d9396db17cb13253700048a",
    "slug": "renaissance",
    "name": "Renaissance",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "European art created between the 14th and 16th centuries that drew inspiration from ancient Greek and Roman cultures. The term refers to the renewed effort of artists to achieve exact representations of nature and idealized forms of the human body, which radically departed from the appearance of art and architecture of the preceding Middle Ages. While the [Early Renaissance](/gene/early-renaissance) period in Italy drew from Byzantine aesthetics, the [High Renaissance](/gene/high-renaissance) returned to forms from classical antiquity. This shift was due in part to the development of oil paint in Netherlandish regions and the growing trade of information throughout Europe. In addition to new painting techniques, artists turned toward other areas of study, such as the sciences (which, as a result, also experienced a renewed enthusiasm) and scientific ideas regarding perspective.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4dc1c5fc2df37f22f00018f7",
    "slug": "the-artists-studio",
    "name": "The Artist's Studio",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Many artists have depicted art studios, transforming the physical space of artmaking into a subject worthy of art. The [Baroque](https://www.artsy.net/gene/baroque) master [Diego Velázquez](https://www.artsy.net/artist/diego-velazquez) and the [French Realist](https://www.artsy.net/gene/nineteenth-century-french-realism) [Gustave Courbet](https://www.artsy.net/artist/gustave-courbet) both dedicated large canvases to this theme, in _Las Meninas_ (1656) and _The Artist’s Studio_ (1854-1855) respectively, elevating the role of the artist through their grand compositions. In the 20th century, painters like [Henri Matisse](https://www.artsy.net/artist/henri-matisse) and [Roy Lichtenstein](https://www.artsy.net/artist/roy-lichtenstein) depicted studios entirely devoid of people, while a new generation of photographers provided a more intimate look into the working practices of artists. For example, [Hans Namuth](https://www.artsy.net/artist/hans-namuth) captured the action of [Jackson Pollock](https://www.artsy.net/artist/jackson-pollock)’s painting; [Philippe Halsman](https://www.artsy.net/artist/philippe-halsman) staged [Salvador Dalí](https://www.artsy.net/artist/salvador-dali) in a gravity-defying workspace; and [Billy Name](https://www.artsy.net/artist/billy-name) provided inside access to [Andy Warhol](https://www.artsy.net/artist/andy-warhol)’s Silver Factory. These photographers, among many others, have helped to shape the public perception of artists, proving that _how_ and _where_ an artwork is made can be just as fascinating as the final product.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dc7ebb432e67b000100012f",
    "slug": "rural-life",
    "name": "Rural Life",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that depict pastoral life.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dc7ee1332e67b000100013c",
    "slug": "en-plein-air",
    "name": "En plein air",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "French for \"in the open air,\" referring to painting done outdoors rather than in a studio. [Impressionists](/gene/impressionism) were the first to champion this practice, which they used primarily to capture the transient effects of light on a landscape.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d195dcdd5f44a50000bc",
    "slug": "dynamism",
    "name": "Dynamism",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "_\"We declare that the splendor of the world has been enriched by a new beauty: the beauty of speed. A racing automobile with its bonnet adorned with great tubes like serpents with explosive breath…a roaring motor car which seems to run on machine-gun fire, is more beautiful than the Victory of Samothrace.\"  —F.T. Marinetti, \"The Futurist Manifesto\", 1909_\n\nDynamism, a term often tied to the Italian [Futurists](/gene/futurism), is applied to both abstract and figurative works that suggest movement and energy. Compositional turbulence, agitation, or frenetic energy might be apparent in abstract works, while figurative works in this vein contain morphing, receding, or emerging forms. For depictions of actual objects in motion, see [Movement](/gene/movement).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4da8ae85d2311d439a000188",
    "slug": "rough",
    "name": "Rough",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks that have a rough or rough-hewn­ exterior surface. This surface may be the natural texture of a material (such as sandpaper or brick) or could be the result of intentiona­lly rough or imprecise use of a material.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a500007f",
    "slug": "still-life",
    "name": "Still Life",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A depiction of inanimate subject matter, such as food, flowers, or tableware. Historically in the West a very popular genre of painting, still life works can be traced back to antiquity, and often provide keys to understanding cultures of different eras and regions. In the Middle Ages, still life painting was adapted to serve a religious purpose, with items like lilies, coral, and fruit playing various allegorical roles. The Dutch and Flemish Golden Age carried on the allegorical tradition in still life paintings, proving to be the most prolific time for the genre. In addition to giving new life to the opulent table settings of the Netherlandish elite, still life paintings showcased cultural advancements in botanical and scientific discoveries. The genre continued to evolved in the 18th and 19th centuries, but it was not until the radical Modernist shift during the first half of the 20th century that still life painting took on new meaning. [Cubism](/gene/cubism) used the still life to question many of the assumptions of depicting objects, while photography gave still life works an entirely new vehicle.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d195dcdd5f44a50000b3",
    "slug": "byzantine-art",
    "name": "Byzantine Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "Art produced in the Byzantine empire (or Eastern Roman Empire)—at its height, a territory that spanned large swaths of the Mediterranean, present-day Turkey, Southern Spain, and Italy—between the 4th and 15th centuries, when it fell to the Ottoman Turks. As the empire's official religion was Orthodox Christianity, Byzantine art was largely devotional, [Christian art](/artsy/gene/gene/christian-art-and-architecture). Perhaps the best known example of Byzantine art is a tenth-century [mosaic](/artwork/byzantine-hagia-sophia-istanbul-turkey-madonna-and-child-flanked-by-emperor-justinian) of the [Virgin Mary](/tag/the-virgin-mary) in the [Hagia Sophia](/artwork/anthemius-of-tralles-and-isidorus-of-miletus-hagia-sophia) in Istanbul that demonstrates the stylized forms, sharp contours, flat fields of color, and gold mosaic the period is known for. Byzantine icons of Mary (icons were traditional wood panels that included portraits or stories of holy figures, meant for veneration) set a benchmark for Christian art far and wide: in the 13th and 14th centuries Italian artists drawing on Byzantine icons, exemplified by [Giotto](/artist/giotto-giotto-di-bondone)’s [_Madonna and Child_](/artwork/giotto-giotto-di-bondone-madonna-and-child), launched the birth of panel painting, a format that became central to Western art making. Byzantine art also flourished in a wide variety of media including glass mosaic, panel and wall painting, metalwork and enamel, and carved relief in ivory and other precious materials.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d196dcdd5f44a50000be",
    "slug": "caribbean",
    "name": "Caribbean",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in the Caribbean, which includes the islands of Anguilla, Antigua, Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Barbados, Bonaire, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Curaçao, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Jamaica, Martinique, Montserrat, Puerto Rico, Saba, Saint-Barthélemy, Saint Eustatius, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Martin, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Maarten, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands, and the United States Virgin Islands.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4dc7eb8432e67b0001000127",
    "slug": "americana",
    "name": "Americana",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks featuring objects or imagery associated with the United States, its history, and its culture, from Westerns and apple pie to World War II and the American flag. More often than not, artists have used Americana less to promote the values of America than as a means for cultural criticism.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dc7ed68b1783b0001000233",
    "slug": "humor",
    "name": "Humor",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Humor has long aided artists as a tool of social commentary, an iconic example being [William Hogarth](/artist/william-hogarth)'s “Marriage à la mode” paintings which jabbed at marriage arrangements in 18th-century English society. Humor was also central to the radical break with convention made by [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp) when he presented his “readymades” as art along with [Dada](/gene/dada)'s nonsensical objects and performances. Subsequently, humor has played a key role in the performance and video works of artists such as [Bruce Nauman](/artist/bruce-nauman) and [Eleanor Antin](/artist/eleanor-antin), the large-scale Pop Art sculptures of [Claes Oldenburg](/artist/claes-oldenburg), the appropriations of [John Baldessari](/artist/john-baldessari), and the text works of [Jenny Holzer](/artist/jenny-holzer). A darker, more grotesque humor and social critique appears in the paintings of [Peter Saul](/artist/peter-saul) and the sculptural works of [Mike Kelley](/artist/mike-kelley) and [Paul McCarthy](/artist/paul-mccarthy).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dc7edcd8101da00010001eb",
    "slug": "impasto",
    "name": "Impasto",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Paint that stands up from the surface it has been applied to, due either to the method of its application or to the sheer quantity of paint used. Impasto is most often associated with Baroque painters such as [Rembrandt van Rijn](/artist/rembrandt-van-rijn) or [Diego Velázquez](/artist/diego-velazquez), who used the technique to depict aged skin or the reflection of jewels or armor. The impasto of modern and contemporary painters—particularly those moving into abstraction or creating fully abstract images, like [Vincent van Gogh](/artist/vincent-van-gogh), [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock), or [Willem de Kooning](/artist/willem-de-kooning)—reflect an emphasis on gesture and the physical presence of paint itself.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a5000082",
    "slug": "representations-of-architecture",
    "name": "Representations of Architecture",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A category that includes images of buildings (in paintings and photographs) as well as models and sculptures of buildings. Some of the earliest known depictions of [architecture](/gene/architecture) are frescoes in an aristocratic house in Boscoreale, Italy, from the 1st century BC that mimic marble columns and other architectural elements. The advent of photography offered countless new possibilities for documenting the built environment, and indeed some photographers have created images of architectural masterpieces as iconic as the buildings themselves.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d194dcdd5f44a5000093",
    "slug": "woodcut-and-linocut",
    "name": "Woodcut and Linocut",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A printmaking technique in which an image is carved into a block of wood or linoleum; the surface of the block is then inked with a roller and printed, leaving an image only where the block has not been carved away. Woodcut is the oldest printmaking technique, originating in China and reaching the West in the 13th century; the linocut was invented in the late 19th century. The bold mark of a woodcut and the (often apparent) wood grain impression contrasts the more fluid mark of the linocut. During the 15th century, German artist [Albrecht Dürer](/artist/albrecht-durer) mastered the technique of carving into wood, finessing the vigorous woodcut mark into articulated fine lines; centuries later, [Expressionists](/gene/austrian-and-german-expressionism) like [Ernst Ludwig Kirchner](/artist/ernst-ludwig-kirchner) and [Emil Nolde](/artist/emil-nolde) would revive the German woodcut tradition, exploring the medium’s graphic potential with more aggressive marks and flat planes of color. Japanese woodcuts markedly influenced European artists into the 19th century, including [Vincent van Gogh](/artist/vincent-van-gogh) and [Paul Gauguin](/artist/paul-gauguin), who were inspired to incorporate asymmetric compositions, patterns, and flat color into their paintings and prints.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d196dcdd5f44a50000bf",
    "slug": "melanesia-micronesia-and-polynesia",
    "name": "Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in the geographic regions of Melanesia (Fiji, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu), Micronesia (Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Northern Mariana Islands, and Palau) or Polynesia (American Samoa, Cook Islands, French Polynesia, Niue, Pitcairn, Samoa, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Wallis and Futuna Islands).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4dc7eba38101da00010001bd",
    "slug": "suburbia",
    "name": "Suburbia",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks whose subject is the suburbs.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dc7edffb1783b0001000239",
    "slug": "calligraphic",
    "name": "Calligraphic",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks that employ or resemble the lines of calligraphy.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4db5d4fb4197407c12000938",
    "slug": "modern-photography",
    "name": "Modern Photography",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A general term used to encompass trends in photography from roughly 1910-1950 when photographers began to produce works with a sharp focus and an emphasis on formal qualities, exploiting, rather than obscuring, the camera as an essentially mechanical and technological tool. Also referred to as Modernist Photography, this approach abandoned the [Pictorialist](/gene/pictorialism) mode that had dominated the medium for over 50 years throughout the United States, Latin America, Africa, and Europe. Critic Sadakichi Hartmann’s 1904 “Plea for a Straight Photography” heralded this new approach, rejecting the artistic manipulations, soft focus, and painterly quality of Pictorialism and praising the straightforward, unadulterated images of modern life in the work of artists such as Alfred Stieglitz. Innovators like [Paul Strand](/artist/paul-strand) and [Edward Weston](/artist/edward-weston) would further expand the artistic capabilities and techniques of photography, helping to establish it as an independent art form.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4db9b645db68d133c600123e",
    "slug": "conflict",
    "name": "Conflict",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Works that include scenes of personal and/or political conflict, including verbal, physical, or ideological struggles for power or agency (as in fights, wars, or arguments) or acts of opposition or antagonism (such as protests).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a5000089",
    "slug": "documentary-photography",
    "name": "Documentary Photography",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_\"Stare. It is the way to educate your eye, and more. Stare, pry, listen, eavesdrop. Die knowing something. You are not here long.\" —[Walker Evans](/artist/walker-evans)_\n\nPhotography seeking to chronicle actual events, places, and experiences in a truthful and objective manner. Historically, until the broad use of color photography, documentary photography was black and white and captured events with precise focus, limited distortions, and minimal darkroom editing, with the understanding that to manipulate was to distort the truth. It also has characteristically carried a social imperative: to expose what life is like truthfully—in cities, in poverty, in disasters—and to encourage societal progress. Accordingly, some of the best-known historical documentary photographers were also heavily involved in activist causes against poverty and child labor, such as [Jacob Riis](/artist/jacob-august-riis) and [Lewis Hine](/artist/lewis-wickes-hine). Today, more and more, questions of what constitutes a true documentary photograph arise, thanks to artists who complicate the divisions between fact and fiction (such as [Jeff Wall](/artist/jeff-wall)) as well as the extensive capabilities of digital manipulation.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a5000079",
    "slug": "young-british-artists-ybas",
    "name": "Young British Artists (YBAs)",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A group primarily active during the 1990s, although the label—which derives from a series of exhibitions mounted in the mid 1990s at London’s Saatchi Gallery—is still applied to some of its major members, such as [Damien Hirst](/artist/damien-hirst), [Tracey Emin](/artist/tracey-emin), and [Jake and Dinos Chapman](/artist/jake-and-dinos-chapman). Most were educated at the Goldsmiths school of the University of London and introduced in the 1988 Damien Hirst–curated exhibition “Freeze.” The YBAs drew stylistically from [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism) and [Conceptualism](/gene/conceptual-art) and often focused on the darker aspects of contemporary life.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d194dcdd5f44a5000095",
    "slug": "outdoor-art",
    "name": "Outdoor Art",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks situated outdoors. In 20th-century Western art, especially with the birth of abstract art, outdoor sculpture transcended its origins as monuments, memorials, and adornment for buildings, with artist building them as artworks independent of a specific purpose. Importantly, this category includes public art, as well as many [large-scale sculptures](/gene/large-scale-sculpture) and outdoor installations.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d195dcdd5f44a50000b2",
    "slug": "viennese-actionism",
    "name": "Viennese Actionism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Viennese Actionism emerged in Austria in the 1960s around its founding member, [Hermann Nitsch](/artist/hermann-nitsch), whose elaborate,­ ritualisti­c performances were a shocking combination of sexuality,­ moral taboos, violence, and disgust. Drawing on religious symbolism,­ Actionist events frequently incorporated animal slaughter and bodily fluids and were interprete­d as an aggressive­ assault on mainstream­ culture, attracting­ the attention of the authorities and leading to the criminal prosecutio­n of some of the group’s members. Through primarily active as [performance artists](/gene/performance-art), members like Nitsch and Otto Muehl also translated­ their interest in the extremes of the creative act to gestural, if not violent, painting.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dc7eb328101da000100018f",
    "slug": "photojournalism",
    "name": "Photojournalism",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Photographs that convey news through photographs and have been (or were meant to be) published in newspapers, magazines or online news sources.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d196dcdd5f44a50000c6",
    "slug": "contemporary-portrait-photography",
    "name": "Contemporary Portrait Photography",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_“A portrait! What could be more simple and more complex, more obvious and more profound.” —Charles Baudelaire_\n \nThe emergence of photography in the 19th century prompted a decisive shift in the long-standing tradition of portraiture, a transformation it continues to fuel today. [Rineke Dijkstra](/artist/rineke-dijkstra)’s stark and luminous large-scale portraits capture solitary subjects whose direct, unselfconscious gazes penetrate the picture plane, while [Sally Mann](/artist/sally-mann) employs early photographic processes to create delicately intimate portraits that often reveal imperfections characteristic of old cameras and printing techniques. [Philip-Lorca diCorcia](/artist/philip-lorca-dicorcia) uses both digital and Polaroid cameras to generate a wide range of portraits, from staged scenes filled with psychological tension, to documentary portrayals of pedestrians on city streets. These myriad approaches reveal a desire to push the limitations of both the medium of photography and the genre of portraiture by re-appropriating outmoded practices and embracing new ones.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d197dcdd5f44a50000d3",
    "slug": "contemporary-figurative-painting",
    "name": "Contemporary Figurative Painting",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_\"The idea that there is progress in the arts in the same way that there is progress in science is absurd[...] Art is evolutionary, in that it responds to the times but it doesn’t improve.\" —[John Currin](/artist/john-currin)_\n\nFor most of the 20th century, in Western Art, the discussion of \"modern painting\" largely ignored figurative works in favor of the significant avant-garde movements—from [Cubism](/gene/cubism) to [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism)—that embraced abstraction. Only a few movements to include figuration (like [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism) and [Pop](/gene/pop-art)) would make their way into \"high art\" discourse until roughly the 1980s, when figurative painting returned with a vengeance, in particular via the works of [Neo-Expressionist](/gene/neo-expressionism) artists like [Julian Schnabel](/artist/julian-schnabel) and [Jean-Michel Basquiat](/artist/jean-michel-basquiat). Since, figurative painting has continued its resurgence, and its current forms feature a wide range of experimental forms, compositions and subjects. Examples include the art-historically informed portraits of Currin and [Kehinde Wiley](/artist/kehinde-wiley), the blurred memories of [Gerhard Richter](/artist/gerhard-richter) and [Luc Tuymans](/artist/luc-tuymans), and the reduced figuration of [Marcel Dzama](/artist/marcel-dzama), [Dana Schutz](/artist/dana-schutz), and [Marlene Dumas](/artist/marlene-dumas).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4da8aede6be1903a3e00020a",
    "slug": "assemblage",
    "name": "Assemblage",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "The technique of creating three-dimensional artworks by combining objects--both natural and manufactured, usually from the world outside art making and in their original form. Although [Jean Dubuffet](/artist/jean-dubuffet) coined the term in 1953 to refer to his collages of that year, assemblage has roots in the early 20th century, particularly in [Cubist](/gene/cubism) [collage](/gene/collage) and [Dada](/gene/dadaism) readymades. The 1961 exhibition “The Art of Assemblage” at the Museum of Modern Art propelled the term to prominence as a way of describing a vast array of two- and three-dimensional practices, including works by [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp), [Robert Rauschenberg](/artist/robert-rauschenberg), [Joseph Cornell](/artist/joseph-cornell), and [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dc7eadb8101da000100016b",
    "slug": "group-f-slash-64",
    "name": "Group f/64",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_\"Pure photography is defined as possessing no qualities of technique, composition or idea, derivative of any other art form.\" —Group f/64 Manifesto, August 1932_\n\nFormed in 1932, Group f/64 was a San Francisco Bay Area-based informal association of 11 American photographers, including [Ansel Adams](/artist/ansel-adams), [Imogen Cunningham](/artist/imogen-cunningham), and [Edward Weston](/artist/edward-weston). Like many postwar documentary photographers, this group of so-called 'straight' photographers focused on the clarity and sharp definition of the un-manipulated photographic image. Committed to a practice of \"pure photography\", Group f/64 encouraged the use of a large-format view camera in order to produce grain-free, sharply-detailed, high value contrast photographs. The name of the group is taken from the smallest camera lens aperture possible—which yields the sharpest depth of field.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d195dcdd5f44a50000b1",
    "slug": "dutch-and-flemish",
    "name": "Dutch and Flemish",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Applies to artworks made in the Low Countries during the 16th and 17th centuries.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d195dcdd5f44a50000bb",
    "slug": "chiaroscuro",
    "name": "Chiaroscuro",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "The term _chiaroscuro_ stems from the Italian words _chiaro_ (“clear” or “bright”) and _oscuro_ (“obscure” or “dark”), and  refers to the arrangement of light and shade in a work of art. [Renaissance](https://www.artsy.net/gene/renaissance) master [Leonardo da Vinci](https://www.artsy.net/artist/leonardo-da-vinci) is said to have invented _chiaroscuro_, discovering that he could portray depth through slow gradations of light and shadow. A century later, the Italian [Baroque](https://www.artsy.net/gene/baroque) painter [Caravaggio](https://www.artsy.net/artist/michelangelo-merisi-da-caravaggio) spearheaded a new method of _chiaroscuro_, using a single light source—such as a lit candle or an open window—to dramatically brighten his figures against a dark background. This emphasis on tonal contrast quickly spread across Europe, with followers of the style named “the [Caravaggisti](https://www.artsy.net/gene/caravaggesque).” Still today, artists like [Donato Giancola](https://www.artsy.net/artist/donato-giancola) and [Gülin Hayat Topdemir](https://www.artsy.net/artist/gulin-hayat-topdemir) work in a “[Caravaggesque](https://www.artsy.net/gene/caravaggesque)” style, evoking the aesthetic of the European Old Masters through intense contrasts of light and dark.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d196dcdd5f44a50000c0",
    "slug": "figurative-sculpture",
    "name": "Figurative Sculpture",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Sculptures that represent the visible world. While the term figurative sculpture is generally associated with historical works created in traditional materials such as marble or bronze, such as the [_Venus de Milo_](/artwork/aphrodite-of-melos-called-venus-de-milo), Michelangelo's [_David_](/artwork/michelangelo-buonarroti-david-1), or [Auguste Rodin's](/artist/auguste-rodin) _The Thinker_, contemporary artists continue to explore its wide range of possibilities through a variety of new techniques and materials. Importantly, there is no strict division between figurative and abstract sculpture. Many works deemed figurative—especially those made in the 20th century—have abstract elements, and vice versa.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4d9396db17cb13253700048c",
    "slug": "popular-culture",
    "name": "Popular Culture",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Manifest in everything from film to food labels, popular culture includes the cultural activities, products, images, and ideas embraced by the broader public, particularly as seen in mass media. By borrowing the iconography and lore of pop culture as the material for their artwork, artists are able to reflect the world we live in and comment on larger forces like globalization, technology, and consumerism. They also blur the distinction between high and low culture through their inclusion of common subject matter in “fine” art. In Western art history, since the mid-19th century artists have often referred to aspects of popular culture. [Gustave Courbet](/artist/gustave-courbet), for example, alluded to a popular image of the Wandering Jew in his 1854 _Meeting_. [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) is generally regarded as the first artist to include an actual piece of popular culture—wallpaper printed with a chair-caning pattern—in an artwork, his [_Still Life with Chair-Caning_](/artwork/pablo-picasso-still-life-with-chair-caning) of 1912. Pop artists [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol) and [Roy Lichtenstein](/artist/roy-lichtenstein) are probably the best known for their inclusion of popular imagery, such as supermarket foods and comic book heroines, into their works.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dc7f1ddb1783b0001000266",
    "slug": "self-portrait",
    "name": "Self-Portrait",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“I paint self-portraits because I am so often alone, because I am the person I know best.” —[Frida Kahlo](/artist/frida-kahlo)_\n\nAn important and highly recurring subject matter in the history of art, featuring a likeness or representation of the artist by the artist. As mirrors became cheaper and clearer in the 15th century, the [Early Renaissance](/gene/early-renaissance) saw the proliferation of self-portraiture as a genre in itself, owing perhaps also to an increasing interest in humanism and the individual. The term \"self-portrait\" may refer to just a portrait of the artist, or a portrait of an artist located within a larger scene, group, or composition, also called an \"inserted\" self-portrait—as in Diego Velazquez’s [_Las Meninas_](/artwork/diego-velazquez-las-meninas-the-maids-of-honour) (1656). [Albrecht Dürer](/artist/albrecht-durer) was the first prolific self-portraitist, portraying himself at several different ages; [Rembrandt](/artist/rembrandt-harmensz-van-rijn-1) followed his lead, completing over 90 of them, a veritable personal autobiography. In the 19th century, self-reflection in art took hold much more extensively, with artists using the technique to comment upon their social status, or for the purposes of psychological introspection as in the works of [Vincent van Gogh](/artist/vincent-van-gogh), Frida Kahlo, or [Egon Schiele](/artist/egon-schiele). Today artists continue to riff on the centuries-old motif in thoughtful variations, particularly in photography.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d195dcdd5f44a50000b6",
    "slug": "interiors",
    "name": "Interiors",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artists have long been interested in depicting interiors, whether to demonstrate their ability to simulate three-dimensional space or to serve as settings for political, religious, or private stories. [Robert Campin](/artist/robert-campin) set biblical scenes in the interior spaces of his own 15th-century Netherlands; Johannes Vermeer's 17th-century paintings are remarkable for their detail, as well as the intimacy of their settings and figures. Interiors have also been used to express particular psychological states and philosophies—take Vincent van Gogh's [_Bedroom at Arles_](/artwork/vincent-van-gogh-la-chambre-de-van-gogh-a-arles-van-goghs-bedroom-in-arles) or [René Magritte](/artist/rene-magritte)'s surreal domestic spaces as examples. Recently, numerous photographers have made interiors a consistent subject, including [Hiroshi Sugimoto](/artist/hiroshi-sugimoto), [Thomas Demand](/artist/thomas-demand), and [Candida Höfer](artist/candida-hofer).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d196dcdd5f44a50000cb",
    "slug": "flora",
    "name": "Flora",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Works depicting flowers and plants, whether as the major focus of a painting (as in a still life), part of an elaborate ornamental program (such as on a building or vessel), or as a small, background aspect of a work (as has been the case in thousands of paintings throughout art history). In Western art, flowers have historically been used to symbolize spring, rebirth, hope, and the ephemeral nature of human life. Many flowers have specific meanings tied to them; the rose, for example, has been associated with the Virgin Mary, as well as martyrdom (red roses), purity (white roses), and of course love. Trees, on the other hand, have been used to signify knowledge or its acquisition.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dcdf2c98080ad0001003a32",
    "slug": "op-art",
    "name": "Op Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Practiced from South America to Europe, Op Art (or Optical Art) was an international art movement during the 1960s, which presented a new form of abstraction that played with the viewer’s [visual perception](https://www.artsy.net/gene/visual-perception). Often considered the “grandfather” of Op Art, French-Hungarian artist [Victor Vasarely](https://www.artsy.net/artist/victor-vasarely) began creating mind-bending paintings as early as the 1930s, leveraging his studies of science, color, and optics to produce images that seemed to move, swell, or change forms. In 1965, [The Museum of Modern Art](https://www.artsy.net/museum-of-modern-art) presented a survey of Vasarely’s followers in a seminal exhibition titled “The Responsive Eye,” showcasing works by [Richard Anuszkiewic](https://www.artsy.net/artist/richard-anuszkiewicz), [Bridget Riley](https://www.artsy.net/artist/bridget-riley), [Carlos Cruz-Diez](https://www.artsy.net/artist/carlos-cruz-diez), [Jesús Rafael Soto](https://www.artsy.net/artist/jesus-rafael-soto), and [Josef Albers](https://www.artsy.net/artist/josef-albers), among others. Fashion brands soon popularized the bold patterns of Op Art through their “Mod” designs, while art critics like Clement Greenberg critiqued the movement for its gimmicks and commercial appeal. Op Art continues to be influential today, inspiring both [artists](https://www.artsy.net/gene/contemporary-op-art) and [neuroscientists](https://www.artsy.net/article/the-art-genome-project-the-neuroscience-of-op-art) to take a closer look at how the eye processes lines, forms, and colors.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4db85c704f6b2471d7000081",
    "slug": "japonisme",
    "name": "Japonisme",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Generally refers to the Japanese influence on many European artists in the later part of the 19th century, as evidenced in the incorporation of Japanese designs into decorative objects, the depiction of scenes set in Japan, and the various stylistic influences of Japanese aesthetics. After a long period of isolation, Japan resumed trade with the West in 1853, and Japanese goods soon began to pour into Europe. Japanese objects were especially fashionable in Paris and London, and the term Japonisme was coined in 1872 by Parisian critic Phillippe Burty, whose vast collection of Japanese artworks drew the attention of [Edgar Degas](/artist/edgar-degas) and numerous Impressionists. Japanese aesthetics, as exemplified by _Ukiyo-e_ (\"Pictures of the Floating World\"), inspired asymmetric compositions, flattened modeling, calligraphic brushstrokes, pure bright colors, and the representation of transient, everyday scenes. These tendencies are visible in works of [Mary Cassatt](/artist/mary-cassatt), as well as Nabis painters [Pierre Bonnard](/artist/pierre-bonnard) and [Édouard Vuillard](/artist/edouard-vuillard); [Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec](/artist/henri-de-toulouse-lautrec) was inspired by Kabuki theatre prints, while [Paul Gauguin](/artist/paul-gauguin) adapted Japanese woodcut techniques. In England, [James Abbott McNeill Whister](/artist/james-abbott-mcneill-whistler) was Japonisme's most vigorous proponent. The influence of Japan endured in Western art, appearing later in [Art Nouveau](/gene/art-nouveau), and then again during the move towards abstraction in the 20th century.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a5000075",
    "slug": "american-tonalism",
    "name": "American Tonalism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Tonalism is an American progressive art movement that developed in the 1880s out of an abiding spiritual feeling for the intimacies of the human landscape—often scenes at dawn or dusk of abandoned farms littered with stone walls and old orchards. A radically subjective and expressive landscape style in its heyday, Tonalism's name alludes to the use of muted natural tones in dramatically portraying the symbolic and abstract character of landscape forms. The transcendentalist sensibilities of [John La Farge](/artist/john-la-farge), [George Inness](/artist/george-inness), and [James Abbott McNeill Whistler](/artist/james-abbott-mcneill-whistler) were key to the style’s development and wide popularity. Major Tonalists like [Ralph Blakelock](/artist/ralph-albert-blakelock), [Albert Pinkham Ryder](/artist/albert-pinkham-ryder), [J. Francis Murphy](/artist/j-francis-murphy), and [Dwight Tryon](/artist/dwight-tryon) took inspiration from the writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau and translated the experience of nature into ambiguous, melancholic, or mysterious works, often echoing the trauma of the Civil War. Tonalism would influence major figures of modern American painting into the 20th century, including [Milton Avery](/artist/milton-avery), the [Color Field](/gene/color-field-painting) painters, and the circle of artists around [Alfred Stieglitz](/artist/alfred-stieglitz).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d937b5517cb1325370000ee",
    "slug": "animals",
    "name": "Animals",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“Animals are such agreeable friends—they ask no questions, they pass no criticisms.” —George Eliot_\n\nWhether pets, mythological beasts, or wild creatures, animals have always been a major subject of art and literature. Dating back to Paleolithic cave paintings in France and ancient Egyptian reliefs and artifacts, animals have been depicted by artists as friends, allegories, muses, and reflections on human nature.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4dc7ebf3b1783b0001000221",
    "slug": "related-to-fashion",
    "name": "Related to Fashion",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“One should either be a work of art, or wear a work of art.” —Oscar Wilde_\n\nArtworks that highlight fashion, which, broadly defined, consists of the various and ever-changing ways that humans dress themselves, ranging from the most basic to the most coveted garments and accoutrements. Depictions of clothing in art speak to many aspects of a culture, from social structures and gender roles to daily activities. Art and fashion have overlapped in ever-increasing ways in the 20th century. [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol) began his career as a fashion illustrator, and carried his penchant for glamorous subjects into some of the most iconic modern artworks. Since then, artists such as [David LaChapelle](/artist/david-lachapelle), [Marilyn Minter](/artist/marilyn-minter), and [Richard Phillips](/artist/richard-phillips) have frequently referred to fashion, celebrity, and consumer culture in both cynical and celebratory ways.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a5000088",
    "slug": "digital-culture",
    "name": "Digital Culture",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“If it keeps up man will atrophy all his limbs but the push-button finger.” —Frank Lloyd Wright_\n\nArtworks that focus on the vast network of websites and programs that make up the internet and how this technology has affected human behavior. Subjects include the mechanics of web tools, communication on social networks, the culture of online communities, and the operations of internet companies.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d194dcdd5f44a5000096",
    "slug": "political",
    "name": "Political",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“Images are not innocent. They tell us things about the world.” —[Alfredo Jaar](/artist/alfredo-jaar)_\n\nArtworks that engage with the ideas, institutions, and conflicts surrounding the governance of society. Art has long played a role in the sphere of politics, as evidenced by artifacts such as the Code of Hammurabi from Babylon or monuments such as Trajan's column from imperial Rome. While politically charged artwork is most often associated with activities outside church or state patronage, the careers of artists such as [Diego Velázquez](/artist/diego-velazquez), [Francisco Goya](/artist/francisco-jose-de-goya-y-lucientes-1), and [Eugène Delacroix](/artist/eugene-victor-ferdinand-delacroix-eugene-delacroix) have demonstrated that political messages, whether subtle or overt, can resonate in officially commissioned works. Artists have long been associated with radical political activity; [Jacques-Louis David](/artist/jacques-louis-david)'s involvement in the French Revolution is an often-cited example. During the 20th century, the [Mexican Mural School](/gene/mexican-muralism) was associated with the country's 1910 revolution and continued its legacy through images of working class liberation. And American and European artists during and since the 1960s have created a multitude of antiwar and socially-engaged artworks. Their practices—as well as those of artists outside America and Europe—continue to inspire contemporary artists, as politically-engaged art is one of the most prominent types of work being created today.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d194dcdd5f44a50000af",
    "slug": "conceptual-art",
    "name": "Conceptual Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Works in which the idea, planning, and production process are more important than the result. The term gained currency in the 1960s as a result of [Sol LeWitt](/artist/sol-lewitt)’s 1967 article \"Paragraphs on Conceptual Art\" in _Artforum_. Conceptual art can take many forms, including, most frequently, descriptions and seemingly objective photographic documentation. The use of Conceptualism in contemporary practice is often referred to as [Contemporary Conceptualism](/gene/contemporary-conceptualism).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dc7ee458101da00010001f3",
    "slug": "use-of-traditional-techniques",
    "name": "Use of Traditional Techniques",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Contemporary art and design works that make use of traditional techniques, a tendency that spans global cultures and includes a wide range of experiments with materials and imagery. Examples include the incorporation of calligraphy into paintings and the use of embroidery or weaving, for instance, in the textile works of [Alighiero e Boetti](/artist/alighiero-e-boetti) or the digitally spun tapestries of [Pae White](/artist/pae-white). These works often blur the boundary between art and craft, representing a hybrid of cultural traditions.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dcaa9ad1257f4000100040e",
    "slug": "the-pictures-generation",
    "name": "The Pictures Generation",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A group of artists that emerged in the 1970s and ’80s whose works were united by the [appropriation](/gene/appropriation) of images from mass media. Plucking images from television, film, and advertising, these artists produced work in a wide range of styles, including photography, film, video, and performance. The 1977 exhibition \"Pictures\" at Artists Space in New York, curated by Douglas Crimp, as well as Crimp’s associated essay, were seminal in defining the movement.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a500008b",
    "slug": "fashion-photography",
    "name": "Fashion Photography",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Commercial photography meant to showcase or promote new developments in fashion. This category includes editorial photographs commissioned by publications to explore or comment on trends, and images commissioned by fashion labels to promote their brand in advertisements or document their collections in catalogues.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d9396db17cb132537000489",
    "slug": "suprematism",
    "name": "Suprematism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Coined by Russian painter [Kazimir Malevich](/artist/kasimir-malevich) in 1915, Suprematism declared a break with traditional modes of representation, embracing geometric abstraction and aiming to revolutionize artistic practice with an autonomous visual language of \"pure artistic feeling.\" Malevich stridently announced Suprematism's arrival with the staging of \"The last [Futurist](/gene/futurism) exhibition of paintings,\" self-consciously positioning himself against the reigning avant-garde movements of the time and declaring a total rupture with the art of the past. It was there that Malevich displayed his seminal _Black Square_ painting (1915), which realized his idea of the \"zero form\" of art, a “pure” art that excluded figurative imagery in the pursuit of capturing profound, abstract ideas such as infinity and the sublime. Suprematism’s few followers were active in Russia alongside the [Constructivists](/gene/constructivism), who also championed geometric abstraction; [El Lissitzky](/artist/el-lissitzky) claimed membership in both groups and brought their radically new pictorial language to the West, where it would become hugely influential among avant-garde circles, particularly the [Bauhaus](/gene/bauhaus) in Germany.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d193dcdd5f44a500008e",
    "slug": "gender",
    "name": "Gender",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Used in describing artworks engaged with gender, or with gender-based political rights (sometimes referred to as gender politics).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4d90d194dcdd5f44a50000ad",
    "slug": "baroque",
    "name": "Baroque",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The major European artistic style of the 17th- into 18th centuries. Though the term is now outdated because of its extreme variance of styles, historically it refers to a style that departs from strict representation of forms to embrace the more fantastic, bizarre, excessive, and elaborate, especially in terms of architecture.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dc7fd6fb1783b000100029c",
    "slug": "glamour",
    "name": "Glamour",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Works featuring or including glamorous people, events, or settings.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ddbb7feb773bf0001003254",
    "slug": "kitsch",
    "name": "Kitsch",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "The word “kitsch” originated in the 19th century to criticize art seen as being in poor taste, or which hopelessly copied “high art” but remained mediocre or lacking in refinement. In the 20th century, with the rise of industrial manufacturing, the term has become more generally associated with mass commodities or cheap entertainment, considered decorative or evocative of lowbrow taste. Kitsch suffered its most serious intellectual blow in art circles when Clement Greenberg railed against it in a famous 1939 essay, in which he claimed it anathema to progressive, avant-garde art since it pandered to the masses. The rise of consumerism in the United States and Europe in the 1950s and '60s generated an artistic interest in popular culture, however, often with an eye towards dismantling the divide between ostensibly “fine art” and mass appeal; nowhere was this more notable than with the rise of [Pop Art](/gene/pop-art) in the United States. Today, the idea that something can be “so bad it’s good” is so common that the term “kitsch” no longer retains the negative associations it once did, and artists today often create works that embrace bad taste and question the high- and lowbrow division in art. Importantly, while kitsch is generally associated with European or American culture, it has parallels throughout the world. For example, the concept of kawaii—or cuteness—in Japanese culture is a quality opposed to the aesthetic ideal of refinement and plays a prominent role in popular culture and entertainment.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dcdf38f8080ad0001003a92",
    "slug": "mortality",
    "name": "Mortality",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "The fragile boundary between death and life has been a subject of art since the earliest recorded cultures. In Classical sculpture, scenes of death ranged from highly dramatic mythological scenes to the deeply introspective last moments of mortal subjects. On a more intimate scale, the pietà (Mary mourning of the body of Christ) became a commonly painted and sculpted subject beginning in the 13th century in Northern Europe; it soon spread to the south, and continued to appear regularly into the 17th century. The vanitas image, a reflection on the transitory nature of human existence that includes memento mori like skulls or hourglasses, was popularized in 17th-century Netherlands. From the 18th to the 19th centuries, French painting saw a shift from the admiring scenes of mortal struggle by [Romantics](/gene/romanticism) to sedate scenes by Realists, such as Gustave Courbet’s [_Burial at Ornans_](/artwork/gustave-courbet-the-burial-at-ornans). In 20th century Western art, reflections on mortality range from scenes of brutal atrocity (e.g. [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso)’s _Guernica_) to the self-destructing machines of [Jean Tinguely](/artist/jean-tinguely), to homages to the victims of AIDS (by [Nan Goldin](/artist/nan-goldin) and [Felix Gonzalez-Torres](/artist/felix-gonzalez-torres), amongst others).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dcdf9e7522d6e00010042d0",
    "slug": "medical-slash-health",
    "name": "Medical/Health",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Used in describing artworks related to health or medical institutions or issues.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dcdf31b522d6e0001004007",
    "slug": "biomorphic",
    "name": "Biomorphic",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "The category of biomorphic art is large and diverse, drawing connections between nature-inspired objects across time periods and geographies. In a 1936 catalogue for the Museum of Modern Art, museum director Alfred H. Barr coined the term biomorphism to describe the trend of “[curvilinear](/gene/curvilinear-forms),” “decorative,” and “romantic” forms in abstract art. These artworks drew upon the organic shapes of plants and animals, rejecting the rigid structures of geometric abstraction in favor of something much more free-flowing. Icons of biomorphism include the sinuous [Art Nouveau](/gene/art-nouveau) structures of [Antoni Gaudí](/artist/antoni-gaudi) and [Hector Guimard](/artist/hector-guimard), the [Surrealist](/gene/surrealism] dreamscapes of [Joan Miró](/artist/joan-miro) and [Yves Tanguy](/artist/yves-tanguy), the rounded sculptures of [Henry Moore](/artist/henry-moore) and [Barbara Hepworth](/artist/barbara-hepworth], and the sweeping architectural forms of [Zaha Hadid](/artist/zaha-hadid) and [Frank Gehry](/artist/frank-gehry).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de7d8bf91b76c000100b370",
    "slug": "food",
    "name": "Food",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_\"Tell me what you eat and I will tell you what you are.\" —Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin_\n\nFood has long been a favored subject of artists, and at times even a medium for making art. In Western Art, depictions of food date back to funerary paintings of food offerings in ancient Egypt. The Classical historian Pliny claimed that Greek painter Zeuxis once painted grapes so realistic that birds came to pick at them. Depictions continued in [Roman art](/gene/roman-art), where the putto (male infant) depicted with grape vines was a common motif. In [Baroque](/gene/baroque) painting, food appeared regularly as a still-life element, as exemplified by [Carravaggio](/artist/michelangelo-merisi-da-caravaggio)'s _Bacchus_ or the _bodegones_ (meaning 'pantry still-lives') of Spanish painters [Diego Velázquez](/artist/diego-velazquez) and [Francisco de Zurbarán](/artist/francisco-de-zurbaran). [Paul Cézanne](/artist/paul-cezanne)'s fruit still lifes presented new forms of representing three-dimensional space. In the 20th century, food was central to [Pop Art](/gene/pop-art)'s explorations of consumerism, as in [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol)'s Campell's soup cans, [Claes Oldenburg](/artist/claes-oldenburg)'s monumental hamburger and ice cream cone sculptures, and [Wayne Thiebaud](/artist/wayne-thiebaud)'s paintings of cakes and pastries. At its most logical extreme, food has been used as an actual medium for creating artworks, as in [Dieter Roth](/artist/dieter-roth)'s chocolate self-portraits and [Vik Muniz](/artist/vik-muniz)'s reproductions of iconic works of art using materials such as lunch meat and peanut butter.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dcdf36c522d6e00010040a5",
    "slug": "grotesque",
    "name": "Grotesque",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Traditionally, the fantastic combination of human and animal forms; now more generally any exaggerated (and often comic) distortion of figures or designs in bizarre, disgusting, or absurd scenes.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de57c1b2613fc000100a966",
    "slug": "traditional-scroll-painting",
    "name": "Traditional Scroll Painting",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Chinese, Korean, or Japanese paintings, often depicting landscapes or scenes from daily life or literary or historic narratives and generally created using an ink brush on scrolled paper, although the methods, styles, and materials varied widely according to region.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4dcfd54ba2b18f0001003037",
    "slug": "appropriation",
    "name": "Appropriation",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "The practice, prevalent in the 1980s, of borrowing images from a range of sources both within and outside of art history and re-presenting them in new works of art. The borrowed images can be minimally altered, as in the photographs of [Sherrie Levine](/artist/sherrie-levine), or combined into elaborate compositions, as in the work of [David Salle](/artist/david-salle). Appropriation has a venerable history. Both [Edouard Manet](/artist/edouard-manet) and [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso), for example, took historical artworks as departure points for their own pieces, and Picasso was one of the first to use items from the mass media in his work. [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp) appropriated a urinal, turning it upside down, signing, and titling it. However, it could be argued that as a group, appropriation artists of the 1980s employed the practice more than their predecessors.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ddec5d92a06090001006217",
    "slug": "psychedelic",
    "name": "Psychedelic",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Refers to art in which the “look” is based on psychedelic experiences that characteristically stem from the use of drugs like LSD, psilocybin, and mescaline.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dec33aa77e0d80001001289",
    "slug": "german-expressionism",
    "name": "German Expressionism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "German Expressionism was part of a larger, early-20th-century tendency in art, literature, music, and theater throughout Europe, which explored subjective experience, spirituality, and formal experimentation. Within the socially conservative environment of late 19th- and early 20th-century Germany, groups like [The Blue Rider](/gene/the-blue-rider) and [Die Brücke](/gene/die-brucke) were shocking for both aesthetic and cultural reasons. Their spontaneous brushwork and distorted figures, borrowed from so-called “primitive art,” defied conventions, as did their anti-authoritarian cultural practices: independent exhibitions, sexual liberation, the production of fringe publications, and political activism. After the First World War, the utopian and spiritual elements of this tendency gave way to the more political ideas of groups like the Dresden Secession and the Novembergruppe, many of whose members later became associated with [Neue Sachlichkeit (New Objectivity)](/gene/neue-sachlichkeit). Expressionism was a lightning-rod issue for Communists and National Socialists alike, for whom it often became a stand-in for Modern art at large. Considering it to be at odds with his program of classically inspired “Great German Art,” Adolph Hitler vilified the movement, holding it up as an emblem of cultural degeneration and persecuting its practitioners.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e08a4b65c65ab00010005c6",
    "slug": "animation",
    "name": "Animation",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_\"Animation can explain whatever the mind of man can conceive. This facility makes it the most versatile and explicit means of communication yet devised for quick mass appreciation.\" —Walt Disney_\n\nWhile basic animation devices (such as flip books) date to as early as A.D. 180, what is commonly understood as animation—film in which drawn subjects seem to move on their own—arose at the beginning of the 20th century in the U.S. and Europe. James Stuart Blackton's _Humorous Phases of Funny Faces_ is arguably considered the first animation; Emil Cohl's _Fantasmagorie_ is considered the first animated film. From its rough beginnings in the 20th century, animation has become one of the most popular forms of world entertainment. Aside from the imagery dispersed worldwide by Disney, a multitude of highly influential other genres have arisen in the last 50 years, whose methods and characters have had a significant effect on artists, such as Japanese anime or the recent rise of animated GIFs.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce73339bed00001005a59",
    "slug": "symmetrical",
    "name": "Symmetrical",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Symmetrical artworks are those in which the entire work or certain elements within it include imagery that is reflected in a common axis. The current meaning of symmetry dates to the 17th century; earlier, since classical antiquity, the term _symmetria_ meant, more broadly, the correctness of measure and proportion. The most common types of symmetry in art are bilateral and rotational, and the expression of human interest in symmetry is considered highly anthropomorphic as the typical human body is more-or-less bilaterally symmetrical. Symmetry in art is commonly used to express harmony and balance, as well as hierarchies—conveyed through the power of the central axis or an individual element’s position within a symmetrical system.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce7536df5b40001005508",
    "slug": "haze",
    "name": "Haze",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Works that depict haze or make a significant attempt to capture the atmosphere. Such works are often said to possess an \"atmospheric\" or \"airy\" quality. In Western Art, early examples include the works of [J.M.W. Turner](/artist/joseph-mallord-william-turner) or the [Impressionists](/gene/impressionism).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ddbbd3c4027ac0001001962",
    "slug": "design",
    "name": "Design",
    "family": "Artistic Disciplines",
    "description": "_\"While an artist can choose whether or not to be responsive and responsible towards other human beings, by definition a designer must be.\" —Paola Antonelli_\n\nSince the beginning of the 20th century, \"design\" has generally been used to refer to either functional objects that are appreciated for their aesthetic qualities, or the plans for the creation of functional objects. (Previously, the Western usage of the term largely referred to drawing or the overall look of a composition or object.) Importantly, design is often used in combination with the term decorative arts, a preferred term for describing pre-19th century (and pre-industrial revolution) functional objects. Among the many historical design movements—to have contributed significant design forms to the canon or challenged the role of functional objects in daily life—are the [Arts and Crafts Movement](/gene/arts-and-crafts-movement), the Deutscher Werkbund, and the [Bauhaus](/gene/bauhaus).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de000bfb9da8f0001003b25",
    "slug": "process-art",
    "name": "Process Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A subset of the general category of [Postminimalism](/gene/postminimalism) in which the materials used, their placement, and the general construction of a work takes precedence over the finished product. The movement began in the mid-1960s when such artists as [Richard Serra](/artist/richard-serra), [Robert Morris](/artist/robert-morris), [Lynda Benglis](/artist/lynda-benglis), and Eva Hesse reacted against the fabricated modular units of [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism) by investigating and documenting the artistic production process, often intentionally leaving exposed on the final form the traces of its creation.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de2a3833aa2e100010054be",
    "slug": "post-world-war-i-european-classicism",
    "name": "Post-World War I European Classicism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Following the devastation of World War I, and until the outbreak of World War II, a \"return to order\" permeated the arts in Europe. Characterized by a rejection of prewar avant-garde practices—abstract art in general, [Cubism](/gene/cubism) and its fracturing of reality, and the extreme introspection of Expressionism—many artists returned to more traditional modes of representation, embracing classical modeling of figures, solid volumes, and references to antiquity. This sweeping movement encompassed various national or regional tendencies, such as [Neue Sachlichkeit](/gene/neue-sachlichkeit) in Germany; [Giorgio de Chirico](/artist/giorgio-de-chirico)'s Pittura Metafisica, second-generation [Futurism](/gene/futurism), and the Etruscan-inspired archaism of [Mario Sironi](/artist/mario-sironi) in Italy; as well as [Purism](/gene/purism) and [Fernand Léger](/artist/fernand-leger)'s Tubism in France.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de57c607804370001008c8b",
    "slug": "85-new-wave",
    "name": "'85 New Wave",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A name for the conceptual and provocative artwork created in China between 1985 and 1989 that reacted to Socialist Realism, which had dominated Chinese art since the 1950s. ‘85 New Wave inspired various other groups, such as the Xiamen Dada group and the Northern Artists Group from Harbin. The movement reached its pinnacle with the 1989 “China Avant-Garde Exhibition” at the National Art Gallery in Beijing.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de66de626d8790001011d1a",
    "slug": "related-to-literature",
    "name": "Related to Literature",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks in which literature is a subject.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de6d34d5f656c0001005a4d",
    "slug": "american-regionalism",
    "name": "American Regionalism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Refers to the work of 1930s U.S. artists such as [Thomas Hart Benton](/artist/thomas-hart-benton) and [Grant Wood](/tag/grant-wood), who rejected modernism and instead depicted in idiosyncratic styles the landscape and everyday life of common people in the Midwest, from which most of the style’s proponents came.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dcdf3f18080ad0001003b2c",
    "slug": "nostalgia",
    "name": "Nostalgia",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks recalling memories and meanings from the past in a way that might be painful—the term nostalgia is derived from the Greek words for “return” and “suffering”. 18th- and 19th-century Romantic landscape painters like [J.M.W. Turner](/artist/joseph-mallord-william-turner) and [John Constable](/artist/john-constable) often depicted a mythical countryside, touching on a widespread nostalgic yearning for the pastoral, bountiful rural life thought to have been lost as a result of the Industrial Revolution. Contemporary American artists often wax nostalgic for the America of the 1950s (in search of a simpler, more peaceful time) through a focus on mid-century iconography, such as cars and the open road.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dd689edb084a900010015c6",
    "slug": "american-realism",
    "name": "American Realism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A 20th-century U.S. movement embracing realistic depiction whose adherents  include members of the [Ashcan School](/gene/ashcan-school), as well as [George Bellows](/artist/george-bellows), [Robert Henri](/artist/robert-henri), [Edward Hopper](/artist/edward-hopper), and John Sloan.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ddbb6550082ae00010018f4",
    "slug": "process-oriented",
    "name": "Process-Oriented",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks in which the act of creating a work almost seems to take precedence over the finished  product. This foregrounding of process may or may not be discernible in the final work.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de642d58236f60001010646",
    "slug": "spatialism",
    "name": "Spatialism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_Movimento spaziale_ or _Spazialismo_ was an Italian art movement founded by the Argentinian-born artist [Lucio Fontana](/artist/lucio-fontana), along with a small group of his students, in 1947. Announcing their aspirations in the form of a manifesto—the “Manifesto Blanco,” or white manifesto—the students, under Fontana’s direction, called for new art forms that embraced the latest scientific concepts derived from modern physics. Taking inspiration from the [Futurists](/gene/futurism)’ fascination with technology, they advocated for abandoning painting in order to develop an art suitable for the mechanical age, one “based on the unity of space and time.” In Fontana’s infamous “Concetto spaziale” series, the canvases’ stigmata-like lacerations represent the artist’s attempt to articulate Spatialist concepts by transforming a two-dimensional canvas into a three-dimensional space.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4df3cbc15786ea0001001f50",
    "slug": "land-art",
    "name": "Land Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A shortening of the phrase \"landscape art,” used interchangeably with Earthworks to refer to pieces made of materials derived from the earth or situated on or within a landscape. Such works are usually site specific—created for and utilizing aspects or characteristics of a particular location. Both American and European artists began to use dirt, rocks, and sand as media and subject matter in the late 1960s, experimenting with diverse approaches. In 1967 the English artist [Richard Long](/artist/richard-long) walked up and down a stretch of meadow over and over, creating a visible path depicted in the photograph _A Line Made by Walking_. This understated meditation on the symmetry and grace of a simple landscape contrasts with Land Art works that seek to dramatically alter a site, such as [Robert Smithson](/artist/robert-smithson)’s well-known 1970 sculpture and film, _Spiral Jetty_, which uses 7,000 tons of basalt, boulders, mud, and salt crystals mined from the area around Rozel Point, Great Salt Lake, Utah, to form a massive spiral winding 450 meters from the lake shore. Some of these works address ecological issues like those concerning activists in the 1960s. Alan Sonfist’s _Time Landscape_, for instance, which he proposed in 1965 and implemented in 1978, re-creates the original landscape on a small plot in Manhattan, calling attention to what is lost through urbanization and development.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de57c477804370001008c7e",
    "slug": "political-pop",
    "name": "Political Pop",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A term coined by art critic Li Xianting in 1992 to describe art created by a group of 1990s Chinese artists, whose works, executed in the style of 1960s American [Pop](/gene/pop-art), juxtaposed Cultural Revolution propaganda imagery, such as a portrait of Mao Zedong, with symbols of globalization like Gucci or Coca-Cola logos. In their work Political Pop artists—including most notably [Wang Guangyi](/artist/wang-guangyi), [Yu Youhan](/artist/yu-youhan), and [Li Shan](/artist/li-shan)—expressed ironic, wry—and at times humorous—criticism of Chinese society’s growing fascination with wealth and luxury following the austerity of the recent past.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de6871ead506e00010054eb",
    "slug": "vienna-secession",
    "name": "Vienna Secession",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_“We recognize no distinction between high and low art, between art for the rich and art for the poor. Art is a universal good.” —From_ Ver Sacrum (The Sacred Spring)\n\n[Otto Wagner](/artist/otto-wagner) described the goal of the Vienna Secession as to “show the modern man his true face.” In 1897, [Gustav Klimt](/artist/gustav-klimt) and his circle of artists sought to create their own unique artistic identity outside the confines of the Künstlerhaus, the traditional art academy in Vienna. The Vienna Secession, as it quickly became known, hoped to promote modern art at every level of society by presenting exhibitions free from the strict guidelines of Vienna’s annual salon. This pioneering group, closely associated with [Art Nouveau](/gene/art-nouveau), also strove to create a new style of architecture. Notable members of the Vienna Secession included [Josef Hoffmann](/artist/josef-hoffmann), [Koloman Moser](/artist/koloman-moser), and Carl Moll, in addition to Wagner and Klimt. In eight years, the group held 23 exhibitions in Joseph Maria Olbrich’s Secessionist Gallery, alongside a monthly publication, _Ver Sacrum_, that promoted the art of the Vienna Secessionists. In 1903 Secession members Hoffmann and Moser cofounded the [Wiener Werkstätte](/artist/wiener-werkstatte). By 1905, Klimt and his followers had left the group; however, the Vienna Secession continued to influence modern art throughout the 20th century.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dcdf920522d6e00010042ca",
    "slug": "nature",
    "name": "Nature",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“The artist has a twofold relation to nature; he is at once her master and her slave.” —Johann Wolfgang von Goethe_\n\nTo trace the history of nature in art is, essentially, to trace the history of art itself. The ancient Greeks established the imitation of nature as the highest aim of art, and Chinese artists dating from the earliest dynasties have turned to the mountainous landscape as the physical manifestation of _Qi_, the vital energy of the universe. Many major movements of the intervening centuries have been defined by their increasingly subjective treatment of nature. The sweeping [Romantic](/gene/romanticism) landscapes of [J.M.W. Turner](/artist/joseph-mallord-william-turner) and [Caspar David Friedrich](/artist/caspar-david-friedrich) emphasized the subjugation of man to the sublime environment, while [Impressionists](/gene/impressionism) like [Claude Monet](/artist/claude-monet) immersed themselves [_en plein air_](/gene/en-plein-air), attempting to capture the overall visual experience of the landscape rather than depict it literally. Even much of modern abstraction has centered on nature—[Abstract Expressionists](/gene/abstract-expressionism) like [Helen Frankenthaler](/artist/helen-frankenthaler) and [Op artists](/gene/op-art) like [Bridget Riley](/artist/bridget-riley) saw their practices as channeling the primal forces, energies, and rhythms of the natural world. “I don’t paint nature,” [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock) once said. “I am nature.”",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dcdfa018080ad00010042a1",
    "slug": "contemporary-conceptualism",
    "name": "Contemporary Conceptualism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A particularly broad label for contemporary art in which the ideas regarding the making or meaning of an art object are considered just as important as (or often more important than) the artwork itself. When compared to historical [Conceptual Art](/gene/conceptual-art), contemporary conceptual works more often embrace interdisciplinary approaches, audience participation, or the critique of institutions, political systems, and social and cultural hierarchies. Conceptual works can also often easily be identified with other broad categories, particularly [performance art](/gene/performance-art), new media, and [installation](/gene/installation). In light of recent political upheavals and worldwide economic downturn, the call to social action—which can be embedded in, related to, or merely inferred by an artwork—has become one of the most common characteristics of contemporary conceptual art.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dd4334a8e0bc80001000651",
    "slug": "school-of-london",
    "name": "School of London",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A group of postwar artists who, rejecting the current [Minimalist](/gene/minimalism) and [Conceptual](/gene/conceptual-art) avant-garde, painted in figurative styles and whose members included Michael Andrews, [Frank Auerbach](/artist/frank-auerbach), [Francis Bacon](/artist/francis-bacon), [Lucian Freud](/artist/lucian-freud), [David Hockney](/artist/david-hockney), [Howard Hodgkin](/artist/howard-hodgkin), R.B. Kitaj, and [Leon Kossoff](/artist/leon-kossoff). The name derives from Kitaj’s catalogue essay for the 1976 exhibition “The Human Clay,” which he organized at the Hayward Gallery, in London, where he referred to the figurative artists in the show loosely as the School of London.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de95deac18242000100e131",
    "slug": "political-minimalism",
    "name": "Political Minimalism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A nonstandard term, contemporary political Minimalism describes contemporary artistic practices that use forms of [Minimalist art](/gene/minimalism) to critically deal with cultural or political subjects. Such approaches are noteworthy because Minimalist artists of the 1960s expressly avoided identifiable political content. Exhibitions such as Klaus Biesenbach’s 2009 _Political/Minimal_ at Berlin’s Kunstwerke have highlighted the explicit political engagement of the work of [Felix Gonzalez-Torres](/artist/felix-gonzalez-torres), [Monica Bonvicini](/artist/monica-bonvicini), and [Alfredo Jaar](/artist/alfredo-jaar), among others. Other examples include [Glenn Ligon](/artist/glenn-ligon), whose Minimalist monochrome paintings include provocative text about race and identity, and [Ai Weiwei](/artist/ai-weiwei), whose [_Tofu_](/artwork/ai-weiwei-tofu) (2012), a white porcelain block, recalls [Sol LeWitt](/artist/sol-lewitt)’s white cubes while drawing attention to the Chinese government’s lack of accountability in urban development (in China, the phrase “tofu-dreg project” refers to shoddy construction). Recent scholarship on Minimalism, however, has argued for its embeddedness in the politics of its day: the use of industrial materials, such as steel and Plexiglas, spoke to American military-industrial prowess, while repeated modular elements conjured a consumer society of replication. Such insights trouble the concept of “pure form” that has long been associated with the movement, creating a fruitful legacy for contemporary artists working in this vein.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e03896fd5d7f60001003d07",
    "slug": "gestural",
    "name": "Gestural",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Used for paintings displaying an expressive or vigorous use of brushwork. Early examples of this type of mark-making are visible in the styles of Old Masters such as [Peter Paul Rubens](/artist/peter-paul-rubens), [El Greco](/artist/el-greco-domenikos-theotokopoulos), and [Eugène Delacroix](/artist/eugene-victor-ferdinand-delacroix-eugene-delacroix), and in the 19th-century movements of [Impressionism](/gene/impressionism) and Post-Impressionism, particularly the works of [Vincent Van Gogh](/artist/vincent-van-gogh). It also has a long history in East Asian ink-and-wash painting. Gestural qualities came to the forefront as painting moved towards abstraction in the early 20th century, in part as a means of distinguishing itself from photography; this can be seen in works by [Austrian and German Expressionists](/gene/austrian-and-german-expressionism), as well as in the Cubism of [Georges Braque](/artist/georges-braque). With [Abstract Expressionism](/gene/abstract-expressionism), gesture became the foremost element of painting, and critic Harold Rosenburg coined the term “action painting” to describe works by the likes of [Willem de Kooning](/artist/willem-de-kooning) and [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock). Gestural painting experienced another heyday in the 1980s, particularly with New York-based Neo-Expressionists like [Jean-Michel Basquiat](/artist/jean-michel-basquiat) and [Julian Schnabel](/artist/julian-schnabel), paralleled by the work of German artists [Georg Baselitz](/artist/georg-baselitz) and [Anselm Kiefer](/artist/anselm-kiefer).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0b9fddb0c2a40001000044",
    "slug": "sparse",
    "name": "Sparse",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Markedly simple or unadorned.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce7a587b7d100010042dc",
    "slug": "color-gradient",
    "name": "Color Gradient",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "A term used in computer graphics to describe a fluid range of color filling an area. Gradients come in various forms, although axial (a color transition from one side of a space to another), and radial (transitions in a circle) are the most common. While color gradients are most often associated with the late [20th century](/gene/20th-century-art) and digital art—having been heavily influenced by the growth of Photoshop—the use of smooth color transitions were also present in earlier art. See, for example, the pre-Suprematist works of [Kasimir Malevich](/artist/kasimir-severinovich-malevich), [Katsushika Hokusai’s](/artist/katsushika-hokusai) views of Mount Fuji, or the 1970s paintings of [Judy Chicago](/artist/judy-chicago).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0389b2d5d7f60001003d10",
    "slug": "maquette",
    "name": "Maquette",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A maquette, also known as a _bozzetto_ or _modello_, is a three dimensional object made as a preparatory study for a full-sized sculpture. Artists employ maquettes to test out shapes and figural poses, as well as to show patrons prospective designs. Many are never executed in their larger form, but can be appreciated as stand-alone works. Most often made of clay, wood, plaster and wax, maquettes also can serve an important historical function, revealing different stages in the design process that lead up to a finished work, or providing information about the form of an object that no longer exists. Some are highly polished while others evidence a rough construction, as in the terracotta models used by the eighteenth-century French sculptor [Antonio Canova](/artist/antonio-canova) in preparing for his larger marble works. Modern artists including [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) challenged the provisional status of the maquette by executing finished works in a rough maquette-like technique—for example, in _Cirque Calder_ (1926–31), [Alexander Calder](/artist/alexander-calder) performed a cast of wire-sculpted characters and miniature circus props.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e09f3e2fc16ab0001001a0b",
    "slug": "funk-art",
    "name": "Funk Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A 1960s American movement that evolved in California in parallel with the antiestablishment Beatnik lifestyle developing in San Francisco. Funk began in the late 1950s with the haphazard and irreverent assemblages of [Bruce Conner](/artist/bruce-conner), later blending pop-culture imagery with lewd subject matter and a cartoon aesthetic to create a pointed critique of and alternative to the reigning New York abstract avant-garde movements, particularly [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de655f82613fc00010128a3",
    "slug": "the-blue-rider",
    "name": "The Blue Rider",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A translation of the German phrase Der Blaue Reiter, which denotes a group of artists active in Munich between 1911 to 1914—including most prominently [Wassily Kandinsky](/artist/wassily-kandinsky) and [Franz Marc](/artist/franz-marc)—who were united by an emphasis on conveying inner desires although embracing a pluralism of modes of expression. _The Der Blaue Reiter Almanach_, edited by Kandinsky and Marc and containing more than 140 reproductions of artworks and 14 major essays, was published in 1912 and became one of the most important books on art of the 20th century.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce6e0e066dd000100387e",
    "slug": "decay",
    "name": "Decay",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“Ideas decompose into stones of unknowing, and conceptual crystallizations break apart into deposits of gritty reason.” —Robert Smithson_\n\nArtists' interest in the aesthetic and symbolic qualities of decaying and decomposing matter has persisted throughout the history of art. Images of ruins—as symbols of natural devastation, the transience of the built environment, and human mortality—first emerged in [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) paintings, in which landscapes were often littered with the remnants of Greco-Roman statues and the wounded bodies of martyred Saints draped across classical columns. Representations of deterioration and decay continued through the Romantic period, exemplified by [Hubert Robert](/artist/hubert-robert)’s etchings of statuary fragments, and into the 20th century; [Nicholas Nixon](/artist/nicholas-nixon)’s portraits of AIDs victims in the 1980s captured with grotesque realism the physical deterioration of the human body, while [Aaron Siskind](/artist/aaron-siskind)’s close-up images of weathered and rusted wall reliefs and filmmaker [Tacita Dean](/artist/tacita-dean)’s extended shots of fading carpets and rotting fruits explore a fascination with the material qualities of decay. Photographers [Michael Eastman](/artist/michael-eastman), [Robert Polidori](/artist/robert-polidori), and [Jin Jiangbo](/artist/jin-jiangbo) depict contemporary ruins, capturing former industrial spaces or decadent public and private interiors, now worn by years of disuse and neglect.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dcdfa875797fc0001003f78",
    "slug": "time",
    "name": "Time",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that deal with the subject of time.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4dd54e60043eb10001002738",
    "slug": "nineteenth-century-french-realism",
    "name": "Nineteenth Century French Realism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A French art movement spanning from 1840 to the late 1880s that aimed to present a more objective view of modern life through direct observation—both of which contrasted starkly with the subjects and techniques of [Romanticism](/gene/romanticism). Realists such as [Gustave Courbet](/artist/gustave-courbet)—the leading voice of the movement—most often depicted the working classes in their daily lives, reflecting the artists' desire for a more democratic and egalitarian French society.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dcdf9f25797fc0001003e2c",
    "slug": "crime",
    "name": "Crime",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks concerned in some way with illegal activities.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dcdf34f8080ad0001003a83",
    "slug": "erotic",
    "name": "Erotic",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Works that arouse or are related to sexual desire, often incorporating [nude figures](/gene/nude). Although the tradition of erotic art harks back to the ancient Venus of Willendorf, eroticism became a major theme of Western art during the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance), with the rise of the female nude (as in [Titian](/artist/titian)'s [_Venus of Urbino_](/artwork/titian-venus-of-urbino-1), 1538) as an accepted category of painting. However, eroticism was often covert rather than explicit, until the 20th century, when feminism in particular prompted artists and critics to challenge the taboos of depicting sexuality. Since then, erotic content in art has often been subversive—poking fun at or exposing society's prejudices and assumptions about sexuality.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dda69ffde762600010041b5",
    "slug": "contemporary-gothic",
    "name": "Contemporary Gothic",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A tendency that coalesced with the 1997 exhibition “Gothic” at the Institute of Contemporary Art in Boston. Characterized by an engagement with darkness and horror, contemporary Gothic works take as their starting points gothic music, such as heavy, black, and death metal, gothic novels, and horror movies.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dd68e8d446e150001004c8c",
    "slug": "american-modernism",
    "name": "American Modernism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The style developed by the first generation of 20th-century American avant-garde artists, such as [Stuart Davis](#!/artist/stuart-davis), [Arthur Dove](/artist/arthur-dove), [Marsden Hartley](/artist/marsden-hartley), [Georgia O'Keeffe](/artist/georgia-okeeffe), [Charles Sheeler](/artist/charles-sheeler), and [Joseph Stella](/artist/joseph-stella).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ddecceb17922e0001005c17",
    "slug": "narrative",
    "name": "Narrative",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Applied to artworks in which a storyline, either factual or fictional, is a significant element. Before the advent of Modernism, narrative was a major aspect of Western Art, in particular due to the influence and prestige of history paintings, which presented sweeping stories from history or myth. During the 20th century, as Western art generally tended towards abstraction, stories (and to a greater extent, any subject matter) were de-emphasized in favor of formal characteristics. In recent years however, artists have reintroduced (and reinvented) narrative, cobbling together, overlapping, or remixing threads from fictional and nonfictional sources, and personal and collective histories.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de7b837facfc00001005eb7",
    "slug": "happenings",
    "name": "Happenings",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A type of performance art promoted by Allan Kaprow in the late 1950s that combined poetry, dance, music, painting, and theater and had its roots in [Futurist](/gene/futurism) and [Dadaist](/gene/dada) performance, although Kaprow also cited [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock)’s dynamic painting process (rather than his finished works) as a major inspiration. During the 1960s, when the term was often applied to various types of public-art events, Kaprow was joined in creating Happenings by such artists as [Claes Oldenburg](/artist/claes-oldenburg), Red Grooms, and [Jim Dine](/artist/jim-dine).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de57c5126d87900010094c4",
    "slug": "cynical-realism",
    "name": "Cynical Realism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A style of art practiced in Beijing in the late 1980s and early 1990s by such figures as [Yue Minjun](/artist/yue-minjun), [Fang Lijun](/artist/fang-lijun), and [Liu Wei](/artist/liu-wei-1), who sought to evoke the psychological implications of China's rapid development, urbanization, and opening to the West. Although lacking a unifying aesthetic, Cynical Realist works share an ironic, humorous, and satirical tone.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dda6a48fa614f0001002943",
    "slug": "contemporary-grotesque",
    "name": "Contemporary Grotesque",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Applied to contemporary works incorporating the [grotesque](/gene/grotesque).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ddecc8482e98d0001006d5a",
    "slug": "use-of-ephemeral-materials",
    "name": "Use of Ephemeral Materials",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Refers to works that employ short-lived materials, a significant aspect of the practice of many modern and contemporary artists who reject more traditional media, such as oil paint, marble, and bronze, which were chosen for their ability to stand the test of time.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0b9f1f87b7d10001000009",
    "slug": "primary-abstraction",
    "name": "Primary Abstraction",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "A general category for both contemporary and historical abstract works featuring basic shapes and colors and defying figurative associations, such as [Kasimir Malevich](/artist/kasimir-malevich)’s Suprematist paintings and [Minimalist](/gene/minimalism) works of the 1960s.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de93fa9c182420001004327",
    "slug": "racial-and-ethnic-identity",
    "name": "Racial and Ethnic Identity",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "From its increased significance at the height of European colonialism to the foundations of Enlightenment-era pseudoscience, the concept of race has been used to categorize humans along the lines of shared characteristics in order to understand human difference. Racism, which sociologist Howard Winant defines as “that which creates or reproduces hierarchical social structures based on essentialized racial categories,” has fueled unthinkable violations of human life. Race, ethnicity and visual culture are inextricably linked, and visual art presents a rich site for artists to actively overturn racist imagery. Artists have drawn on their own racial identities to create ennobling depictions of historically marginalized individuals, such as the detailed portraits of African American individuals and families by [Charles White](/artist/charles-white). In the wake of the U.S. Civil Rights Movement and the rise of [Pop art](/gene/pop-art), [David Hammons](/artist/david-hammons) and [Betye Saar](/artist/betye-saar) blended the materials and images of racist caricatures into a darkly parodic surrealism, while [Jimmie Durham](/artist/jimmie-durham) investigated Native American stereotypes. More recently, artists like Iranian-born [Shirin Neshat](/artist/shirin-neshat), whose work engages questions of female identity in the Middle East, and British-Nigerian [Yinka Shonibare](/artist/yinka-shonibare), who employs Dutch wax–printed African fabric to critique art’s colonial histories, have explored new forms of transnational culture.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce70ee066dd0001003894",
    "slug": "creased-crinkled-wrinkled",
    "name": "Creased Crinkled Wrinkled",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "From the wind-blown, ruffling drapery of the [Winged Victory of Samothrace](/artwork/victoire-de-samothrace-winged-victory-of-samothrace) to the crushed automobile sculptures of [John Chamberlain](/artist/john-chamberlain), creases, crinkles, and wrinkles have long captured the interest of painters and sculptors alike. For centuries, [trompe l’oeil](/gene/trompe-loeil) painters have included depictions of crumpling fabrics in their [hyper-realistic](/gene/hyperrealism) images, fooling the viewer’s eye through their renderings of complex puckers and folds. Recently, contemporary artists [Lauren Seiden](/artist/lauren-seiden) and [Yrjo Edelmann](/artist/yrjo-edelmann) have dedicated entire canvases to their illusionistic depictions of crinkling metals and creasing papers. Whether in marble or metal, porcelain or paper, artists have managed to sculpt creases, crinkles, and wrinkles in nearly every material, often taking an interest in the dynamic lights and shadows that emerge through this manipulation of form.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de95d89f31344000101e991",
    "slug": "contemporary-feminist",
    "name": "Contemporary Feminist",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Used in describing contemporary artworks engaged with, asserting, or promoting women and the female identity; directly related to [Feminist art](/gene/feminist-art).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0388eaf59f48000100447f",
    "slug": "sports-slash-athletics",
    "name": "Sports/Athletics",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that depict or relate to sports like baseball, soccer, basketball, football, and cycling. Most often, this category features [documentary photographs](/gene/documentary-photography) of notable sporting events and players, as works by modern and contemporary avant-garde artists rarely feature sports. These artists often purposefully distance themselves from athletics, regardless of the cliché that artists become interested in art because they can’t play sports.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dd6e2ae3ccb2f00010056a9",
    "slug": "illustration",
    "name": "Illustration",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A general category for artworks that straddle the line between illustration and fine art. Importantly, those considered fine artists have often worked as professional illustrators in order to support their careers as artists, in genres ranging from scientific or religious texts to children's books. Likewise, many such artists have incorporated the techniques of illustration into their artistic practices, or even—and this is more common during the second half of the 20th century—had their illustration considered fine art and exhibited within fine art institutions. Recent examples include the work of [R. Crumb](/artist/r-crumb), Art Spiegelman, and [Saul Steinberg](/artist/saul-steinberg). One of the 20th century's most famous artists, [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol), began his career as a relatively successful fashion illustrator before developing the artistic practice he has become known for.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ddecc9527a64c000100670b",
    "slug": "organic-material",
    "name": "Organic Material",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks that employ living (or formerly living) organisms as material, from feathers, fur, bones, or bodily substances to dirt, twigs, plants, and food. Art has been made with organic materials for millennia—before the advent of synthetic chemicals, most pigments were derived from mineral and plant matter. Works in this category, however, foreground such materials. For example, both the [Aztec Empire](/gene/aztec-art) and Pacific American Indian cultures developed intricate featherwork techniques to create headdresses or garments. Such objects blur any clear distinction between art and artifact, and many modern and contemporary artists have further expanded traditional definitions of art in their own use of organic material. In the mid-1960s, [Dieter Roth](/artist/dieter-roth) began using chocolate, yoghurt, and bananas to create provocative assemblages that appeared equal parts garbage heap and craggy mountain landscape. [Damien Hirst](/artist/damien-hirst) and [Maurizio Cattelan](/artist/maurizio-cattelan) have created large-scale installations of taxidermied or preserved animals. Hirst’s [_The Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living_](/artwork/damien-hirst-the-physical-impossibility-of-death-in-the-mind-of-someone-living) features a tiger shark in a tank of formaldehyde, making it one of the largest and most iconic instances of organisms in contemporary art.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de292fcef72520001005fe5",
    "slug": "love",
    "name": "Love",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Love and its many different forms is the subject of some of art history's most iconic works—and it is an often-cited reason for making art in the first place. Greek and Roman art depicted gods and deities experiencing the pleasures and travails of love, often aided or hindered by the winged cupid. [Botticelli](/artist/alessandro-filipepi-called-sandro-botticelli) further advanced the idea of divine love, as seen in his [_Birth of Venus_](/artwork/alessandro-filipepi-called-sandro-botticelli-the-birth-of-venus). Modern and contemporary works have continued to reveal love in all of its faces, including the anxious confessions of [Tracey Emin](/artist/tracey-emin) and the fraught and tragic circumstances of lovers during the AIDS crisis, as depicted by [Nan Goldin](/artist/nan-goldin). At times the social conventions surrounding love are examined or parodied, as they are in William Hogarth's \"Marriage à la Mode\" series. At other times, art touches on the simplest symbols of love ([Jim Dine](/artist/jim-dine)'s hearts, for instance) or the word itself, as in [Robert Indiana](/artist/robert-indiana)'s iconic sculptures.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de66246c6a0e1000101292b",
    "slug": "nul-group",
    "name": "Nul Group",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "In 1961, Dutch artists [Armando](/artist/armando), [Jan Schoonhoven](/artist/jan-schoonhoven-2), [Henk Peeters](/artist/henk-peeters), and [Jan Henderikse](/artist/jan-henderikse) cofounded the Nul Group (formerly known as The Dutch Informal Group), organizing its first show, the “International Exhibition of NOTHING,” at Amsterdam’s Galerie 201 (“nul” in Dutch means “zero” or “nothing”). Closely tied to Germany’s [Group Zero](/gene/group-zero), the Nul Group called for the end of personal expression in art, instead favoring pragmatism and objectivity. The group believed that art making was akin to manufacturing—the idea behind the work was primary, while the construction process was almost irrelevant. Its works, which were frequently monochromatic and composed of repeated forms, often contained found objects like steel bolts and matchboxes. The group disbanded in 1966 when its artists began to develop their own individual styles.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de7caaa5a225f0001006fb9",
    "slug": "art-brut",
    "name": "Art Brut",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A French term meaning “raw art” or “rough art” that was coined by artist [Jean Dubuffet](/artist/jean-dubuffet) to denote works more popularly known as [Outsider Art](/gene/outsider-art), which he championed as exemplifying powerful originality, not stifled by education or socialization. Dubuffet began collecting, writing about, and lecturing on Art Brut in the mid 1940s after visiting Switzerland and seeing works by psychiatric patients collected in hospitals there.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4de817cafe38390001001d7d",
    "slug": "color-theory",
    "name": "Color Theory",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Used in describing the work of artists who paint in accordance with principles regarding color mixing and the visual impact of color combinations.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4dee3a151695f00001002c25",
    "slug": "capitalist-realism",
    "name": "Capitalist Realism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_“Capitalist Realism was another form of provocation. This term somehow attacked both sides: It made Socialist Realism look ridiculous, and did the same to the possibility of Capitalist Realism as well.” —[Gerhard Richter](/artist/gerhard-richter)_\n\nCapitalist Realism was launched in 1963 in Germany by the artists [Gerhard Richter](/artist/gerhard-richter), [Sigmar Polke](/artist/sigmar-polke), and Konrad Lueg (later to become the dealer Konrad Fischer) not as a movement, but rather as a send-up. Its most iconic expression was a performance titled “Living with Pop – A Demonstration for Capitalist Realism,” orchestrated by Richter and Lueg in the Berges department store in Dusseldorf that same year. The artists invited patrons to come view “what is hailed in America as the greatest breakthrough in art since Cubism,” as an advertisement for the event proclaimed. Puzzled visitors arrived to find the artists making themselves at home in a staged and decidedly average living room (Richter was reading a mystery novel). Of course Capitalist Realism had no such reputation in the U.S.; the artists were parodying the overnight ascendance of [Pop Art](/gene/pop-art), with its celebrity culture and embrace of everyday commodities, as well as the German craze for all things American. Against the backdrop of the Cold War and a divided Germany, the fake movement’s title also alluded to the Soviet doctrine of [Socialist Realism](/gene/socialist-realism). The concerns of so-called Capitalist Realism—heavy-handed irony, investigation of the political aspects of consumerism, and critique of popular culture—have been seen by some as predecessors to a German strain of Pop Art, though the existence thereof is, itself, debatable.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e03893ff59f48000100448e",
    "slug": "repetition",
    "name": "Repetition",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_\"I like things to be exactly the same over and over again\" —[Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol)_\n\nA general category for artworks that repeat images, elements, or gestures. While repetition has long played a role in art-making—take, for instance, the repetitive nature of the Terracotta Army from China in the 3rd century B.C.—it only truly became central to (and a pronounced element of) the practices of numerous artists in the 20th century, in many respects because of the increased ease of reproducing art and the advent of an infinitely reproducible medium—photography. Walter Benjamin wrote of photographs, \"from a negative… one can make any number of prints; to ask for the 'authentic' print makes no sense.\" Such a blurring of the boundary between \"original\" and \"copy\" through repetition paved the way for the factory-like appropriation and creation of images from mass media found in the [Pop Art](/gene/pop-art) of Andy Warhol, who in addition to silkscreening images of Campbell's soup cans over and over again was said to have eaten the brand of soup for lunch every day for twenty years. Repetition was also a major theme of [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism) and [Conceptual Art](/gene/conceptual-art), as well as [Performance Art](/gene/performance-art), as in the repeated acts (for humor as well as self-abuse) performed by [Bruce Nauman](/artist/bruce-nauman), [Chris Burden](/artist/chris-burden), and [Marina Abramovic](/artist/marina-abramovic).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce72639bed00001005a36",
    "slug": "angular",
    "name": "Angular",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Refers to two- and three-dimensional artworks characterized by the prevalence of acute angles. Such compositions are characteristic of abstract Western art of the 1910s and 1920s. However, early 20th-century [Cubist](/gene/cubism) painters such as [Georges Braque](/artist/georges-braque) and [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) inserted sharp angles into figurative compositions that approached the brink of recognizable imagery, and prevalent angles have historically played some role in [figurative compositions](/gene/figurative-art) as well. Angular compositions have served artists in various ways. For example, for [El Lissitzky](/artist/el-lissitzky), they were a means of bridging painting and a utopian ideal of architecture and design. An interest in angular abstract compositions continues today, for instance, in the practices of abstract painters such as [Tomma Abts](/artist/tomma-abts).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce80439bed00001005a66",
    "slug": "highly-detailed",
    "name": "Highly Detailed",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Works whose visual information is crisp, meticulous, and executed with precision.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce90239bed00001005a85",
    "slug": "hatching",
    "name": "Hatching",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "The use of closely rendered parallel lines—most often in [drawing](/gene/drawing) and [printmaking (/gene/prints)—to create shaded areas. Crosshatching is the practice of creating two overlapping areas of hatching, set at angles to each other, to create further differentiation in shading.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e4d887fb6944a00010156c3",
    "slug": "primary-colors",
    "name": "Primary Colors",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks that feature the purest forms of the colors red, blue, or yellow. Technically speaking, “primary colors” denotes a set of colors that, when mixed, forms the basis of all other colors—far beyond just red, blue, or yellow. [Ellsworth Kelly](/artist/ellsworth-kelly), [Yves Klein](/artist/yves-klein), [Roy Lichtenstein](/artist/roy-lichtenstein), and [Keith Haring](/artist/keith-haring) are among the various modern artists who often worked with primary colors.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce81239bed00001005a74",
    "slug": "bright-and-vivid-colors",
    "name": "Bright and Vivid Colors",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "The use of attention-grabbing or intense color has persisted across time and cultures, despite coming in and out of fashion. Greek and Roman marble sculptures, though often thought of as pristine white, were in fact brightly painted. Throughout the history of Islamic art, intricate, ornamental tilework and mosaics often boasted bright color schemes as well. Bright colors—saturated hues with a high level of lightness—evoke strong associations and meanings throughout the world, denote deities, emotions, or ideas. However, with the rise of Neo-Classicism in the West, which embraced the dictates of purity and “good taste,” bright colors were deemed too garish and fell out of fashion. With the advent of abstraction in the 20th century, however, artists once again widely explored bright colors, oftentimes as a means of expressing psychological experiences. Before the advent of synthetic pigments in the early 18th century, bright colors were difficult and costly to achieve, but since the mass-manufacturing of bold pigments and dyes beginning in the mid-20th century, bright colors are widely available.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce7dde066dd00010038a9",
    "slug": "shiny-slash-glossy",
    "name": "Shiny/Glossy",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks and design objects that have a smooth, lustrous surface. [Jeff Koons](/artist/jeff-koons) and [Constantin Brancusi](/artist/constantin-brancusi) are among the artists most often associated with highly polished sculpture. An interest in sleek surfaces was, arguably, encouraged by the growth of the transportation industry in the early 20th century and the sheen of aerodynamic automobiles and planes. Brancusi’s reflective forms were meant to recall such industrially fabricated products, as well as contribute to the visual effect of works like [_Bird in Space_]. Koons’ polish—such as in his monumental balloon animals—has been associated with ideas of narcissism and newness, both consistent themes in his work.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce925e066dd00010038d3",
    "slug": "smooth-surface",
    "name": "Smooth Surface",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Three-dimensional artworks and design objects with a smooth surface, either by virtue of the natural texture of the materials used or as the result of a process of finishing or manipulating these materials. Throughout Western art history, figurative sculptures—especially marble ones—were routinely finished to mimic the smooth texture of skin. With the turn to abstraction in the early 20th century, artists continued to create smoothly finished artworks—Brancusi, for one, considered the finish of his works to be highly important due to his interest in representing the “essence of things”.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce7c687b7d100010042f6",
    "slug": "dotted",
    "name": "Dotted",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks that feature repeated small spots or circles. Arguably the most recognizable contemporary examples of this type of work are [Damien Hirst’s](/artist/damien-hirst) series of “Spot Paintings” and various works by [Pop](/gene/pop-art) artist [Roy Lichtenstein](/artist/roy-lichtenstein), in which he used the Ben-Day dot printing process (commonly used in comic books) in the realm of painting. In addition, spots or dots have been central to various other movements, such as [Op Art](/gene/op-art), [psychedelic art](/gene/psychedelic), and [Pointillism](/gene/pointillism), where a dotting technique was employed in order to provide a fuller range of color than traditional mixed-paint tones.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e3ada7da658730001031166",
    "slug": "related-to-music",
    "name": "Related to Music",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "In Western culture, from ancient Greece until the [High Renaissance](/gene/high-renaissance), music was typically considered to be a higher art form than the purely \"mechanical\" work of visual art because of its connections to abstract, mathematically driven principles of harmony and meter, which were believed to connect to a higher, \"divine\" ordering in the universe. Such ideas were applied to art beginning in the 15th century. For example, [Leon Battista Alberti](/artist/leon-battista-alberti)'s architectural designs made explicit reference to musical harmony and employed ratios that he thought would produce consonances. This type of practice became widespread in Renaissance architecture and soon found a place in investigations of linear perspective in drawing and painting, such as in the work of [Leonardo da Vinci](/artist/leonardo-da-vinci). Music was essential to early forays into abstraction at the beginning of the 20th century, as it served as an ideal starting point for emotive, non-representational compositions such as those of [Wassily Kandinsky](/artist/wassily-kandinsky), [Paul Klee](/artist/paul-klee), and [Francis Picabia](/artist/francis-picabia), all of whom were part of artistic and intellectual communities that included musicians. A radical rejection or parody of traditional forms of music was central to [Dada](/gene/dada), [Nouveau Réalisme](/gene/nouveau-realisme), and [Fluxus](/gene/fluxus). Most recently, several contemporary artists, such as Janet Cardiff and [Christian Marclay](/artist/christian-marclay), have made recording and broadcasting music a primary part of their work.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e4ec03c5fbc570001002fc9",
    "slug": "urbanization",
    "name": "Urbanization",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Used in describing artworks addressing the creation of urban spaces. Most often, such works focus on the negative aspects of this process, such as its senselessness or the displacement and poverty it can create.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5f93b912c5db000136c14e",
    "slug": "contemporary-participation",
    "name": "Contemporary Participation",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Used in describing contemporary works that have a participatory or collaborative component.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5f96e957865a000100013f",
    "slug": "immersive",
    "name": "Immersive",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Works, typically installations, that totally envelop the viewer, often involving constructed environments and multi-sensory experiences. Artists have explored numerous forms of immersion since the development of installation art in the 1960s. Brazilian artist [Hélio Oiticica](/artist/helio-oiticica)'s _Tropicália_ (1967) folded viewers into an environment resembling the country's favelas, while Venezuelan [Jesús Rafael Soto](/artist/jesus-rafael-soto)'s _Penetrables_ (1967-97) employed Op Art experiments to create abstract sculptures that can be walked through. Artists such as [James Turrell](/artist/james-turrell) and [Doug Wheeler](/artist/doug-wheeler) use the effects of light to create immersive environments. [Carsten Höller](/artist/carsten-holler)'s works often involve perception-altering experiences, while [Olafur Eliasson](/artist/olafur-eliasson)'s _The weather project_ (2003) simulated the appearance of the sun and of cloud formations in London's Tate Modern museum. More recently, artists have used immersion as a means of exploring virtual reality, as in [Ryan Trecartin](/artist/ryan-trecartin)'s video installations involving built environments.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e60333fe890b10001248c87",
    "slug": "russia",
    "name": "Russia",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Russia.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e60340ee890b1000124a39b",
    "slug": "australia-and-new-zealand",
    "name": "Australia and New Zealand",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or have lived in Australia or New Zealand.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e603778e890b10001265aba",
    "slug": "japan",
    "name": "Japan",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Japan.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e7b8e0aa29c99000104c344",
    "slug": "line-form-and-color",
    "name": "Line, Form, and Color",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A broad category for non-figurative artworks that foreground line, form, and color, elements that can be considered the principal building blocks of abstract art since the beginning of the 20th century. Iconic artists associated with these components of abstraction include [Wassily Kandinsky](/artist/wassily-kandinsky), [Piet Mondrian](/artist/piet-mondrian), [Kazimir Malevich](/artist/kasimir-severinovich-malevich), and [Vladimir Tatlin](/artist/vladimir-tatlin). In 1951, the American artist [Ellsworth Kelly](/artist/ellsworth-kelly) conceived a book of artworks concerned with the subject—aptly titled Line Form Color—that proved foundational for his work over the next sixty years. Kelly also set the stage for the emergence of [Hard-edge Abstraction](/gene/hard-edged-1) and [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism), both of which distilled art to the elements of line, form, and color.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e8e1a6dded4a40001008095",
    "slug": "circus-slash-carnival",
    "name": "Circus/Carnival",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Images that feature circuses or carnivals. While historically the term “circus” referred to a type of Roman building or a circular road, today it is generally understood to mean a traveling group of performers—often accompanied by animals—who present shows in a large, circular tent. Carnivals are generally understood as traveling amusement shows, with rides like ferris wheels and roller coasters. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, artists such as [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) took up the subject of circus performers, building on a long tradition of their representation in art. Circus performers existed on the outskirts of society, and some critics argue that Picasso saw them as comparable figures to avant-garde artists.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4eb45f970253b800010233f7",
    "slug": "art-that-plays-with-scale",
    "name": "Art That Plays With Scale",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks that complicate one’s expected understanding of the relative size of objects. While there are various examples of this approach in contemporary art, iconic examples include [Jeff Koons](/artist/jeff-koons)'s Balloon Dogs and the monochrome portrait photographs [JR](/artist/jr) plasters around the world. Often this approach seeks to monumentalize the typically unmonumental or mundane; one of the major roots of this approach is [Claes Oldenburg](/artist/claes-oldenburg)'s enormous public sculptures of food and implements that he began creating in the 1960s.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e600c3709ab8100010024bd",
    "slug": "sound-art",
    "name": "Sound Art",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Sound Art refers to modern and contemporary artworks that foreground sound. Not a coherent movement, this practice has roots in experimental music and kinetic sculpture. While there is no agreement about the first work of sound art, oft-cited precedents include [Dada](/gene/dada) performance and early 20th century musical experiments in pure noise. In the 1950s, the American composer [John Cage](/artist/john-cage) staged some the most iconic and influential works to extend the practice of music into pure sound. Since the 1970s, artists have increasingly employed electronic or computer-generated noise, sound recordings, or video in their work, and artists as diverse as [La Monte Young](/artist/la-monte-young), [Christian Marclay](/artist/christian-marclay), and even [Kraftwerk](/artist/kraftwerk) have blurred the line between music and art.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e60343be890b1000124d78f",
    "slug": "cuba",
    "name": "Cuba",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Cuba.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e603764e890b10001261599",
    "slug": "italy",
    "name": "Italy",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Italy.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e6fdb618a6cc10001224d05",
    "slug": "war-and-military",
    "name": "War and Military",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks featuring images of war and soldiers, subjects with a long and rich tradition in Western art history. During the [Renaissance](/gene/high-renaissance), masters like [Leonardo da Vinci](/artist/leonardo-da-vinci) and [Michelangelo](/artist/michelangelo-buonarroti) created heroic and bloodless (but still violent) scenes of combatants, heralding a rise of an emphasis on documentary truth in paintings. In subsequent years, artists took different routes to capture the events: some tried to encapsulate all of the action of a conflict into one image, while others used panels to create a sequential view of events. The early 16th century saw a new focus on portraits of soldiers, with German artists favoring a more closely observed and realistic style than their Italian counterparts. The 17th century saw the rise of war paintings lacking a hero, as well as the advent of some of the first seemingly antiwar works, such as [Jacques Callot](/artist/jacques-callot)'s _Misères de la Guerre_ (1633). [Romanticism](/gene/romanticism), for its part, gave birth to the highly dramatic war scene, and the 19th century saw more and more artists concerned with the casualties and suffering of military and war—[Francisco de Goya](/artist/francisco-de-goya)'s _Third of May (1808)_ and [Édouard Manet](/artist/edouard-manet)'s series on the execution of Maximilian are some of the most iconic examples. Antiwar works have increasingly become the norm in the 20th century, as artists have turned to depicting war and the military as a means of critique and protest.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e7b81122f6f5c00010065cc",
    "slug": "focus-on-materials",
    "name": "Focus on Materials",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A general category for characteristically abstract works for which the intrinsic properties of the chosen material largely govern the artists' process.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e84cc154f79350001003e0a",
    "slug": "photographic-source",
    "name": "Photographic Source",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks in which the subject and composition are inspired by or directly derived from a source photograph, whether found or taken by the artist.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e9d9302b9a49c00010010ca",
    "slug": "large-scale-sculpture",
    "name": "Large-Scale Sculpture",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Whether to inspire awe or push the technical limits of their medium, sculptors have long worked on a larger-than-life, even monumental scale. Iconic examples can be found all over the ancient world: colossal Olmec heads dating around 1000 B.C. in present-day Mexico, human-headed winged lions (_lamassi_) from the 9th century B.C. in Assyria, the pediment sculpture at the Parthenon in Athens from the 5th century B.C. and the now-fragmented monumental statue of Roman Emperor Constantine from the 4th century A.D. Imposing sculptures of human forms were made by [Michelangelo](/artist/michelangelo-buonarroti) in the 16th century, and then again by [Auguste Rodin](/artist/auguste-rodin) in the 19th century. Over the course of the last century, the diverse range of large-scale sculpture includes massive abstract forms by [Henry Moore](/artist/henry-moore), [Tony Smith](/artist/tony-smith) and [Richard Serra](/artist/richard-serra), monumental versions of everyday objects by [Claes Oldenburg](/artist/claes-oldenburg) and [Jeff Koons](/artinst/jeff-koons), massive feats of engineering and outdoor installation by [Olafur Eliasson](/artist/olafur-eliasson) and [Thomas Hirschhorn](/artist/thomas-hirschhorn).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5ffebe1bb9170001001566",
    "slug": "patterns",
    "name": "Patterns",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Patterns—designs composed of repeated motifs—shape the world around us; their arrangements are integral to art as much as nature. Patterns have played a key role in art throughout history, from Greek temple ornamentation, to the geometric and floral decoration of [Islamic art and architecture](/gene/islamic-art), to textiles from around the world. Since the 19th century, patterns—characteristically avoided by modern artists due to their connection to craft and functional objects—have been taken up by various movements to provide alternatives to the general thrust of modernism. For example, the [Pattern and Decoration](/gene/pattern-and-decoration) movement of the 1970s rejected the austere aesthetics of [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism) and [Conceptual Art](/gene/conceptual-art) through the use of extensive, allover ornamentation. In contemporary art, vibrant patterns appear in the works of [Damien Hirst](/artist/damien-hirst), [Phillip Taaffe](/artist/philip-taaffe), [Fred Tomaselli](/artist/fred-tomaselli), and [Sarah Morris](/artist/sarah-morris), among countless others.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e4ec2464c2606000104bff1",
    "slug": "city-scenes",
    "name": "City Scenes",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“All great art is born of the metropolis.” —Ezra Pound_\n\nDifferent from the urban panoramas of [cityscapes](/gene/cityscape), these works capture glimpses of urban life, from photographs of commuters in subway cars to abstract compositions of architectural elements. Depictions of city life became a popular subject in the late 19th century for Impressionists like [Pierre-Auguste Renoir](/artist/pierre-auguste-renoir) and [Gustave Caillebotte](/artist/gustave-caillebotte), who painted the burgeoning Paris street life that developed with the expansion of Paris’s boulevards and the placement of gas lamps along streets. In the early 1900s the [Ashcan School](/gene/ashcan-school) painters, followed by [Edward Hopper](/artist/edward-hopper), created realist works illustrating American modern life in New York City. Mid 20th-century [street photographers](/gene/street-photography) like [Garry Winogrand](/artist/garry-winogrand) and [Helen Levitt](/artist/helen-levitt) used their medium to document the diverse people, vibrant street signs, moving cars, and crowded crosswalks that give life to a city.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5e41670d2c670001030350",
    "slug": "pop-art",
    "name": "Pop Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_“The Pop artists did images that anybody walking down Broadway could recognize in a split second—comics, picnic tables, men’s trousers, celebrities, shower curtains, refrigerators, coke bottles—all the great modern things that the Abstract Expressionists tried so hard not to notice at all.” –[Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol)_\n\nPop Art was the dominant movement in early 1960s American art. Short for “popular art,” it featured common household objects and consumer products like Coca-Cola and Campbell’s Soup cans, as well as forms of media—such as comics, newspapers, and magazines—recognizable to the masses. Artists often created Pop works using mechanical or commercial techniques, such as [silk-screening](/gene/silkscreen-1). As Warhol suggested, the choice of mundane subject matter and machine-like techniques was a blunt rejection of the heroic subjects and methods of [Abstract Expressionism](/gene/abstract-expressionism), the leading American movement of the 1950s. Not often discussed is the fact that Pop Art originated in England and paralleled similar movements in France and Germany. Pop Art was incredibly diverse, especially in its international variants, which included [Nouveau Réalisme](/gene/nouveau-realisme) in France, Capitalist Realism in Germany, and Anti-Art in Japan.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e6038e0e890b100012689b1",
    "slug": "northern-africa",
    "name": "Northern Africa",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in the geographical region of Northern Africa, which includes the countries of Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia and Western Sahara.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e6032e6e890b10001225731",
    "slug": "united-states",
    "name": "United States",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Long before New York became known as the international center of the art world in the wake of WWII, there was a rich history of art in the United States, from significant 18th- and 19th-century portraiture and history painting to the [Hudson River School](/gene/hudson-river-school), the [Ashcan School](/gene/ashcan-school), [American Realism](/gene/american-realism), and [Alfred Stieglitz](/artist/alfred-stieglitz)'s Photo-Secession. The series of post-war American movements, however, such as [Abstract Expressionism](/gene/abstract-expressionism), [Neo-Dada](/gene/neo-dada), [Pop Art](/gene/pop-art), [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism), and [Conceptual Art](/gene/conceptual-art), have situated the country as a nexus of modern and contemporary art history. Since the 1980s, while the art world has come to be seen as much more globalized, New York and, recently, Los Angeles remain world centers of art production, consumption, and critical discourse.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4ee110a00fe62200010010ff",
    "slug": "striped",
    "name": "Striped",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "A general category for both two- and three-dimensional artworks incorporating stripes in some fashion. Striped artworks are most often abstract and geometrically precise. Although a major presence throughout art history (even dating to Medieval cathedrals), stripes are now most iconically associated with 1960s [Minimalist](/gene/minimalism) and [Conceptual](/gene/conceptual-art) artists like [Frank Stella](/artist/frank-stella), [Daniel Buren](/artist/frank-stella), [Sol LeWitt](/artist/sol-lewitt), or [Bridget Riley](/artist/bridget-riley), who often used stripes to create a nonhierarchical composition.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e84cca84f79350001003e3a",
    "slug": "contemporary-portrait-painting",
    "name": "Contemporary Portrait Painting",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_“Painting portraiture will become obsolete when the time arrives that photographers will have learned something about portraiture in its deeper sense...” —[Alfred Stieglitz](/artist/alfred-stieglitz)_\n\nMajor 20th-century movements in painting generally had little interest in figuration, which had been the primary concern of painters prior to the dawn of photography. In the 1980s and '90s however, painters began to re-embrace figuration, pushing the age-old portrait genre in new directions. [Elizabeth Peyton](/artist/elizabeth-peyton)’s intimate portraits of art-world figures and celebrities explore youth, fame, and beauty, while [Kehinde Wiley](/artist/kehinde-wiley) employs the compositional style and precision of Old Masters works to valorize his traditionally marginalized black subjects. The varied contemporary takes on portraiture reveal that, contrary to Stieglitz's assertion, the genre is still full of potential.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4eaf60c7d2a582000100bef6",
    "slug": "typography",
    "name": "Typography",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks that include a particular typeface (typically borrowed from an established body of available typefaces) or artworks that comment on the subject of typography in general. A typeface is a style for expressing the letters of the alphabet (while a font is a specific variation of a typeface); for example, Helvetica is a typeface that connotes the clean, minimalist line of modernism. Calligraphy, by contrast, involves the creation of unique, hand-drawn lettering by a particular calligrapher. Historically, typography evolved alongside the growth of print culture, advancing rapidly in the 19th century and becoming a fundamental component of graphic design and fine arts.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e4d88d0f12bbc000100ca36",
    "slug": "large-scale-photography",
    "name": "Large-Scale Photography",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Used to describe photographs that are much larger in size than those associated with traditional film photography. In the 1980s, technology for creating human-scale photographic prints emerged and thus became a central part of the practice of artists such as [Jeff Wall](/artist/jeff-wall) and [Cindy Sherman](/artist/cindy-sherman). In the 1990s, the group most commonly associated with large-scale photography, and in many ways responsible for the worldwide popularity of the technique, were the students of [Bernd and Hilla Becher](/artist/bernd-and-hilla-becher) at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf, including [Thomas Struth](/artist/thomas-struth-2), [Andreas Gursky](/artist/andreas-gursky), [Candida Höfer](/artist/candida-hofer), and [Thomas Ruff](/artist/thomas-ruff). Although today large scale photography is generally associated with digital color printing, it also encompasses traditional chemical printing techniques.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e779a8869b76500010050ae",
    "slug": "performing-arts",
    "name": "Performing Arts",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Performing arts, such as dance, theater, music, and acrobatics, have long been favorite subjects for visual artists. Plays provided dramatic narrative content for Greek vases in antiquity, troubadours enlivened tapestries and illuminated manuscripts during the Middle Ages, and actors from the [Kabuki](/artwork/utagawa-toyokuni-i-portrait-of-the-actor-ichikawa-yaozo-iii-in-the-role-of-minamoto-no-yoshitsune) theater populated Japanese prints during the 18th century. In their effort to depict modern urban life, the [Impressionists](/gene/impressionism) and [Post-Impressionists](/gene/post-impressionism) painted scenes of cabarets and concert halls—from [Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec](/artist/henri-de-toulouse-lautrec)’s raucous crowds at the [Moulin Rouge](/artwork/henri-de-toulouse-lautrec-quadrille-at-the-moulin-rouge) to [Mary Cassatt](/artist/mary-cassatt)’s high society [operagoers](/artwork/mary-cassatt-woman-in-a-loge). Many visual artists have also collaborated with performing arts productions. [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) designed costumes for Erik Satie’s 1917 ballet _Parade_, and more recently [William Kentridge](/artist/william-kentridge) has designed and directed new stagings of operas like Mozart’s _The Magic Flute_.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e85ed7d4f90440001002567",
    "slug": "burned-slash-charred",
    "name": "Burned/Charred",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks created from burned or charred materials—such as firewood—as well as works that evince the results of burning, rather than direct depictions of [fire](/tag/fire). Some examples are the firework artworks of [Cai Guo-Qiang](/artist/cai-guo-qiang) or the burn paintings of [Otto Piene](/artist/otto-piene), [Alberto Burri](/artist/alberto-burri), or [Yves Klein](/artist/yves-klein).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e8e1a2bfbb10e0001003157",
    "slug": "representations-of-everyday-objects",
    "name": "Representations of Everyday Objects",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“I am for the art of ice-cream cones dropped on concrete... I am for the art of teddy-bears and guns and decapitated rabbits, exploded umbrellas, raped beds, chairs with their brown bones broken, burning trees, firecracker ends, chicken bones, pigeon bones …” –[Claes Oldenburg](/artist/claes-oldenburg)_\n\nEveryday we are surrounded by and interact with countless objects that are so commonplace they often go unnoticed. While artists have included objects such as tableware, trinkets, and household goods in their work for centuries (especially in still lifes), it wasn't until the 1960s and [Pop Art](/gene/pop-art) that artists like Oldenburg sought to place these daily items front and center in the realm of art. Perhaps the most iconic examples of everyday objects depicted in art are [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol)’s Campbell’s soup can works (Warhol claimed he ate soup for lunch everyday for 20 years). Pop artists—and many artists in their wake—consistently sought out the most mundane, commercially manufactured items, at the same time abandoning any conventions around how such objects might be presented (as in a more traditional [still life](/gene/still-life)).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ec83dabb6169b0001000007",
    "slug": "diaristic",
    "name": "Diaristic",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Works—especially photographs—that keep a daily or frequent record of events, experiences and observations, and thus take on the character of a diary.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e3ad6f9fe3b8c00010006aa",
    "slug": "long-exposure",
    "name": "Long Exposure",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A commonly used technique in photography that blurs the moving parts of an image or dramatically enhances light in night or dark scenes. This is achieved by fixing the position of a camera (typically on a tripod) and using a slow shutter speed. Examples of long exposure photographs include images of blurred car lights on a highway or moonlit skies seemingly lit up as though it were daytime.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5e87a0854a3d0001002710",
    "slug": "chance",
    "name": "Chance",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_“The law of chance, can be experienced only in a total surrender to the unconscious.\" —[Jean Arp](/artist/jean-arp)_\n\nBeginning largely with the [Dada](/gene/dada) movement in the late 1910s, Western artists have incorporated elements of chance in the creation and presentation of their work. This development is thought to have been inspired by a loss of faith in ordered Western civilization in the wake of World War I, as well by the development of relativist principles in fields ranging from quantum physics to psychology to Eastern philosophy. [Jean Arp](/artist/jean-arp) composed collages by dropping shapes at random while [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp) recorded the patterns formed by dropped strings; both diminished the status of the artist's conscious decisions in creating an artwork. Explorations of chance and the potential of the unconscious were central to both [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism) as well artists of later generations, like the [Abstract Expressionists](/gene/abstract-expressionism). [Ellsworth Kelly](/artist/ellsworth-kelly), for one, is well-known for choosing the colors for his grid paintings by rolling dice. The 1960s [Happenings](/gene/happenings) associated with [Fluxus](/gene/fluxus) and others introduced a new element of chance into art-making, with [John Cage](/artist/john-cage) famously using flipped coins as a means of composing musical scores.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e60080e1bb91700010021ac",
    "slug": "pixelated",
    "name": "Pixelated",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks and design objects that include some area(s) in which pixels are made intentionally visible. Pixels are the smallest components of images in computer graphics and digital photographs, akin to grain in traditional film.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e6a4315ec5e520001072274",
    "slug": "mythology-and-religion",
    "name": "Mythology and Religion",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A general category for artworks containing religious or mythological symbols or conveying religious or mythological ideas. Examples range from historical pieces featuring gods and goddesses to contemporary works in which the artist engages with broad religious ideas or creates personal mythologies.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e84ac98b8c0d8000100134a",
    "slug": "cinematic",
    "name": "Cinematic",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks that recall the look of feature films, including aspects such as lighting, costumes, and sets.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e84cc5b4f79350001003e1e",
    "slug": "bedrooms-and-bathrooms",
    "name": "Bedrooms and Bathrooms",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks featuring depictions of bedrooms and bathrooms. Common themes of such works include privacy and a lack of inhibition or social constrictions; [nudity](/gene/nude), sex, [the erotic](/gene/erotic), and intimacy; hygiene, cleanliness, and pampering; contemplation; elegance; private habits; [dreams](/gene/dreams-slash-altered-states-of-consciousness) and sleep; [death](/gene/mortality); drug use; [childhood](/gene/childhood); and entertainment (such as TV).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e8f6e5120df9500010059ba",
    "slug": "new-topographics",
    "name": "New Topographics",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A label for a group of photographers who came to prominence in the 1970s and brought a new perspective to landscape photography that focused on an objective documentation of locations. Often, works labeled New Topographics also emphasized the relationship between man and nature through the documentation of industrial intrusions on land and scenes of suburban sprawl, motels, and parking lots. The label has its origins in a 1975 exhibition at the International Museum of Photography in Rochester, NY. Key artists from the exhibit include Robert Adams, [Bernd and Hilla Becher](/artist/bernd-and-hilla-becher), [Joe Deal](/artist/joe-deal), and [Stephen Shore](/artist/stephen-shore). The New Topographics were influential on much of contemporary photography, particularly Becher students like [Thomas Struth](/artist/thomas-struth-2), [Andreas Gursky](/artist/andreas-gursky), [Thomas Ruff](/artist/thomas-ruff) and [Candida Höfer](/artist/candida-hofer), who became known as the [\"Dusseldorf School of Photography\"](/gene/dusseldorf-school-of-photography).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0cebacb0c2a40001004c89",
    "slug": "glittery",
    "name": "Glittery",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Although gems and stones have been used as far back as 40,000 BC to add shine and sparkle to cave paintings, the modern material we know as \"glitter\" was not invented until 1934. Glitter began to be used in cosmetics in the 1960s and soon after found its way into art history in the work of [outsider artists](/gene/outsider-art), and then in [Pop Art](/gene/pop-art), in works such as [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol)’s “Diamond Dust Shoes” series. Artists have been attracted to glitter and other sparkly materials (such as sequins and rhinestones) due to their association with—among other things—popular arts and crafts, drag, tackiness, and camp.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e259578944193000100631d",
    "slug": "movement",
    "name": "Movement",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks featuring objects or human figures in motion, a subject that has been explored in countless ways in Western Art. The 20th century ushered in experiments with expressing movement more fully in sculpture ([Futurism](/gene/futurism)) as well as capturing what was not perceptible to the human eye (via photography and film).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5708cb5dca140001003aa3",
    "slug": "individual-portrait",
    "name": "Individual Portrait",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“Nothing in a portrait is a matter of indifference. Gesture, grimace, clothing, decor even—all must combine to realize a character.” —Charles Baudelaire_\n\nIndividual portraiture—the likeness of a single person—has long been one of the most popular forms of art. Whether as an attempt at objective or documentary truth or to express the power and prestige (or idea) of a person, individual portraits examine what it means to be human and an individual. Classical Greek portraiture was concerned with formal, ideal beauty rather than documentary truth. The Renaissance and a renewed interest in humanism established the great portrait tradition, which would pervade Europe for the next three hundred years, dominated by [Raphael](/artist/raphael) in Rome and [Titian](/artist/titian) in Venice. Individual portraits were also often commissioned by monarchs to reinforce and display royal might: [Hans Holbein](/artist/hans-holbein-the-younger)’s famous portrait of Henry VIII is a quintessential example of the portrait’s power to flatter and play to a sitter’s vanity. Likewise, portraits played a vital role in displaying and mirroring the material wealth of the growing merchant class in the Dutch golden age, as in the work of [Frans Hals](/artist/frans-hals) or [Rembrandt van Rijn](/artist/rembrandt-van-rijn). The invention of photography in the mid 1800s caused the portrait tradition to rapidly change; the newfound ability to capture an individual “as they were” meant that the painted portrait could no longer be taken for granted. Many variations in the photographic portrait resulted as did the exploration of how abstract painting might still make a portrait. Artists continue today to reconcile the traditional means of portraiture with photography.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5ff8a5e890b100010863a4",
    "slug": "abstract-photography",
    "name": "Abstract Photography",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Refers to photography lacking identifiable imagery, or whose subject matter is noticeably obscured. In the early 20th century, particularly through the work of [László Moholy-Nagy](/artist/laszlo-moholy-nagy), the [Surrealists](/gene/surrealism), and [Man Ray](/artist/man-ray), abstract photography gained appreciation and recognition as a realm for experimentation. Representational photography still remained dominant in art circles until the past few decades, when the birth of digital photography and tools like Photoshop encouraged a new generation of artists. Some of the most prominent photographers working today create abstract work (often alongside figurative work), including [Thomas Ruff](/artist/thomas-ruff), [James Welling](/artist/james-welling), and [Wolfgang Tillmans](/artist/wolfgang-tillmans).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e60374fe890b1000125c530",
    "slug": "france",
    "name": "France",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in France.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e60390fe890b1000126ed4f",
    "slug": "spain",
    "name": "Spain",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Spain.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e823b8775bc3a0001001ea1",
    "slug": "post-70s-ego-generation",
    "name": "Post-'70s Ego Generation",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Used to describe a subset of Chinese contemporary artists who were born in or after the 1970s. While the preceding generation of artists were dealing with their nation's collective history, Post-‘70s artists generally demonstrate a return to the self, which is seen as an effect of China's One Child Policy and the far-reaching implications of growing up as only children. Major figures include [Wei Jia](/artist/wei-jia-wei-jia), [Chen Ke](/artist/chen-ke), and [Li Jikai](/artist/li-jikai).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4ee13fdc531d2000010069e5",
    "slug": "self-as-subject",
    "name": "Self as Subject",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that take the artist as their subject, often expanding upon the traditional self-portrait's intention to capture the artist's likeness by exposing his or her inner state, body, or minutiae of daily life. The rise of such self-investigation is associated with artists like [Vito Acconci](/artist/vito-hannibal-acconci), [Bruce Nauman](/artist/bruce-nauman), and [Lynda Benglis](artist/lynda-benglis) who emerged in the 1970s, a decade dubbed the \"Me Generation\" by Tom Wolfe and characterized by _The Culture of Narcissism_, the title of Christopher Lasch's popular 1979 book. In a seminal essay from 1976, Rosalind Krauss argues that the newly widespread medium of video itself engendered an “Aesthetics of Narcissism,” the essay’s title. As artist Nancy Holt states in one of her video works, \"I am surrounded by me,\" an aesthetic and psychological state Krauss refers to as \"self-encapsulation\". While some artists indulge this state, others criticize it or use it as a window onto social and political issues. [Eleanor Antin](/artist/eleanor-antin)’s autobiographical performances in the early '70s incorporated political critiques from a feminist perspective, while [Cindy Sherman](/artist/cindy-sherman)'s serial portraits of herself enacting female clichés offer a critique of gender roles.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4eea6871f2e9690001002dd3",
    "slug": "group-portrait",
    "name": "Group Portrait",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Portraits that depict at least two or more people.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ef104481c23d400010063ec",
    "slug": "text",
    "name": "Text",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Texts, like images, are central to representations and understandings of the world across cultures. As such, they have long appeared alongside images in artworks, and in some cases, are the artwork's essential characteristic. Ancient artifacts such as the [Rosetta Stone](/artwork/the-rosetta-stone-1) and the Code of Hammurabi demonstrate the long-standing role of texts in commanding political and moral authority, a tradition that continued, for instance, with the use of inscriptions on Roman monuments. In many cases, texts take on striking visual characteristics of their own: Egyptian hieroglyphics consisted of small, figurative symbols, elaborate Arabic scripts served as essential decorative elements in religious spaces where figurative representation was banned, and Medieval manuscripts often included exquisitely detailed lettering. Much more recently, text has played a central role in modern and contemporary movements: [Georges Braque](/artist/georges-braque)'s Cubist paintings featured words tucked between lines of fractured geometry, while [Roy Lichtenstein](/artist/roy-lichtenstein)'s cartoonish [Pop Art](/gene/pop-art) paintings often contained quote bubbles. Conceptual art up to the present has made heavy use of texts, as seen in [Joseph Kosuth](/artist/joseph-kosuth)'s dictionary definitions, [Jenny Holzer](/artist/jenny-holzer)'s \"truisms\", and [Lawrence Weiner](/artist/lawrence-weiner)'s wall pieces.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce8e387b7d10001004359",
    "slug": "blurred",
    "name": "Blurred",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Category for two-dimensional artworks that include blurs—areas in which images are less distinct—in them. Abstract and figurative paintings and works on paper are included in this category, as are photographs, which constitute the majority of artworks of this description. Artists well known for their blurred imagery are [Francis Bacon](/artist/francis-bacon), [Edvard Munch](/artist/edvard-munch), and [Gerhard Richter](/artist/gerhard-richter). Photography is arguably the root of the widespread use of the blur in art (since blurs could not be readily isolated until its invention), and some of its earliest influence could be seen in the works of [Impressionists](/gene/impressionism) like [Claude Monet](artist/claude-monet) and [Camille Pissarro](/artist/camille-pissarro).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce83a87b7d10001004315",
    "slug": "large-brushstrokes-slash-loose-brushwork",
    "name": "Large Brushstrokes/Loose Brushwork",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "In Western painting, the use of thick, expressive brushstrokes emerged largely in the late-19th and early-20th centuries; the tendency is visible in many of [Post-Impressionist](/gene/post-impressionism) [Paul Cézanne](/artist/paul-cezanne)'s landscapes, still lifes, and group portraits, as well as in [Henri Matisse](/artist/henri-matisse)'s vivid [Fauvist](/gene/fauvism) paintings. With the development of abstract painting in the 20th-century, such brushwork became more and more prevalent to the extent that it often overshadowed literal representation, as seen in the works of [Willem de Kooning](/artist/willem-de-kooning), [Helen Frankenthaler](/artist/helen-frankenthaler), [Franz Kline](/artist/franz-kline), and [Robert Motherwell](/artist/robert-motherwell). After a move away from such expressive painting (thanks in part to the rise of [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism)), in the 1980s, loose [Neo-Expressionist](/gene/neo-expressionism) brushwork became a central characteristic of works by [Jean Michel-Basquiat](/artist/jean-michel-basquiat), [Georg Baselitz](/artist/georg-baselitz), and [Julian Schnabel](/artist/julian-schnabel). The technique continues to be used by some of the most influential painters working today, including [Cecily Brown](/artist/cecily-brown) and [Jenny Saville](/artist/jenny-saville).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e84a8f5be468f00010020c8",
    "slug": "infographics-and-diagrams",
    "name": "Infographics and Diagrams",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Shortened form of \"Information graphics,\" which are visual representations of information. Examples would be pie charts or bar graphs.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e4d8814f12bbc000100ca20",
    "slug": "stains-slash-washes",
    "name": "Stains/Washes",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Two-dimensional artworks—primarily paintings and drawings—that include stains and washes. The term “stain” is generally used for paintings featuring oils or acrylics on unprimed canvas, which allows the paint to literally stain the painting surface itself. (Alternatively, and historically, paint would be applied to an impermeable gessoed canvas surface.) The technique of stain painting—where the painting is almost entirely created through stains and washes—is most often associated with the works of American artists [Helen Frankenthaler](/artist/helen-frankenthaler) and [Morris Louis](/artist/morris-louis).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5707385dca140001003a7f",
    "slug": "suspended-slash-hanging",
    "name": "Suspended/Hanging",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "The technique of hanging an artwork, typically sculptural, from the ceiling, or suspending a series of objects in space, giving the effect of them floating in air. The development of the technique is linked with a number of different modernist avant-garde practices: [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp) hung readymades such as a shovel and hat rack from the ceiling, while [Alexander Calder](/artist/alexander-calder)'s iconic mobiles were delicate \"drawings in space\" susceptible to subtle movements of air. Playing with concepts of visual perception and interactivity, [Jesús Rafael Soto](/artist/jesus-rafael-soto)'s _Penetrables_ consist of thin hanging tubes that permit viewers to enter the space of the sculpture itself. The hanging of objects from above has become common in contemporary installations, especially in works that seek to create an immersive or engineered effect. These range from [Ernesto Neto](/artist/ernesto-saboia-de-albuquerque-neto)'s membrane-like passageways, to [Cai Guo-Qiang](/artist/cai-guo-qiang)'s dramatic installations, to [Maurizio Cattelan](/artist/maurizio-cattelan)'s humorous, provocative sculptures, all of which were hung together in the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum's rotunda for his retrospective exhibition, \"All.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5e8792ed9e120001002625",
    "slug": "disaster",
    "name": "Disaster",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Used in describing artworks that take a disaster as their subject.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5fe867e890b10001023609",
    "slug": "cultural-commentary",
    "name": "Cultural Commentary",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A broad category for artworks that comment on various aspects of contemporary culture, often quite critically, as in works that focus on the misdeeds of political figures, the imperial actions of governments, or global economic inequalities. The 19th century French artist [Honoré Daumier](/artist/honore-daumier), dubbed the “Michelangelo of caricature,” is most often associated with cultural commentary in art. He satirized France’s bourgeoisie and justice system, and grotesquely caricatured government officials, which endeared him to the public, but also landed him six months in prison.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5ffb90e890b1000109763d",
    "slug": "unsettling-1",
    "name": "Unsettling",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_\"Fantasy, abandoned by reason, produces impossible monsters.\" —[Francisco de Goya](/artist/francisco-de-goya)_\n\nArtworks with disquieting or disturbing imagery, whether of monsters or violent misfortunes, the [grotesque](/gene/grotesque) or the [abject](/gene/the-abject). Well known historical examples include the works of Goya, [James Ensor](/artist/james-ensor), and [Edvard Munch](/artist/edvard-munch). In (especially recent) contemporary practice, unsettling imagery continues to fascinate artists, including [YBAs](/gene/young-british-artists-yba) [Damien Hirst](/artist/damien-hirst) and [Jake and Dinos Chapman](/artist/jake-and-dinos-chapman).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e603433e890b1000124d653",
    "slug": "india",
    "name": "India",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in India.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e6034a6e890b10001250c98",
    "slug": "canada",
    "name": "Canada",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Canada.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e663d39d726df00010002f9",
    "slug": "the-netherlands",
    "name": "The Netherlands",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in The Netherlands.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e7b44922f6f5c0001002033",
    "slug": "language",
    "name": "Language",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that engage with conceptual issues surrounding language, such as translation, the relationship between words and images, and semiotics. Such works typically include written texts, but some engage language more obliquely; for instance, [Leon Ferrari](/artist/leon-ferrari) often abstracted the formal elements of writing, and artists associated with [Dada](/gene/dada) addressed the arbitrariness of linguistic meaning through the use of nonsense speech. [_The Rosetta Stone_](/artwork/the-rosetta-stone-1) (196 B.C.), inscribed in three languages, is one of the earliest artifacts that demonstrated the need for translation in order to communicate history. The use of language as a primary material emerged as a central feature of [Conceptual Art](/gene/conceptual-art), as embodied in [Joseph Kosuth](/artist/joseph-kosuth)'s works involving images and corresponding dictionary definitions, or [Lawrence Weiner](/artist/lawrence-weiner)'s treatment of language as sculptural matter. The text-based works of [Jenny Holzer](/artist/jenny-holzer) and [Barbara Kruger](/artist/barbara-kruger) present language as a form of power and authority, using it both to startle and to amuse, while [Ed Ruscha](/artist/ed-ruscha), in his paintings, explores the clichéd language of pop culture.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ebd60601439700001008a16",
    "slug": "the-environment",
    "name": "The Environment",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Although artists have long engaged with concepts of nature in the tradition of [landscape](/gene/landscapes), distinctly environmentalist artwork emerged in the 1960s in parallel with related social movements. Iconic [Land Art](/gene/land-art) projects by [Robert Smithson](/artist/robert-smithson) and [Christo and Jean-Claude](/artist/christo-and-jeanne-claude) were both celebrated for creating new spaces and audiences and critiqued for the damage they often inflicted on their environments. Perhaps in response, artists of succeeding generations have sought to explore the relationship between humans and the environment without damaging the latter. This is illustrated in such works as [Richard Long](/artist/richard-long)'s walks through remote territories and [Andy Goldsworthy](/artist/andy-goldsworthy-2)'s ephemeral sculptures in nature. In 1982, [Joseph Beuys](/artist/joseph-beuys) initiated the planting of 7,000 oak trees throughout Kassel, Germany, as his contribution to “Documenta 7.” Contemporary artworks often use documentation to raise awareness of human-caused environmental degradation, as seen in photography by [Edward Burtynsky](/artist/edward-burtynsky) and [Richard Misrach](/artist/richard-misrach), and in research-driven investigations of the systems governing social and natural ecologies, as in the work of [Mark Dion](/artist/mark-dion). In the era of global climate change, new terminology sheds light on shifting priorities; scientists have proposed the term Anthropocene for the current epoch in which human activity impacts every ecosystem on the planet, and “Eco Art” is gaining currency as a term to describe art that furthers ecological sustainability or takes the form of environmental activism.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce822569582000100414f",
    "slug": "transparent-slash-translucent-medium",
    "name": "Transparent/Translucent Medium",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks that viewers can see through, or almost see through. To achieve transparency, contemporary sculptors often use glass, resin, or plastic in their work. Artists who create a translucent effect in two dimensions characteristically employ a light touch, using watered-down pigments or executing their work on clear objects.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce8bde066dd00010038b5",
    "slug": "sharp-slash-prickly",
    "name": "Sharp/Prickly",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Three-dimensional artworks and design objects with distinct points or jagged edges that look like they could cut or tear something. Iconic examples are Man Ray’s [_Cadeau_](/artwork/man-ray-cadeau-1) or Marcel Duchamp’s [_Bottle Rack_ ](/artwork/marcel-duchamp-bottle-rack-the-original-lost-was-carried-out-in-paris-in-1914-the-replica-was-carried-out-under-the-direction-of-marcel-duchamp-in-1964-by-the-gallery-schwarz-milan) readymade.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e4d88deb6944a00010156d6",
    "slug": "camera-obscura",
    "name": "Camera Obscura",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "An optical device consisting of a darkened chamber with a small circular opening to let a small amount of light pass through. It traces its history back to the essential components of the pinhole camera in both Eastern and Western ancient civilizations. Importantly, the image of the space projected from the hole to the inside surface of the chamber is reversed. The camera obscura faded in popularity with the invention of photography in the mid nineteenth century, however modern and contemporary artists have often sought out the pinhole method for its more purified representation.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5ff520e890b10001073a72",
    "slug": "the-fantastic",
    "name": "The Fantastic",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A general category for artworks depicting scenes, figures, or objects that appear to be imaginary, illusory, irrational, or bizarre. The earliest artist to explore the fantastic might have been [Hieronymus Bosch](/artist/hieronymus-bosch), who created allegorical paintings—like _The Garden of Earthly Delights_—of mythical creatures and humans in uncanny, imaginary landscapes. Arguably the best known modern movement associated with the fantastic is [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism), whose followers like [Salvador Dalí](/artist/salvador-dali) and [René Magritte](/artist/rene-magritte) embraced chance, dreams, and the irrational in their quest to express the human subconscious. [Dada](/gene/dada) also embraced the fantastic in a more abstract manner, as exemplified by [Man Ray](/artist/man-ray) in his photographs and experimental films. Contemporary artists push the subject matter to even greater extremes, whether in [Kenny Scharf](/artist/kenny-scharf)'s swirling dreamscapes of donuts, fish, and teddy bears, or the imaginary intergalactic explorations of [Cai Guo-Qiang](/artist/cai-guo-qiang)'s gunpowder explosions.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e60331de890b1000123f364",
    "slug": "china",
    "name": "China",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in China.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4eb411300253b8000100256d",
    "slug": "single-object",
    "name": "Single Object",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e31d72d59cd670001000008",
    "slug": "personal-histories",
    "name": "Personal Histories",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Used in describing works referring to a personal past, whether the artist’s or another individual’s, through memories, narratives, or experiences recalled or documented by the artist.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5fe8e9e890b10001046154",
    "slug": "contemporary-pop",
    "name": "Contemporary Pop",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "When it emerged in the 1960s, [Pop art](/gene/pop-art) was not just about bold colors and celebrity culture; it brought the popular world—from cartoons and advertising to apples and bananas—into the realm of high art, turning taste on its head in the process. In the late 1980s, [Jeff Koons](/artist/jeff-koons), [Ashley Bickerton](/artist/ashley-bickerton), and a handful of mostly New York-based contemporary artists revived this sensibility, in a movement known informally as “Neo-Pop.”  The Pop aesthetic is now wide-spread and global; artists working in this vein combine everything from camp and tchotchkes to luxury and immortal materials. [Takashi Murakami](/artist/takashi-murakami)'s ebullient flowers or [Damien Hirst](/artist/damien-hirst)’s prescription drug-named dots toy with the line between low and high art while not shying away from themes of decadence and death. At times confrontational and provocative, at times irreverent and witty, Pop art—now as then—speaks to the objects and images of our everyday lives. Perhaps [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol) said it most presciently; when asked, in 1961, what Pop art is, he responded: “It's liking things.”",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e6034a6e890b10001250c9e",
    "slug": "switzerland",
    "name": "Switzerland",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Switzerland.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e603b39e890b10001272235",
    "slug": "southeast-asia",
    "name": "Southeast Asia",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Southeast Asia, which includes Brunei, Burma, Cambodia, East Timor, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e66d48cb607460001125c58",
    "slug": "provocative",
    "name": "Provocative",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_\"I wanted a shark that's big enough to eat you, and in a large enough amount of liquid so that you could imagine you were in there with it.\" —[Damien Hirst](/artist/damien-hirst), on_ The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living, _(1991)_\n\nUsed to describe artworks that arouse strong feelings, whether because of their subject matter or technique. In perpetually challenging artistic traditions, artists have confronted issues of sexuality, [race](gene/race), [politics](gene/politics), and [religion](gene/related-to-religion), and incorporated surprising materials such as dirt or bodily fluid into their works, often facing a backlash of rejection and fierce criticism from the public. To take examples from the history of Western art, in the mid-late 19th century [Gustav Courbet](artist/gustav-courbet) and [Édouard Manet](artist/edouard-manet) shocked a conservative public with paintings that irreverently combined incongruent imagery with modern painting techniques. In the 20th century artists like [Marcel Duchamp](artist/marcel-duchamp] and [Robert Rauschenberg](Robert-rauschenberg) continued to defy established notions of what constitutes “art” by deeming everyday objects suitable for inclusion in sculptures, or as art objects themselves. Shock value is inherent in many provocative works—take [Robert Mapplethorpe](artist/Robert-mapplethorpe)’s sexually-charged photographs from the 1970s and [Andres Serrano](artist/andres-serrano)’s depictions of homeless people, members of the Ku Klux Klan, and cadavers, as well as his 1989 _Piss Christ_.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e7ba52da29c99000104e936",
    "slug": "cobra",
    "name": "CoBrA",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "An international artist group active between 1948 and 1951 whose name is derived from the first letters of the capitals of the members’ native countries: Copenhagen, Brussels, and Amsterdam. In the wake of the destruction of World War II, CoBrA rejected Western culture and [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism)—the most influential prewar art movement—emphasizing instead experimentation and spontaneous expression and drawing inspiration from children’s drawings and the art of ‘primitive’ cultures.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e84a9c4ebc4320001002ae3",
    "slug": "related-to-film",
    "name": "Related to Film",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that depict actors, directors, memorabilia, or \nimagery related to the film industry. May also be used to describe work engaging with film history or theory.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e84cd78432230000100353d",
    "slug": "multiple-exposure",
    "name": "Multiple Exposure",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "The combination of two or more photographs into one image. Most often, two exposures are used--the name for this technique being double exposure.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ec078e67ae10a000100ca87",
    "slug": "scattered-composition",
    "name": "Scattered Composition",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Scattered compositions contain multiple elements irregularly distributed across an artwork’s surface in many directions. While some artists might use [chance](/gene/chance) effect to determine where a paint dab might land on canvas, like many [Abstract Expressionists](/gene/abstract-expressionism), others have created the same dispersed style through careful and considered application, like [Sherrie Levine’s](/artist/sherrie-levine) knot works. This category applies not only to the seemingly random patterns found in two and three-dimensional artwork, but also dance and installation art, such as [Trisha Brown’s](/artist/trisha-brown) gravity-defying choreography for “Walking on the Wall” or [Robert Morris’](/artist/robert-morris) “Untitled (Scatter Piece),” featuring industrially-fabricated sculptures dispersed across a gallery floor.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce88687b7d10001004332",
    "slug": "bulbous",
    "name": "Bulbous",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "A term applied to bulging, swollen or bulb-shaped forms and objects. One of the earliest known renderings of the human figure, the [Venus of Willendorf](/artwork/venus-of-willendorf), is one of the most often cited examples. Artists from [Peter Paul Rubens](/artist/peter-paul-rubens) to [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) and [Fernando Botero](/artist/fernando-botero) have since experimented with hyper-rounded figures. Abstracted bulbous shapes as in the sculptures of [Jean Arp](/artist/jean-arp) and [Constantin Brancusi](/artist/constantin-brancusi) have also paved the way for a preponderance such forms in contemporary design, from the likes of [Maarten de Ceulaer](/artist/maarten-de-ceulaer) and [the Haas Brothers](/artist/the-haas-brothers).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e1b210467c8e10001002e47",
    "slug": "related-to-toys",
    "name": "Related to Toys",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Kids aren't the only ones preoccupied with toys. During the 20th century, particularly in movements such as [Dada](/gene/dada) and [Pop](/gene/pop-art), playthings have been depicted or used as a medium to reflect (both positively and negatively) on consumerism, youth, the fantastic, eroticism, nostalgia, or all of the above at once. And in contemporary digital and video art, one can witness a new engagement with virtual toys, especially video games.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e35ec031f6862000101036a",
    "slug": "united-kingdom-and-ireland",
    "name": "United Kingdom and Ireland",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or have lived in the United Kingdom (Scotland, Wales, England, and Northern Ireland) or the Republic of Ireland.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5ff542e890b100010800ee",
    "slug": "hard-edged-1",
    "name": "Hard-Edged",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "A term originating in the late 1950s for abstract paintings characterized by sharply defined geometric areas of flat colors conveying little or no depth, such as works by [Ellsworth Kelly](/artist/ellsworth-kelly), [Kenneth Noland](/artist/kenneth-noland), [Ad Reinhardt](/artist/ad-reinhardt), and [Barnett Newman](/artist/barnett-newman). In addition to historical paintings, this term can be used to describe the appearance of contemporary works as well as sculptures.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5ff554e890b10001082fa4",
    "slug": "molecular-1",
    "name": "Molecular",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Used in describing artworks containing forms resembling molecules, atoms, or other microscopic particles.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e60120fe890b100011db876",
    "slug": "topographic-photography",
    "name": "Topographic Photography",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Technique in which a scene—usually a landscape—is photographed as if it were being surveyed from afar, practiced most famously by the 1970s [‘New Topographics’](/gene/new-topographics) photographers, including Robert Adams, Lewis Baltz, Nicholas Nixon, and [Bernd and Hilla Becher](/artist/bernd-and-hilla-becher). These artists inspired Becher's students at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf, who in the 1990s composed the influential \"[Dusseldorf School](/gene/dusseldorf-school-of-photography),\" composed of such photographers as [Andreas Gursky](/artist/andreas-gursky) and [Thomas Struth](/artist/thomas-struth-2).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e60345be890b1000124efe0",
    "slug": "latin-america-and-the-caribbean",
    "name": "Latin America and the Caribbean",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Latin America or the Caribbean.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e6035e1e890b100012525ef",
    "slug": "eastern-europe",
    "name": "Eastern Europe",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Eastern Europe, which includes Belarus, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Republic of Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, and Ukraine.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e8f1aa004fef6000100177e",
    "slug": "layered-images",
    "name": "Layered Images",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks with distinct overlays of visual imagery. This layering can be achieved both through the physical build up of translucent mediums (such as paint or glass), or the artist's composition. [Barbara Kruger's _Untitled (EVIL)_](/artwork/barbara-kruger-untitled-evil), for example, superimposes a seemingly benign image of a woman's face with a word that is anything but, while [Ryan McGinness](/artist/ryan-mcginness) layers graphic icons to create a jumbled mash-up of forms—\"random access memories,\" as he calls them.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e3adafd4d76300001000722",
    "slug": "encaustic",
    "name": "Encaustic",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_“A beautiful woman leaves in the heart of an indifferent man an image as fleeting as a reflection on water, but in a lover’s heart, the image is fixed with fire like an encaustic painting that time will never erase.” —Plutarch_\n\nIt is not clear exactly when encaustic (from the Greek enkaustikos, “to burn in”) was first used, but some of the earliest surviving examples date from as far back as the 1st century BC. Originally referring to a specific process of using heat to fuse beeswax with pigment and resin, encaustic has become a more general term for the use of wax and painting in tandem. Because of its durability, encaustic was most likely first used by the Greeks in order to waterproof and decorate ships, but eventually found its way into more traditional forms of art. After the fall of the Byzantine empire, where the medium appears in many religious icons, encaustic largely disappeared until the 18th century when it was used by artists trying to imitate Greek and Roman Art. In the 20th century, encaustic is most often associated with the work of [Jasper Johns](/artist/jasper-johns), who used it in his Flag paintings, the first of which was displayed in 1955. Because of its versatility, other artists, such as [Martin Kline](/artist/martin-kline), [Brice Marden](/artist/brice-marden), and [Lynda Benglis](/artist/lynda-benglis), continued to work with encaustic throughout the 20th century and into the present day.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e0ce8655695820001004166",
    "slug": "dense-composition",
    "name": "Dense Composition",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Similar to “horror vacui,” a Latin-derived term for “fear of empty spaces,” compositions in this category cover the entire surface of a work with [highly-detailed](/gene/highly-detailed) visual content.  The art of filling empty spaces dates back to Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, Greco-Roman friezes, and South Asian miniature paintings, where picture planes would overflow with [interlaced bodies](/gene/interlaced-bodies).  Centuries later, [Northern Renaissance](/gene/northern-renaissance) artists like [Hieronymus Bosch](/artist/hieronymus-bosch) and [Albrecht Dürer](/artist/albrecht-durer) would execute complex compositions with little negative space between their meticulously-rendered figures.  Symbolically and physically dense designs can be found in contemporary art as well, from the totemic assemblages of [Vanessa German](/artist/vanessa-german) to the wheatpaste wall installations of [Swoon](/artist/swoon).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e1b05137082620001000019",
    "slug": "grid",
    "name": "Grid",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "A general category for both two- and three-dimensional artworks incorporating a grid or lattice structure in some fashion. Artworks with grids in them are most often abstract and are geometrically precise. The grid is usually associated with the work of 1960s Minimalist and Conceptual artists, such as [Sol LeWitt](/artist/sol-lewitt), [Carl Andre](/artist/carl-andre), and [Donald Judd](/artist/donald-judd), and was generally used to create an un-hierarchical composition, absent of traditional imagery or meaning.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5ffabde890b1000108f479",
    "slug": "stolen-moments",
    "name": "Stolen Moments",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Images and scenes involving unknown passersby seemingly captured without the permission of the subject.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5708875dca140001003a8f",
    "slug": "group-of-portraits",
    "name": "Group of Portraits",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that comprise a series of portraits, like those of [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol), who depicted in individual works the same person as many as 36 different times.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5708a6265ad10001001d94",
    "slug": "portraits-without-a-face",
    "name": "Portraits without a Face",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "In 1991, the Cuban-American artist [Felix Gonzalez-Torres](https://www.artsy.net/artist/felix-gonzalez-torres) exhibited _Untitled (Portrait of Ross in L.A.)_, a 175 pound-pile of wrapped candy that viewers could pick from and eat. While the interactive sculpture did not render a person’s face or body, it has been interpreted as a portrait representing the ideal weight of the artist’s partner who died of complications from AIDS that same year. Gonzalez-Torres, among many others, have expanded the definition of portraiture to include artworks that capture the essence of individuals, without rendering their physical likenesses. For example, in _[Portrait of a German Officer](https://www.artsy.net/artwork/marsden-hartley-portrait-of-a-german-officer)_ (1914), American Modernist [Marsden Hartley](https://www.artsy.net/artist/marsden-hartley) depicted the fallen soldier Karl von Freyburg exclusively through abstract symbols, such as the lieutenant’s initials, age of death, and military awards. Feminist artist [Judy Chicago](https://www.artsy.net/artist/judy-chicago) designed unique place settings to represent thirty-nine historic women in her seminal work _[The Dinner Party](https://www.artsy.net/artwork/50328e312b117f0002000827)_ (1974-79); and photographer [Coke Wisdom O'Neal](https://www.artsy.net/artist/coke-wisdom-oneal) documented the medicine cabinets of friends and strangers, presenting these private spaces as individual portraits in and of themselves.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e8c9ef7b86a570001003835",
    "slug": "interactive",
    "name": "Interactive",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks that necessitate the participation of viewers. Examples could be works of [performance art](/gene/performance) in which an artist requires the active involvement of audience members, or [sculptures](/gene/sculpture) that can be touched and/or played with. Some Interactive Art incorporates computer technology and may take the form of an interactive [website](/gene/website) or digital interface. Artists associated with [Relational Aesthetics](/gene/relational-aesthetics) are also known to create interactive objects and situations.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e9742cca2000000010016e2",
    "slug": "multiple-screens",
    "name": "Multiple Screens",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "[Videos or films](/gene/film-slash-video) that include more than one screen or projection. While recent technological advancements in film, video production, and presentation have encouraged the use of multiple screens, artists like [Nam June Paik](/artist/nam-june-paik-1) have employed more than one screen to present work since video art was first recognized in the [1960s](/gene/1960s).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e9743d94e77d30001000eb0",
    "slug": "surveillance",
    "name": "Surveillance",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Surveillance, in its most general sense, refers to the act of close observation, making it a natural theme for artists, long observers of others’ behaviors, to explore. As surveillance in the modern age has narrowed to primarily refer to surveillance by the government, contemporary artists have often approached the subject through critical and [politically](/gene/political) charged works. Chinese artist and activist [Ai Weiwei](/artist/ai-weiwei) has created [marble replicas](/artwork/ai-weiwei-surveillance-camera-1) of the cameras that Chinese authorities installed outside of his home, while American artist [Trevor Paglen](/artist/trevor-paglen) visualizes the surveillance state through multimedia projects whose techniques include constructing maps of secret military projects and projecting military code names onto political buildings. Several recent large-scale museum exhibitions have explored the topic of surveillance in art, such as “Exposed: Voyeurism, Surveillance, and the Camera,” co-organized by London’s [Tate Modern](/tate) and the [San Francisco Museum of Modern Art](/sfmoma), and “[Laura Poitras: Astro Noise](/show/whitney-museum-of-american-art-1-laura-poitras-astro-noise),” at New York’s [Whitney Museum of American Art](/whitneymuseum).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ea9c997b3835d0001009e81",
    "slug": "dau-al-set",
    "name": "Dau Al Set",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A group of avant-garde artists, philosophers, and poets active in Barcelona from 1948 to 1953. \"Dau al Set,\" meaning \"the seven-spotted dice,\" signifies the group's aim to strive beyond standard limits of expression. Founding members, including philosopher Arnau Puig and artist [Antoni Tàpies](/artist/antoni-tapies), published a magazine of the same name that championed creative liberty and resistance to the dominant Fascist regime. Particularly inspired by [Dada](/gene/dada), [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism), and the work of Catalan artist [Joan Miró](/artist/joan-miro), the Dau al Set circle served as a central force in promoting Catalan art that challenged academic and institutional norms.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4eb427060253b80001018cc2",
    "slug": "collective-history",
    "name": "Collective History",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Used in describing artworks engaged with the history of a national, ethnic, or institutional group, as opposed to the recollections of an individual.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ee11066d8778300010013ba",
    "slug": "the-body",
    "name": "The Body",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks in which the human body is the central focus or medium. In the 1960s, contemporary artists such as [Vito Acconci](/artist/vito-acconci) and [Bruce Nauman](/artist/bruce-nauman) reacted to Modernism’s rejection of the human form by focusing on the body, notably through performance. Other artists known for foregrounding the body include [Matthew Barney](/artist/matthew-barney) and [Marina Abramović](/artist/marina-abramovic).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ee111015f8f08000100159b",
    "slug": "close-up",
    "name": "Close-Up",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A framing technique, originating in photography (but present in film and television), which offers a very close and detailed view of an object or person. From [Chuck Close](/artist/chuck-close)’s pixelated studies of his own likeness to [Jenny Saville](/artist/jenny-saville)’s intimate paintings of the distorted female body, artists often employ the close-up as more than a magnification tool, taking advantage of its ability to transform and enhance the object or subject that it is depicting. The close-up often creates an intimate viewing space to observe the granular detail or the subtle play of emotions across a person’s face, as seen in [Sally Mann](/artist/sally-mann)’s unflinching black-and-white photo-portraits of her family.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e14fc6e4cf4190001002ece",
    "slug": "maps-slash-networks",
    "name": "Maps/Networks",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "More than tools for wayfinding, maps—like all networks—can also express the political, cultural, and religious views of their makers. During the [Medieval era](/gene/medieval-art), Christian artisans mapped out the Earth according to the body of Christ, placing Jerusalem at its center. Only when Europeans began to explore overseas, and the need for navigational maps expanded, did cartographers begin to consistently place north at the top of the map. In 1943, Uruguayan modernist [Joaquín Torres García](/artist/joaquin-torres-garcia) challenged this orientation with _[Inverted America](/artwork/joaquin-torres-garcia-america-invertida-inverted-america)_, flipping the standard map’s perspective to encourage South American pride. More recently, Ethiopian-American artist [Julie Mehretu](/artist/julie-mehretu)’s dynamic, multilayered paintings feature complex networks suggestive of abstracted maps and exploding cityscapes—a visual comment on the intersections of power and the built environment.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e4d87e8fdcf0a000100bff2",
    "slug": "intentionally-exposed-canvas",
    "name": "Intentionally Exposed Canvas",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Paintings that feature intentionally exposed, unpainted, and often unprimed canvas. Since the emergence of [modern art](/gene/modern-slash-impressionist-art), various painters have left areas of canvas bare in order to question the finish of historical paintings, reveal the artist’s process, or explore the potential of the canvas as material. This technique also questions the assumption that paintings must last, since Western artists from the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) to the [20th century](/gene/20th-century-art) primed canvases in order to create uniform and durable surfaces.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e5f948912c5db0001385a2c",
    "slug": "scenes-of-everyday-life",
    "name": "Scenes of Everyday Life",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A general category for artworks that depict ordinary people—whether documented or staged—in everyday life. The 18th and 19th centuries saw a turn from the idealized depictions of classical figures and royalty towards realism, with painters like the [19th-Century French Realists](/gene/nineteenth-century-french-realism) capturing the lives of ordinary people in genre paintings. Artists today continue this legacy, focusing on the often mundane aspects of contemporary domestic life, from grocery shopping to walking down the street.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e603655e890b10001253be1",
    "slug": "scandinavia",
    "name": "Scandinavia",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Scandinavia, which includes Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and the Faroe Islands.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e67d0f4b60746000136e93c",
    "slug": "east-asian-ink-and-wash-painting",
    "name": "East Asian Ink-and-Wash Painting",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Refers to the long-standing East Asian brush painting practice involving carbon-based black ink applied to paper or silk, the same materials also used for calligraphy. In China, the practice first emerged under the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), though ink-making processes date back to 2500 BC.  The essential formal element in ink-and-wash paintings is the line, rendered with varying thicknesses and types of stroke, and according to countless different techniques. Ink-and-wash painting has tended towards naturalism and expressiveness at different times in its long history, though landscapes, animals, and flora have been a consistent subject matter. Although the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) mandated the adoption of Socialist Realism, artists in subsequent generations have returned to ink-and-wash painting as a means both of exploring cultural heritage and depicting modern life.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e690c5052870200010ba672",
    "slug": "use-of-common-materials",
    "name": "Use of Common Materials",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Identifies artworks composed of common or everyday materials, such as the house paint that [Frank Stella](/artist/frank-stella) employed in his late 1950s \"Black Paintings.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e84cdf16f149b0001001afb",
    "slug": "monochrome-painting",
    "name": "Monochrome Painting",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "The rise (and eventual dominance) of abstract art in the 20th century ushered in an era of what is called [monochromatic](/gene/monochromatic) painting. Pioneered by [Kasimir Malevich](/artist/kasimir-malevich), by the second half of the century, the style reached its pinnacle, within abstract art movements like [Color Field painting](/gene/color-field-painting), [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism), and in the works of individual artists such as [Yves Klein](/artist/yves-klein) and [Ad Reinhardt](/artist/ad-reinhardt).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ebc3cc74f1217000100424b",
    "slug": "old-master-drawings-and-prints",
    "name": "Old Master Drawings and Prints",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A general category for drawings and prints created by prominent artists working from the Renaissance through the end of the 18th century.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e2480a52f6b870001007a10",
    "slug": "film-slash-video",
    "name": "Film/Video",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Films and videos began to be understood as artworks—or at least part(s) of them—in the 1950s, when artists such as [Nam June Paik](/artist/nam-june-paik-1) and Wolf Vostell began incorporating televisions into their works. In 1965, with the invention of the Sony Portapack, the ability to create moving images became much more accessible than ever before; subsequently, artistic experimentation with video increased markedly. During the 1960s and '70s, [Steina and Woody Vasulka](/artist/steina-and-woody-vasulka) experimented early on with technical manipulations of the medium, and [Vito Acconci](/artist/vito-hannibal-acconci), [Bruce Nauman](/artist/bruce-nauman), and [Richard Serra](/artist/richard-serra) turned the camera on themselves, in many ways challenging the myths surrounding artists. [Chris Burden](/artist/chris-burden) also recorded a number of iconic performances involving self-inflicted violence, while artists such as [Martha Rosler](/artist/martha-rosler) recorded videos that called into question the traditional roles of women. In recent years, a number of ambitious film projects have been realized, among them [Matthew Barney](/artist/matthew-barney)'s _Cremaster Cycle_, consisting of five elaborate feature-length films, and [Christian Marclay](/artist/christian-marclay)'s _The Clock_, a looping 24-hour montage of appropriated film clips.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e2dc9442ccd3c000100404d",
    "slug": "contemporary-ceramics",
    "name": "Contemporary Ceramics",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Ceramics are experiencing a renaissance in the contemporary art and design worlds, as curators and critics continue to showcase innovations in clay. In 2014 alone, the Whitney Biennial featured ceramicists [Sterling Ruby](/artist/sterling-ruby) and [Shio Kusaka](/artist/shio-kusaka), the gallery Venus Over Manhattan curated a survey of contemporary clay, and the art fairs Art Basel and Frieze presented pots by [Dan McCarthy](/artist/dan-mccarthy) and [Takuro Kuwata](/artist/takuro-kuwata-sang-tian-zhuo-lang), among others. Japanese and Korean contemporary ceramicists draw on centuries-old techniques to create purely sculptural forms, such as those of [Sueharu Fukami](/artist/sueharu-fukami), as well as functional vessels, such as [Jang Jin](/artist/jang-jin)’s minimal creations. Other highlights in contemporary ceramics include the bright whimsical sculptures of [Betty Woodman](/artist/betty-woodman) and [Peter Shire](/artist/peter-shire), and the slab-based constructions of [Cody Hoyt](/artist/cody-hoyt) and Bruce M. Sherman. Whether slip-casting, hand-throwing, coiling, or pinching clay, these ceramicists all demonstrate that a 2,000-year-old medium can be progressive, challenging, and in some cases avant-garde.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e600ac91bb91700010024f0",
    "slug": "engagement-with-mass-media",
    "name": "Engagement with Mass Media",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artists' engagement with mass media dates back to the 19th century, notably French artist [Honoré Daumier](/artist/honore-daumier)'s association with the anti-monarchist daily newspaper _Le Charivari_, which beginning in 1832 was the first to illustrate its pages with lithographs. This proved to be an effective medium for widely distributing political caricatures as well as scenes of everyday life. In the 20th century, artists turned to addressing the form and content of messages distributed by mass media, particularly television. For instance, [Nam June Paik](/artist/nam-june-paik-and-jud-yalkut)'s early experimentations in video art frequently involved the appropriation and distortion of television footage, while [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol)'s repetitive silkscreens of such images blurred the lines between critical and celebratory. Brazilian artist [Hélio Oiticica](/artist/helio-oiticica) included television screens in his “Tropicalia” installations, joining an international group of artists in the 1960s interested in subverting mass media strategies for different ends. Since then, artists have made use of such images in a number of ways, among them [Richard Prince](/artist/richard-prince)'s and [Gilbert & George](/artist/gilbert-and-george)'s appropriations.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e600aed9755740001002acb",
    "slug": "reflections",
    "name": "Reflections",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Reflective surfaces surround us, whether slick puddles, gleaming hubcaps, or rear view mirrors. For artists, these reflections are often a blessing—a way to invest compositions with extra images and expose secrets of the visual world. Historically, artists have depicted cosmopolitan storefronts ([Eugène Atget](/artist/eugene-atget-1), [Richard Estes](/artist/richard-estes)) and mirrors ([Diego Velázquez](/artist/diego-velazquez), [Jan Van Eyck](/artist/jan-van-eyck)) to create \"more complete\" views of reality. More recently, contemporary photographers have employed digital manipulation to create fantastic worlds of reflection impossible in the real world.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e6a4334ec5e52000107c835",
    "slug": "travel-slash-tourism",
    "name": "Travel/Tourism",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that engage with the subject of travel or tourism.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e84cbef6f149b0001001ae0",
    "slug": "multiple-styles",
    "name": "Multiple Styles",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks that contain two or more markedly different styles.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ec076cc7ae10a000100a164",
    "slug": "splattered-slash-dripped",
    "name": "Splattered/Dripped",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "The use of a dripped or splattered art material—usually paint—characteristically in paintings. While [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock) is the most well-known \"dripper,\" artists before him experimented with the technique, primarily those involved with the [Dada](/gene/dada) and [Surrealist](/gene/surrealism) movements. In general, the choice to drip or splatter reflects an interest in rejecting traditional methods of painting and connecting directly with the energies of the body.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e60387ce890b10001268166",
    "slug": "middle-east-and-north-africa",
    "name": "Middle East and North Africa",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or have lived in the Middle East and Northern Africa, which encompasses the territory that includes Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Oman, the Palestinian territories, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4e8e17313aac3f0001276e2b",
    "slug": "cross-cultural-dialogue",
    "name": "Cross-Cultural Dialogue",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artists and works that marry the styles, artistic traditions, or imagery of disparate cultures of origin. While in art history, there is a long tradition of such exchange, today one might argue that the boundaries between what is considered \"foreign\" or \"native\" have become extremely blurred. As a result, identifying cross-cultural exchange as separate from the expanding geographic and cultural boundaries of a [globalized](/gene/globalization) and [digital](/gene/digital-culture) world is much more difficult, if not impossible.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e94bbe972b51900010045e1",
    "slug": "zaire-school-of-popular-painting",
    "name": "Zaire School of Popular Painting",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Group founded in the mid-1970s in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, by Chéri Samba, Moke, Chéri Chérin, and Bodo, which was also later joined by Cheik Ledy, Chéri Samba’s younger brother. The group is generally interested in popular culture and issues concerning their community, such as international aid and cultural tourism.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4e95eaa9be2b4e0001001862",
    "slug": "cut-slash-ripped",
    "name": "Cut/Ripped",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_“My discovery was the hole and that’s it. I am happy to go to the grave after such a discovery.”—Lucio Fontana_\n\nCut and/or ripped artworks, or artworks whose manufacture involves cutting or ripping materials. [Lucio Fontana](/artist/lucio-fontana) is most often associated with cutting, particularly in relation to his “Spatial Concept” series (1958-1968). Fontana sliced into these canvases with a sharp blade via a single gesture, revealing a black gauze backing behind that resembles a void.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ec079a77ae10a0001010268",
    "slug": "tangled-forms",
    "name": "Tangled Forms",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Two- and three-dimensional artworks that include (or are characterized by) closely meshed, overlapping, and typically curvilinear lines. Such forms may be in figurative art, as in the overlapping of serpent and muscular sinews in the Ancient Greek sculpture [_Laocoön and His Sons_](/artwork/hagesandros-polydoros-and-athanadoros-of-rhodes-laocoon-and-his-sons-as-restored-today-probably-the-original-or-a-roman-copy). They have also played a central role in the history of abstraction, including in Hiberno-Saxon designs such as those found in the 9th-century [_Book of Kells_](/artwork/chi-rho-iota-page-from-the-book-of-kells-matt-1-18), as well as in many instances of traditional [Islamic art and architecture](/gene/islamic-art-and-architecture. In the 20th century, abstract tangled forms have often appeared in abstract paintings by such artists as [Wassily Kandinsky](/artist/wassily-kandinsky), [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock), and [Brice Marden](/artist/brice-marden) and in scrap-metal sculptures by [John Chamberlain](/artist/john-chamberlain).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ee1112ed8778300010013dc",
    "slug": "outer-space",
    "name": "Outer Space",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Works that feature images of outer space, as well as objects commonly associated with it, such as spaceships, space stations, and satellites.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f26f2e004ea5c0001000167",
    "slug": "early-renaissance",
    "name": "Early Renaissance",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Artwork produced in Europe in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries that moved away from the predominant [Medieval](#!/gene/medieval-art) or Gothic styles of the time—as seen in the abstracted icon paintings of church altarpieces and frescoes—and experimented with forms of naturalism. The political and economic development from feudal states to cohesive city-states, and the rise of powerful patrons that followed, allowed artists like [Duccio](/artist/duccio), [Giotto](/artist/giotto-giotto-di-bondone), Nicola and Giovanni Pisano, and Tomaso da Modena to focus on secular portraiture and sculpture.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f060889fd1c4f0001000807",
    "slug": "consumerism",
    "name": "Consumerism",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks engaged with the idea that the acquisition or ownership of goods is a reflection of status and self-identity. Artists explore or criticize this idea in a variety of ways, usually featuring consumable goods, sites of consumption, the acquisition of goods, or advertising imagery in their work.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f0365a64409d10001001f7e",
    "slug": "psychoanalysis",
    "name": "Psychoanalysis",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Developed in Vienna at the turn of the century, Sigmund Freud's theories on childhood, sexuality, and the interpretation of dreams have been hugely influential on 20th-century culture and thought. Many artists have approached personal anxieties, memories or experiences in their work through the lens of psychoanalytic theory. Freudian psychoanalysis particularly influenced the [Surrealists](/gene/surrealism), who adapted Freud’s practice of free association to the artistic technique of [automatism](/gene/automatism) as a way to liberate the unconscious. In contemporary practice, artists like [Franz West](/artist/franz-west) have examined the cultural resonance of the therapy session in such works as [_Untitled_ (1989)](/artwork/franz-west-untitled-2028), a metal couch that conjures the discomfort of recounting traumatic experiences.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ef4f7855bd32e0001005ade",
    "slug": "abstract-sculpture",
    "name": "Abstract Sculpture",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_\"What is real is not the external form but the essence of things. Starting from this truth it is impossible for anyone to express anything essentially real by imitating its exterior surface.\" —[Constantin Brancusi](/artist/constantin-brancusi)_\n\nIn the early 20th century, many avant-garde sculptors pushed the bounds of accepted modes of representation, abandoning faithfulness to the visible world in favor of abstraction. The question many artists asked was no longer how to reproduce the world as it appeared, but rather how to best express realities of life (sensed and theorized) through forms. Ever since, abstract sculpture has offered particularly fertile ground for experiments in shape, proportion, and technique, as well as for the embrace of non-traditional sculpting methods (apart from casting, welding, or direct carving), such as industrial manufacturing processes, plastic moulds, and even [3D printing](/gene/3d-printed). Modern strands of abstract sculpture include [Concrete Art](/gene/concrete-art)'s mathematically precise and elegant forms, the strict geometry and forceful presence of [Minimalist](/gene/minimalism) objects, and [Kinetic Sculpture](/gene/kinetic-sculpture)'s embodiment of movement and physical forces.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4f144b41ff18aa000100003a",
    "slug": "relational-aesthetics",
    "name": "Relational Aesthetics",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A term that emerged in the mid-1990s for artists who created interactive or multi-sensory installations and emphasized the possibility of social exchange within them. French art critic Nicolas Bourriaud coined the term and described it as \"a set of artistic practices which take as their theoretical and practical point of departure the whole of human relations and their social context.\" Relational Aesthetics was first used in the 1996 catalog for Bourriaud's exhibition \"Traffic\" at CAPC Musée d'Art Contemporain de Bordeaux. The exhibition featured artists like [Vanessa Beecroft](/artist/vanessa-beecroft), [Maurizio Cattelan](/artist/maurizio-cattelan), [Dominique Gonzalez-Foerster](/artist/dominique-gonzalez-foerster), [Liam Gillick](/artist/liam-gillick), [Carsten Höller](/artist/carsten-holler), [Pierre Huyghe](/artist/pierre-huyghe), [Miltos Manetas](/artist/miltos-manetas), [Philippe Parreno](/artist/philippe-parreno), [Jorge Pardo](/artist/jorge-pardo), and [Rirkrit Tiravanija](/artist/rirkrit-tiravanija).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f108245848eb2462c22a663",
    "slug": "black-and-white-photography",
    "name": "Black-and-White Photography",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_\"Black and white are the colors of photography. To me they symbolize the alternatives of hope and despair to which mankind is forever subjected.\" —[Robert Frank](/artist/robert-frank)_\n\nBlack-and-white photography defined the medium from the invention of the daguerreotype in 1839 through the 1970s. Modernist photographers like [Alfred Stieglitz](/artist/alfred-stieglitz), [Edward Steichen](/artist/edward-steichen), [Paul Strand](/artist/paul-strand), and [Ansel Adams](/artist/ansel-adams) explored its formal qualities in their portraits, landscapes, and depictions of city life, and were instrumental elevating photography to an accepted art form alongside painting and sculpture. Black-and-white photography lost its dominance in the 1970s, when the [New American Color Photographers](/gene/new-american-color-photography) like [William Eggleston](/artist/william-eggleston) helped push color photography to the fore.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ef3aaa334c5a8000100186e",
    "slug": "hyperrealism",
    "name": "Hyperrealism",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks that appear extremely realistic to the extent that they trick the eye. (“Deceive the eye” is the literal translation of [trompe l’oeil](/gene/trompe-loeil), a French term historically used to describe these types of works.) Since the ancient Greeks, intense realism has been an aspiration of Western art, however with the rise and popularity of abstract painting in the 20th century, such an aspiration became less avant-garde. At the same time, the late 1960s and ‘70s saw the popularity of highly-realistic paintings based on photography (what is called [Photorealism](/gene/photorealistic)) and contemporary art has seen the popularity of sculptures that attempt to precisely replicate, or [\"re-create\"](/gene/contemporary-re-creations), objects.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f2c594ffa9af700010008c3",
    "slug": "manipulated-photography",
    "name": "Manipulated Photography",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Photographs that have been—often dramatically—altered from their original state, either through traditional photographic printing processes or digital means such as Photoshop. While contemporary photographers like [Jeff Wall](/artist/jeff-wall) and [Andreas Gursky](/artist/andreas-gursky) are celebrated for their dramatic digital photo-manipulations—the possibilities of which technological advances have greatly expanded—similar manipulations were made in early photography through non-digital means. Nineteenth-century photographer Oscar Gustave Rejlander, in _The Two Ways of Life_ (1857), combined 32 images into one by printing a combination of negatives (a technique known as photomontage). _The Two Ways of Life_ also involved some 25 models and is one of the earliest examples of [Staged Photography](/gene/staged-photography).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f58df2030ba52000100019a",
    "slug": "contemporary-diy",
    "name": "Contemporary DIY",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "DIY, short for \"Do-it-yourself,\" refers to contemporary artists who foreground self-reliance and the self-made, particularly in opposition to mass production and mass culture (and their accompanying alienation). DIY emerged in the 1950s' popularization of amateur home improvement and was given political significance by the 1960s counterculture, and later the Punk movement. Examples of Contemporary DIY include [Joe Scanlan's](/artist/joe-scanlan) _IKON EARTH_ project, in which he patented his own brand of potting soil, or [Andrea Zittel’s](/artist/andrea-zittel) A-Z enterprise, in which the artist produces clothing, furniture, and \"homestead units\" independent of all established systems of production and manufacturing. Frequently, artists working in this vein explore alternative modes of exhibition or distribution, such as zines, artist books, pop-up shops or architecture that blur the boundaries between living and working.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f38d387848eb2150f163abd",
    "slug": "bay-area-figurative-art",
    "name": "Bay Area Figurative Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A movement of mid-20th-century American artists based in San Francisco who abandoned the dominant [Abstract Expressionist](/gene/abstract-expressionism) style of the period and returned to figuration. The four artists initially associated with the term were [David Park](/artist/david-park), [Elmer Bischoff](/artist/elmer-bischoff), [Richard Diebenkorn](/artist/richard-diebenkorn), and James Weeks, who shifted away from the influences of the area’s prominent abstract painters (like Clyfford Still) around 1950. Later on, painters like [Nathan Oliveira](/artist/nathan-oliveira) and [Joan Brown](/artist/joan-brown), and a single sculptor, [Manuel Neri](/artist/manuel-neri), joined the movement. These artists rendered genre scenes, local landscapes, and figure paintings with a luminous palette. In the 1960s, their works became increasingly idiosyncratic, to the extent that they bled into the [Funk Art](/gene/funk-art) movement of the San Francisco underground. Aided by Diebenkorn’s return to abstraction in the late 1960s, the movement fell into decline, though artists like [Elmer Bischoff](/artist/elmer-bischoff), maintained their styles into the 1970s. Seminal to the development of Bay Area Figurative Art were the area’s art schools and institutions such as the Oakland Museum, which mounted an exhibition of these artists in 1957.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f4ffa66f3437a0001000891",
    "slug": "american-impressionism",
    "name": "American Impressionism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "[French Impression​ism](/gene/impressionism) inspired various American painters studying abroad in Paris in the 1870s, resulting in the developmen​t of a particular​ type of American Impression​ism during the 1880s. While both French and American Impressionism employed loose brushwork to depict scenes of urban life and situations​ bathed in ethereal light, American Impression​ists—like [William Merritt Chase](/artist/william-merritt-chase), [Willard Metcalf](/artist/willard-l-metcalf), John Henry Twachtman,​ and [Childe Hassam](/artist/childe-hassam)—uni​quely turned to the pastoral landscapes​ of New England, where artists established enclaves away from the increasing​ly industrial​ized city centers. American expatriate​ artists [Mary Cassatt](/artist/mary-cassatt) and [John Singer Sargent](/artist/john-singer-sargent) were early champions of Impression​ism in Paris, their achievemen​ts in the late 1870s playing a key role in popularizi​ng the style in the U.S.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f50f40ad9c50c027b1394bc",
    "slug": "contemporary-gestural-abstraction",
    "name": "Contemporary Gestural Abstraction",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The [Abstract Expressionists](/gene/abstract-expressionism) were the first to combine [gesture](/gene/gestural) with [abstraction](/gene/abstract-art), demonstrating the action of painting by splattering, pouring, and pulling paint across the canvas. The vigorous brushstrokes of contemporary painter [Judith Murray](/artist/judith-murray), the dynamic compositions of Korean artist [Yoon Lee](/artist/yoon-lee), and the meticulous squiggles of [CalArts](/gene/calarts) graduate [Jonathan Lasker](/artist/jonathan-lasker) continue this tradition of expressive painting.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4f6b39fd0b665e0001001319",
    "slug": "obsolescence",
    "name": "Obsolescence",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks concerned with the process of an object or idea ceasing to be useful and thus valuable, either due to changing fashions or technological progress. Examples include the documentation of de-industrialization (as in [Bernd and Hilla Becher](/artist/bernd-and-hilla-becher)’s photographs of defunct manufacturing plants) or engagement with outdated electronics (as in [Gregor Hildebrandt](/artist/gregor-hildebrandt)’s use of VHS, cassettes, and vinyl records in his mixed-media work). While some works expose the insidious side effects of modern progress, many artists approach or employ obsolete technologies from a position of curiosity or nostalgia, highlighting the degree to which an object’s obsolescence is socially determined.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f50f40ad9c50c027b1394b1",
    "slug": "found-objects",
    "name": "Found Objects",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Used to group works that include, or are predominantly constituted of, found objects. Found objects are (usually minimally-altered) man-made or natural objects. The most famous use of found objects in a work of art has been by [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp), in his readymades, many of which were just manufactured objects with minimal alterations made to them, such as his _Fountain_ (1917), a urinal that was simply turned over, signed (with a pseudonym, \"R. Mutt\") and dated (1917).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f50f496d9c50c027b13a0a1",
    "slug": "failure",
    "name": "Failure",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“All art is failure. How one fails is a different matter.” —Luc Tuymans_\n\nMike Kelley famously claimed that he became an artist to embrace failure. In the 1980s, this irreverent attitude broke radically with the academicism of most previous movements, like [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism) and [Neo-Expressionism](/gene/neo-expressionism), whose artists were considered creative rebels. Unlike historical conceptions of failure as tragic or dramatic misfortune, contemporary artists have approached it as a banal occurrence, often filtered through irony, humor, vulnerability, or self-effacement. Failure has also come to be, paradoxically, a hallmark of artistic success. German artist Jörg Immendorf’s _Ich wollte Künstler werden_(_I wanted to be an artist_) (1978), for example, mocks the artist’s childhood ambitions. “Of course I wanted to make something new in art. My guiding principle was egoism,” the work reads in self-deprecating awareness. Artists as diverse as [Martin Kippenberger](/artist/martin-kippenberger), [Vito Acconci](/artist/vito-acconci), and [Frances Starkhave](/artist/frances-stark) also engaged with the idea of failure.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f50f595848eb23c370685c1",
    "slug": "contemporary-modernist-type-photography-1",
    "name": "Contemporary Modernist-Type Photography",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Contemporary works that resemble or engage with [Modernist Photography](/gene/modern-photography). In contemporary practice, many artists have often adopted the look of \"Modernist\" work as commentary on the objectivity of the medium or the legacy of iconic photographers of the era.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f56328d6b0fd800010009b4",
    "slug": "neo-geo",
    "name": "Neo-Geo",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Neo-Geo, short for \"Neo-Geometric Conceptualism,\" is a term that emerged in the 1980s to unify the varying work of artists [Ashley Bickerton](/artist/ashley-bickerton), [Peter Halley](/artist/peter-halley), [Jeff Koons](/artist/jeff-koons), and [Meyer Vaisman](/artist/meyer-vaisman). In some respects, the term is best reflective of Halley's work, which introduced a new type of geometric painting that rejected the non-objective abstraction of the 20th century, instead using figurative source material such as microchips and battery cells. At the same time, the loose label has been criticized as a marketing ploy used in the fervent 1980s art market, which was particularly fixated on \"the new\" and \"the next big\" artistic developments.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f56d74d5cdd0d00010000be",
    "slug": "cluj-school",
    "name": "Cluj School",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A group of painters who coalesced in Cluj-Napoca (the unofficial capital of the historic Transylvania region of Romania) after the 1989 Romanian Revolution. Their style is characterized by the loose application of paint—often with dark, sultry palettes—and the presentation of vignettes illustrating the uncertainty and banality of life after the fall of Communism.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f2c6049fa9af7000100096d",
    "slug": "light-art",
    "name": "Light Art",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_“Light is not so much something that reveals, as it is itself the revelation.” —[James Turrell](/artist/james-turrell)_\n\nArtworks that use light—either artificial or natural—as a medium, whether in the form of electric light bulbs, LED, neon or fluorescent lights (as in the works of [Dan Flavin](/artist/dan-flavin)), fire and flames, or even natural light, as in Turrell’s work.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f3edad9848eb265700003a1",
    "slug": "light-and-space-movement",
    "name": "Light and Space Movement",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A label for West Coast [Minimalist](/gene/minimalism) art of the 1960s and 1970s that was concerned with how geometric shapes and use of light could affect the environment and perception of the viewer. It has been argued that Light and Space art emerged in no small part because of Los Angeles’ radiant light and tempered atmosphere. [John McCracken](/artist/john-mccracken), [Larry Bell](/artist/larry-bell), and [Robert Irwin](/artist/robert-irwin) are most often associated with this term. Notably, in addition to “Light and Space,” this work has been alternatively dubbed “California Minimalism” or even “Finish Fetish Art,” to align it with the meticulous aesthetics of California car and surf culture.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f514737d8f91c000100019b",
    "slug": "gothic-art",
    "name": "Gothic Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A term that primarily refers to Western European architectu​​re of the mid-12th to mid-13th centuries.​​ A distinctiv​e characteristic of Gothic architecture is the pointed arch, and the primary type of Gothic building was the cathedral.​​ Gothic cathedrals​​ are marked by their innovation​​s: thin stone walls, flying buttresses​​, stained glass windows and extreme height, which produced a transcendent experience​ for the worshipper​​​.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f0613b2848eb27bc6003b2c",
    "slug": "flatness",
    "name": "Flatness",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "A category for two-dimensional artworks that include flattened figures or objects, or have shallow depth. Particularly since the 19th century, western artists have rejected [hyperrealism](/gene/hyperrealism) and the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) ideal of linear perspective in order to emphasize the illusionistic nature of painting (the flatness of the picture plane), or engage with more conceptual, pre-Modern, or non-western modes of expressing human form. Artists like [Edouard Manet](/artist/edouard-manet) and [Mary Cassatt](/artist/mary-cassatt), for example, drew inspiration from Japanese _ukiyo-e_ woodblock prints, often rendering broad fields of uniform color that made figures appear compressed against their backgrounds. Clement Greenberg famously identified flatness as the defining characteristic of modern art; the progress towards non-objective abstraction—from [Courbet](/artist/gustave-courbet) through [Mondrian](/artist/piet-mondrian)—was, for Greenberg, the predominant story of modernism. [Pop Art](/gene/pop-art) heightened the emphasis on flatness in the 1960s, a tendency that continues today in much contemporary art.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f2c59649afbea000100097d",
    "slug": "staged-photography",
    "name": "Staged Photography",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Photographs that capture staged or artificially constructed scenes made only for the purpose of photography. While this type of image-making became well-known in the 1980s through the work of artists such as [Cindy Sherman](/artist/cindy-sherman) and [Jeff Wall](/artist/jeff-wall), staged compositions—which have alternatively been called “tableau photographs”—have been created since the beginnings of photography. For example, 19th-century photographers such as Oscar Gustav Rejlander and Henry Peach Robinson staged classical or biblical scenes with actors. Also, some of the major inspirations for 1980s staged photographic imagery were 1920s and '30s staged portraits created by [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp) and [Claude Cahun](/artist/claude-cahun).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4f3f1f7aaafd5b00010004da",
    "slug": "globalization",
    "name": "Globalization",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Refers to the dominance of Western—particularly American—politics, economics, and cultures around the world, or the idea that the world has been unified through new forms of technology. Especially since the 1990s, globalization has been of increasing concern for many artists, who critique it via depictions of the homogeneity of the modern world or less-than-attractive takes on global institutions.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f50f468d9c50c027b139cfc",
    "slug": "contemporary-re-creations-1",
    "name": "Contemporary Re-creations",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Contemporary sculpture that replicates real-life objects with particular exactitude.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4f5643923d77850001000f88",
    "slug": "american-works-on-paper-1880-1950",
    "name": "American Works on Paper 1880–1950",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A general category that comprises drawings, prints, and paintings,​ as well as mixed media on paper, created by American artists between 1880 and 1950.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4f4bf180fe950c0001001909",
    "slug": "neoclassicism",
    "name": "Neoclassicism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Mid-18th-century to mid-19th-century artworks strongly influenced by ancient Greek and Roman art, particularly for its compositional order and simplification of imagery. Archaeological discoveries of the time brought the work of these ancient civilizations to the attention of Neoclassicists. The structured approach to historical subject matter in Neoclassical work was seen as the opposite of the ornamentation of the preceding [Rococo](/gene/rococo) movement. Concurrently with, and in the face of, Neoclassicism, [Romanticism](/gene/romanticism) was also emerging. [Jacques-Louis David](/artist/jacques-louis-david) is the best-known Neoclassical artist; two of his most famous works are [_Oath of the Horatii_](/artwork/jacques-louis-david-oath-of-the-horatii) (1784) and [_Death of Marat_](/artwork/jacques-louis-david-death-of-marat) (1793).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f26f327dc7f670001000126",
    "slug": "high-renaissance",
    "name": "High Renaissance",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Spanning the late 15th and early 16th centuries in Italy, the High Renaissance is often acknowledged as the height of artistic achievement in post-medieval Europe. Culminating during a prolonged cultural awakening and marked by the pursuit of humanist ideals like naturalism, proportion, and Classical bodily forms in painting, sculpture, and architecture, the High Renaissance also encompassed the careers of [Leonardo da Vinci](/artist/leonardo-da-vinci), [Raphael](/artist/raphael), and [Michelangelo](/tag/michelangelo). Da Vinci emerged as the most influential artist and thinker of the time (and perhaps in the history of Western art). The legacy of the High Renaissance is primarily seen through the continued use of da Vinci’s innovative approaches to artmaking, such as freehand sketching and subtle tonal gradation (also known as sfumato).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f3ab366fcb3ae00010005b9",
    "slug": "romanesque-art",
    "name": "Romanesque Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "The first style to be identified within [Medieval Art](/gene/medieval-art). While it initially referred to the architectural style developed between the 11th and mid-12th centuries in Western Europe, Romanesque has recently been extended to include other areas of artistic production, including sculpture and painting. Major characteristics of Romanesque art exist in churches or monasteries and include vaulted ceilings and rounded or pointed arches. Romanesque sculptural decoration comes in the form of figurative capitals atop dense columns or in bronze reliefs carved into doors and tympanums over entryways.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f4bf57f31e1c50001000005",
    "slug": "collecting-and-modes-of-display",
    "name": "Collecting and Modes of Display",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks concerned with the activity of gathering and displaying objects or documents in some type of organizational scheme. Such works often question the authority and objectivity of institutional practices of cataloging, conservation, and display encountered in museums, libraries, archives, or collections of scientific specimens. Other works may examine the personal meaning attributed to objects that are collected or the desire to amass, own, and make sense of art, mass-produced objects, or curiosities of the natural world.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f511071d9c50c027b180d20",
    "slug": "visual-perception",
    "name": "Visual Perception",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that examine the subjectivity of the human visual process and its effect on art practice. Perception, as a general term, is arguably a central concern of all art practice, but particular artists stemming from and since the Renaissance have demonstrated a specific interest in it. [Leonardo da Vinci](/artist/leonardo-da-vinci), for example, obsessively studied the structure of the eye and the disparities between monocular and binocular vision, interrogating the ways in which artists depict three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface. Contemporary artists continue to engage with the processes of human vision, investigating subjects such as depth perception, optical illusions and instruments, and vision dysfunction.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4efa22521c151200010039ea",
    "slug": "die-brucke",
    "name": "Die Brücke",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Die Brücke was founded by [Fritz Bleyl](/artist/fritz-bleyl), [Erich Heckel](/artist/erich-heckel), [Ernst Ludwig Kirchner](/artist/ernst-ludwig-kirchner), and [Karl Schmidt](/artist/karl-schmidt-rottluff) (later Schmidt-Ro​ttluff) as an artist's associatio​n in Dresden in 1905. Its name translates​ as “The Bridge,” a metaphor for art’s purpose of opening passage to new worlds. Closely associated​ with [German Expression​ism](/gene/austrian-and-german-expressionism), Die Brücke broke with the traditions​ of both academic painting and [Post-Impre​ssionism](/gene/post-impressionism) through a use of primitive forms in painting, sculpture,​ and graphic prints, and further, in painting, the use of pure color and gesture. Many members of the group—nota​bly Kirchner and [Max Pechstein](/artist/max-pechstein)—​relocated to Berlin beginning around 1910, where they enjoyed their first critical successes before the group officially​ dissolved in 1913. Through their associatio​n with avant-gard​e publicatio​ns like _Der Sturm_ and alternativ​e exhibition​s throughout​ Germany, Die Brücke forged ties to groups like the Blaue Reiter, Austrian Expression​ists like [Egon Schiele](/artist/egon-schiele) and [Oskar Kokoschka](/artist/oskar-kokoschka),​ and even the Italian [Futurists](/gene/futurism).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ef25b3f2afe090001000ccd",
    "slug": "pre-raphaelites",
    "name": "Pre-Raphaelites",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A movement of English artists—founded in 1848 by [Dante Gabriel Rossetti](/artist/dante-gabriel-rossetti), [John Everett Millais](/artist/sir-john-everett-millais), and [William Holman Hunt](/artist/william-holman-hunt)—who aspired to paint in a style reminiscent of the artists working before [Raphael](/artist/raphael)'s time, during the late medieval and early [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) periods of Italian painting. In contrast to what they saw as the dark, overwrought academic painting of their contemporaries like [Joshua Reynolds](/artist/sir-joshua-reynolds), the Pre-Raphaelites emphasized naturalism and light. Their subject matter was often borrowed from literary sources such as the Bible, William Shakespeare, and John Keats, with underlying moral themes of piety, justice, and family.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f511153d9c50c027b181f8e",
    "slug": "contemporary-academic-realism",
    "name": "Contemporary Academic Realism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Contemporary paintings created in a realistic manner and using traditional techniques to illustrate subjects or scenes so accurately that they closely resemble the observed world. Painters working in this vein often undergo rigorous training in methods that date back centuries, including lessons in anatomy, figure drawing, composition, and techniques of oil paint. Since the 18th century, such techniques have historically been associated with art academies, the most famous of which is the French Académie des Beaux-Arts. The French Académie importantly established a set of acceptable genres in which artists could paint, namely history painting, portraiture, still-life, and landscape. With the rise of abstract art in the 20th century, realist painting ceased to be the dominant mode of art-making, being viewed as less progressive, or even retrograde. Yet such traditional methods have continued to have widespread appeal, and contemporary artists continue to use these more conventional techniques and genres in dynamic new ways.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f564399848eb21efd084377",
    "slug": "american-prints-1880-1950",
    "name": "American Prints 1880–1950",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "In the United States, 1880 to 1950 was a dynamic period of printmaking. By the end of the 19th century, [lithography](https://www.artsy.net/gene/lithograph-1/) gained popularity among artists including [George Bellows](https://www.artsy.net/artist/george-wesley-bellows), [Grant Wood](https://www.artsy.net/artist/grant-wood), and [Thomas Hart Benton](https://www.artsy.net/artist/thomas-hart-benton). Beginning in the 1860s and persisting well into the 1930s, many artists, including [James Abbbott McNeill Whistler](https://www.artsy.net/artist/james-abbott-mcneill-whistler), [Mary Nimmo Moran](https://www.artsy.net/artist/mary-nimmo-moran), [Thomas Moran](https://www.artsy.net/artist/thomas-moran), [Julian Alden Weir](https://www.artsy.net/artist/julian-alden-weir), [Joseph Pennell](https://www.artsy.net/artist/joseph-pennell), and [Edward Hopper](https://www.artsy.net/artist/edward-hopper) embraced the more hand-made techniques of [etching](https://www.artsy.net/gene/etching-slash-engraving) as an antidote to the associations of lithography with industry and mass production. Although not as widely practiced, artists such as [Arthur Wesley Dow](https://www.artsy.net/artist/arthur-wesley-dow) and [Bror Julius Olsson Nordfeldt](https://www.artsy.net/artist/bror-julius-olsson-nordfeldt) experimented with [woodcut](https://www.artsy.net/gene/woodcut-and-linocut) techniques, inspired by the influx of Japanese color woodblock prints imported to the United States. Japanese-American artist Chiura Obata’s “[World Landscape Series: America](https://www.artsy.net/artwork/chiura-obata-setting-sun-on-sacramento-valley-california)” (1930) employed traditional woodcut techniques to render modernist takes on iconic California landscapes.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4f2bf7cb848eb25649191a8e",
    "slug": "time-lapse-photography-and-film",
    "name": "Time-Lapse Photography and Film",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A cinematography technique in which a changing scene is captured in a series of frames shot at set intervals. This technique is most often used to briefly show the progress of changes taking place within a long period of time.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f3edd319c211a00010000d6",
    "slug": "drawing",
    "name": "Drawing",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_“A drawing is simply a line going for a walk.” —[Paul Klee](/artist/paul-klee)_\n\nDrawings take an infinite variety of forms, from the quick sketches of children to the intricate, monumental black-and-white studies by [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) masters like [Leonardo da Vinci](/artist/leonardo-da-vinci). Though their traditional, historical identity is as preparation for final works in other mediums, contemporary practice has seen drawings gain increasing significance as works of art in their own right.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f5fba7e5b534c0001000820",
    "slug": "neo-conceptualism",
    "name": "Neo-Conceptualism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A label applied to art from the 1980s and ’90s that continued [Conceptual Art’s](/gene/conceptual-art) questioning of the art object and the art institution, but with particular focus on the commodification of art and its relation to gender, race, and class. While there is no overriding aesthetic of Neo-Conceptualism, painting and sculpture were generally avoided in favor of photography, video, and film, as well as forms of mass-media such as advertising. Neo-Conceptualism was heavily informed by Postmodernist theory, which generally sought to take apart ideas of societal progress and individual authorship or genius. Within Neo-Conceptualism, one could include [Appropriation](/gene/appropriation) and [Neo-Geo](/gene/neo-geo).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f63b1c170b8e300010001f1",
    "slug": "group-material",
    "name": "Group Material",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "An artist collective active in New York between 1989 and 1996 that was established by Julie Ault, [Tim Rollins](/artist/tim-rollins-and-k-dot-o-s), and [Mundy McLoughlin](/artist/mundy-mcloughlin), among others, and later joined by various other artists, including [Felix Gonzalez-Torres](/artist/felix-gonzalez-torres). Members generally expressed their disenchantment with the contemporary dominance of [Neo-Expressionist](/gene/neo-expressionism) painting and the increasing dependency of artists’ livelihood on the art market (and accordingly, the making of their artworks as easily-consumable commodities). Championing collaborative exhibitions instead of individual artist shows, community engagement over exclusivity, and alternative spaces in lieu of the customary white cube gallery, Group Material asked \"everyone to question the entire culture we have taken for granted.” Group Material’s exhibitions adopted activist stances towards sensitive issues, exemplified most in their AIDS Timeline project, which sought to illustrate the complex political and cultural reception of the disease.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f2c60d5848eb256491a50ff",
    "slug": "light-as-subject",
    "name": "Light as Subject",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“Ideas are to literature what light is to painting.” —Paul Bourget_\n\nThe accurate rendering of light and shadow is one of the most important techniques in the history of Western painting, as well as a continually essential tenet of photography. Fittingly, light itself—its manipulation, its expert rendering, its natural beauty—is often the dominant focus of works of art. Light is a consistent concern in works that foreground [chiaroscuro](/gene/chiaroscuro) techniques, such as those by [Titian](/artist/titian) or [Caravaggio](/artist/michelangelo-merisi-da-caravaggio). [Impressionism](/gene/impressionism) made light a central focus, in particular capturing its changing effects on a landscape. After the invention of photography (sometimes called “light-drawing”), artists still worked towards perfecting the various ways in which the play of light and shadow fall across a face, the city, or the landscape. In the 1960s and '70s, the [Light and Space Movement](/gene/light-and-space-movement) investigated light’s effect on the viewer and the environment; works by [Robert Irwin](/artist/robert-irwin) and [James Turrell](/artist/james-turrell), for example, used light beams and lightboxes as a material in geometric, minimalist installations, extracting everything else from the environment to isolate one's perception of space and light.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ef3a92290c5f60001001505",
    "slug": "modes-of-transportation",
    "name": "Modes of Transportation",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks depicting cars, trains, planes, buses, roads, highways, and other means of transport.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f43b859466a62000100005a",
    "slug": "site-specific-art",
    "name": "Site-Specific Art",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "The idea, which came to prominence in the 1960s, that the physical location and surroundings of an artwork are inseparable from its identity. This concept arose as a result of 1960s artists’ increasing interest in the physical contexts of their artmaking, specifically how different contexts could change (and more importantly, complicate) the experience of an artwork. The best-known example of this type of work is [Richard Serra](/artist/richard-serra)’s _Tilted Arc_, which Serra created specifically for a public plaza in Lower Manhattan in 1979 and that was commissioned by the National Endowment for the Arts. Public outcry against the work was intense, and as a result, the work was removed in 1989. It was never re-installed anywhere else, as Serra had been contracted to create a site-specific work solely for the plaza; accordingly, he argued, “to remove the work is to destroy the work.”",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f50f37bd9c50c027b138413",
    "slug": "contemporary-graphic-realism",
    "name": "Contemporary Graphic Realism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Figurative artworks rendered in a highly graphic style, often featuring reductive shapes, streamlined contours, and flattened planes of color. Works in this category often resemble comic book illustrations, propaganda posters, or photographs altered with the use of a high-contrast filter.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f50f589d9c50c027b13bdc2",
    "slug": "contemporary-traces-of-memory-1",
    "name": "Contemporary Traces of Memory",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A broad grouping of contemporary works that attempt to capture a sense of memory through fading or disintegrating imagery. These works are often, but not always, figurative, and many are inspired by [Gerhard Richter](/artist/gerhard-richter)’s paintings. While the category is primarily comprised of paintings, it also includes highly stylized photography and video works that evoke the passage of time and memories both personal and collective.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f6b3aea94f0c4000100125c",
    "slug": "dusseldorf-school-of-photography",
    "name": "Dusseldorf School of Photography",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A group of artists, including [Andreas Gursky](/artist/andreas-gursky), [Candida Höfer](/artist/candida-hofer), [Thomas Struth](/artist/thomas-struth), [Axel Hütte](/artist/axel-hutte), and [Thomas Ruff](/artist/thomas-ruff), who studied under [Bernd and Hilla Becher](/artist/bernd-and-hilla-becher) at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf (Dusseldorf Art Academy) in the 1970s and rose to prominence in the 1980s. Responding in part to the concerns of the [New Topographics](/gene/new-topographics), these artists’ works are characterized by a sober, documentary quality, “straight on” (and often expansive) [\"topographic\"](/gene/topographic-photography) views of landscapes, a focus on cityscapes or interior environments, and the minimization of the human figure. Since the 1990s, aided by new technical capabilities in digital photography and printing, a hallmark of the group’s photographs has been a combination of dizzying detail and monumental size, giving the works an immersive quality and contributing to a blurring of the boundaries between photography and painting.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f19e3feebab7d00010001e6",
    "slug": "medieval-art",
    "name": "Medieval Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A term encompassing the wide variety of art and architecture produced during the Middle Ages, a prolonged period of economic and social stagnation in Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean that spanned roughly from the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD to the early stages of the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) (1400s). Though art historians debate the specific stylistic and chronological divisions of the Medieval, a generally-accepted sequence identifies the following periods: [Early Medieval Art](/gene/early-medieval-art), [Romanesque Art](/gene/romanesque-art), and Gothic Art.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f3eba372ee99a0001000665",
    "slug": "advertising-and-brands",
    "name": "Advertising and Brands",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that feature advertisements and logos. [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol) is most often associated with this practice. His [Pop Art](/gene/pop-art) paintings featuring Campbell’s soup cans and Coca-Cola bottles are icons of contemporary art history. While Pop Art is most often credited with introducing these types of visuals into art history—and moreover, making them the primary feature of an artwork—the practice dates back to [cubist](/gene/cubism) [collage](/gene/collage) in the 1910s. [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) and [George Braque’s](/artist/georges-braque) papier-collé works commonly included newspaper advertisements. Today, [street artists](/gene/graffiti-slash-street-art) commonly use corporate logos in their work to criticize corporate practices and globalization.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f4c447c31e1c50001000cb5",
    "slug": "precisionism",
    "name": "Precisionism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A term coined in 1927 by MoMA’s first director Alfred H. Barr Jr. to describe American artists of the 1920s who depicted American architecture, industry, and landscapes in highly precise but simplified lines and forms. Although influenced by [Cubism](/gene/cubism) and its various European offshoots (such as [Futurism](/gene/futurism) and [Purism](/gene/purism)), the Precisionists were distinctly American in their focus on regional imagery like skyscrapers, suspension bridges, and mills. Some of the best-known artists understood as Precisionist are [Charles Sheeler](/artist/charles-sheeler), [Charles Demuth](/artist/charles-demuth), and [Georgia O'Keeffe](/artist/georgia-okeeffe). Historically, the Precisionists' emphasis on American building projects and industry has been seen as a reflection of 1920s and ‘30s American isolationism and consequently, the country’s desire to define its unique national identity.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f4d8d4c848eb2451a007acf",
    "slug": "piles-slash-stacks",
    "name": "Piles/Stacks",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks that are partly or entirely piled or stacked. In the 20th century, artists such as [Donald Judd](/artist/donald-judd), [Joseph Beuys](/artist/joseph-beuys), [Robert Smithson](/artist/robert-smithson), [Robert Morris](/artist/robert-morris), and [Felix Gonzalez-Torres](/artist/felix-gonzalez-torres) created piled or stacked works. Broadly speaking, this technique questioned the grandeur or hierarchical organization of sculpture, instead espousing ideas of collaboration and participation. Gonzalez-Torres’ highly influential works, for example, were composed of paper or pieces of candy that visitors were invited to take with them.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f6cc3e5a81ea40001000b61",
    "slug": "artist-as-ethnographer",
    "name": "Artist as Ethnographer",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks in which the characteristics or customs of cultural groups are described, recorded, or given order. Historically, ethnographic projects (predominantly photographic) have focused on the systematic identification of a society’s types—an iconic work being [August Sander](/artist/august-sander)'s \"People of the Twentieth Century\" (roughly 1927-1964). However, in contemporary art, artists may seek to complicate such a visual catalogue of societal types in order to reflect the seemingly infinite differences between people and their experiences.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ef3a93834c5a800010010ff",
    "slug": "industry",
    "name": "Industry",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks depicting sites of industry and manufacturing, such as factories.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ef3a90ec4df540001001238",
    "slug": "machines",
    "name": "Machines",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks depicting mechanical apparatuses, real or imagined. This includes scientific instruments, [modes of transportation](/gene/modes-of-transportation), computers, and other digital products.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f2c597f8d53d100010007c5",
    "slug": "sculpture-based-photography",
    "name": "Sculpture-Based Photography",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Photographs of a sculpture—or a more complex installation—that has been built primarily for the purpose of being photographed and most often does not exist outside of the documentation. [Thomas Demand](/artist/thomas-demand)’s photographs of highly-realistic \"rooms\" composed of paper are arguably the best-known examples of this type of work. Sculpture-based photography is related to [Staged Photography](/gene/staged-photography) and [Performance](/gene/performance-art), as well as [Trompe l'oeil](/gene/trompe-loeil).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f147e28e79a750001000317",
    "slug": "rococo-art-and-design",
    "name": "Rococo Art and Design",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Derived from the French word rocaille (meaning “rock-work”) and Italian borocco (“Baroque”), Rococo was a highly ornamented and florid style popular in 18th-century Europe, especially in France. It was characterized by pastel colors, sinuous curves, and asymmetrical patterns based on flowers, vines, corals and seashells. Reacting against the [Baroque](/gene/baroque) style, Rococo artists favored more intimate mythological scenes, idyllic pastoral imagery, and lighthearted depictions of pleasure-seeking. Although rejected by the Neoclassicists, the style enjoyed periods of renewed interest, such as during Rococo Revival in the mid-19th century.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f343445848eb2425800a761",
    "slug": "group-of-objects",
    "name": "Group of Objects",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Two-dimensional artworks depicting multiple objects whose arrangement does not conform to compositional strategies typical of traditional [still lifes](/gene/still-life).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f10bd25848eb2462c234acd",
    "slug": "new-leipzig-school",
    "name": "New Leipzig School",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A contested term referring to the generation of artists that studied at the Art Academy in Leipzig, Germany, and emerged during the post-reunification climate in the 1990s. Championed by dealer Gerd Harry Lybke, these artists can be loosely group together by a dedication to technical skill and figuration to depict the visual, economic, and social contrasts within the former East. [Neo Rauch](/artist/neo-rauch) is one of the most famous artists to emerge from the school; his highly skilled, enigmatic scenes oppose the clear narrative or message dictated by the official style of [Socialist Realism](/gene/socialist-realism).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f26b9dd173af10001000328",
    "slug": "typologies",
    "name": "Typologies",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks or series of artworks illustrating a classification system or set of types. Two of the best known examples are [August Sander](/artist/august-sander)'s \"People of the Twentieth Century\" (c. 1927-1964) and [Bernd and Hilla Becher](/artist/bernd-and-hilla-becher)'s \"typologies\" (1960s onward). Sander's series presented a selection of types of people—such as farmers, factory workers, socialists, and actors—in the desire to create a complete cross-section of German society. The Becher's \"typologies\" are most often grids of black-and-white photographs in which each picture in the grid is a different example of a type of industrial building or structure, such as water towers, blast furnaces, or gas tanks.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f26f36d70562c0001000170",
    "slug": "northern-renaissance",
    "name": "Northern Renaissance",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Between 1450 and 1550, Northern European artists who had traveled to Italy—mostly to learn the techniques of perspective and proportion—brought ideas from the [Italian Renaissance](/gene/high-renaissance) home with them, namely to Germany and the Netherlands. German artist [Albrecht Dürer](/artist/albrecht-durer) (1471–1528), for example, went to Italy twice and subsequently, his concepts were spread to his contemporaries through his prints and his writings. Flemish artists like Jan Gossaert and Jan van Scorel, who were similarly influenced by trips to Italy, also helped to disseminate Renaissance aesthetic values in the north.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f32c26d848eb24b183470d1",
    "slug": "open-form",
    "name": "Open Form",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Sculpture or design that is not a solid mass but that literally has openings within it, where lines and planes often replace solid volumes or enclosing surfaces and thus the open (negative) space becomes a major component of the work. [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso)'s Guitar assemblages of 1912 were arguably the beginning of this type of sculpture (even though with these works, the artist was attempting to move outside of sculpture altogether). In the later part of the 20th century, Picasso, [Alexander Calder](/artist/alexander-calder), and [Julio Gonzalez](/artist/julio-gonzalez) all pioneered a highly simplified open-form sculpture using wire.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f3ab350acbecf0001000638",
    "slug": "early-medieval-art",
    "name": "Early Medieval Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "Anglo-Saxon and Germanic art and architecture created between the fourth century and 1050 AD, a large part of which was also related to Early Christian and [Byzantine](/gene/byzantine) work of the Eastern Mediterranean. During this period, artistic objects were commissioned by wealthy oligarchs or powerful church leaders for specific social and religious rituals.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f56d6ef5cdd0d00010000bb",
    "slug": "mono-ha",
    "name": "Mono-ha",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Mono-ha, meaning \"School of Things\" in Japanese, is an aesthetic theory originating in Japan in the 1960s that rejected values of Western modern art, specifically the importance it placed on the discrete art object created by a unique, individual artist. Korean artist [Lee Ufan](/artist/lee-ufan) popularized the movement through his writings, proposing instead that objects acquire meaning and are given shape through space and location. In turn, specific locations gain meaning through the objects situated in them.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f50f50bd9c50c027b13af24",
    "slug": "contemporary-surrealistic",
    "name": "Contemporary Surrealistic",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Contemporary artists, such as [Glenn Brown](https://www.artsy.net/artist/glenn-brown) and [Inka Essenhigh](https://www.artsy.net/artist/inka-essenhigh), continue the legacy of [Surrealism](https://www.artsy.net/gene/surrealism), creating works that draw upon psychoanalysis, free-association, dreams, and the unconscious. A cross-disciplinary movement lasting from 1924 to roughly 1945, Surrealism spanned painting, sculpture, photography, poetry, and film—and today’s heirs of this art historical movement similarly work across media. For example, Canadian contemporary artist [Marcel Dzama](https://www.artsy.net/artist/marcel-dzama) produces set designs for art film and ballet that transplant the viewer into a dark and fantastical universe; and [Kim Keever](https://www.artsy.net/artist/kim-keever) takes swirling photographs that capture the element of chance. Not bound to a specific style, like their predecessors, contemporary surrealistic artists employ a wide variety of techniques to illustrate the fantastical mind of the artist.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f5fba5b140dba000100095c",
    "slug": "social-action",
    "name": "Social Action",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Also called Social Practice, contemporary artworks that take or encourage action around social or political issues, from the global financial crisis to immigration and global warming. Works are often in non-traditional mediums, such as posters, or take the form of participatory events led by collectives rather than single artists. The action can take various forms, from discussions or a general heightened awareness to practical solutions to the issue at hand.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f99787ba5c03d0001000df0",
    "slug": "violence",
    "name": "Violence",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that address acts of physical, psychological or sexual violence.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f99da92d8f65a0001000732",
    "slug": "architecture-1",
    "name": "Architecture",
    "family": "Artistic Disciplines",
    "description": "A general category for buildings and monuments. While today, all buildings are generally considered forms of architecture, what elevated the mere “building” to the level of “architecture” historically has been the subject of thousands of years of debate. Vitruvius, for one, wrote in the 1st Century BC that good architecture must be structurally sound, fulfill its function, and be beautiful, thereby surpassing the human need for mere shelter. Given architecture’s ubiquity in our lives, it is no surprise that artists throughout the ages have also taken it as their [subject matter](https://artsy.net/gene/architecture-in-art) in countless paintings, photographs, and other mediums.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "500d93c1d1ecdc00020011f9",
    "slug": "animal-portrait",
    "name": "Animal Portrait",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A category for artworks that capture the likeness of animals. These images might closely resemble human portraits in style, but with animals in the place of human subjects.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fecd5cc7e97d80001000a1c",
    "slug": "science",
    "name": "Science",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“Study the science of art. Study the art of science. Develop your senses—especially learn how to see. Realize that everything connects to everything else.” —[Leonardo da Vinci](/artist/leonardo-da-vinci)_\n\nArtworks that address scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, physics, neuroscience, and genetics, whether through a conceptual investigation or through the concrete depiction of scientific subject matter, like laboratories or microscopic imagery.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fa83f4f717b4a000100090f",
    "slug": "website",
    "name": "Website",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A category for artworks that consist of code and a user experience on a web browser. While art practices on the web are dispersed and hard to pin down, the website as a platform for art-making was recognized in the early-90s. Since then, websites have been used to create a wide array of artworks, ranging from collectible websites where visitors play with objects rendered digitally, to those that take malfunctioning software as a starting point. Other websites present archives of images or objects, present a set of data interactively, or engage viewers with 3D renderings and animations. A more activist body of work deals with issues of surveillance, censorship and access to information. An ongoing issue with websites, embraced by some net artists, is their rapid obsolesce--at times to the point of no longer functioning on newer browsers. In order to preserve the history of the medium, [Rhizome's ArtBase](http://rhizome.org/artbase/) consists of an extensive database of web artworks and the corresponding original code.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5006ed1c6bf62a0002000c02",
    "slug": "irregular-linear-forms",
    "name": "Irregular Linear Forms",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "A term for artworks that emphasize the use of mostly straight lines and shapes, though drawn without the help of a straight-edge. These lines often reveal the gesture of the artist’s hand making them, and thus may appear blurred, bumpy, or imperfect, as in the work of [Paul Klee](/artist/paul-klee) or [Mark Rothko](/artist/mark-rothko).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f99ca4293ab4b0001000204",
    "slug": "photographs-of-surfaces",
    "name": "Photographs of Surfaces",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_\"The camera should be used for a recording of life, for rendering the very substance and quintessence of the thing itself, whether it be polished steel or palpitating flesh.” —[Edward Weston](/artist/edward-weston)_\n\nSteel, flesh, billboards, or boulders—photograph anything close-up enough and the world of objects morphs into a textured surface. Weston was only one of many photographers to exploit the camera’s capacity to fill the frame with painterly passages. [Aaron Siskind](/artist/aaron-siskind)'s black-and-white photographs of peeling paint on walls, for example, resemble the allover compositions of [Abstract Expressionist](/gene/abstract-expressionism) painting and bring surfaces—paradoxically—into high relief.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fad88228e013f00010019cd",
    "slug": "shadows",
    "name": "Shadows",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Famed theorist and statesman Edmund Burke once said, \"Poetry is the art of substantiating shadows, and of lending existence to nothing.\" Working in different eras and mediums, artists have attempted to capture this most elusive of visual phenomena: the shadow. These artworks feature images of shadows, either as subject matter or formal elements. Especially in photography, patterned shadows are used to create a visual effect. (For the use of dramatic shading to create the illusion of volumes in space, see [Chiaroscuro](/gene/chiaroscuro).)",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fda524e748093000100081c",
    "slug": "new-american-color-photography",
    "name": "New American Color Photography",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "“Perfectly boring,” wrote the _New York Times_’ Hilton Kramer of [William Eggleston](/artist/william-eggleston)’s exhibition at The Museum of Modern Art in 1976—the first major museum exhibition of color photography. What he (and the many other critics who panned the show) did not anticipate was that Eggleston's exhibition would be the watershed moment for color photography. Alongside Eggleston in the late 1960s and ’70s, [Joel Sternfeld](/artist/joel-sternfeld), [Stephen Shore](/artist/stephen-shore), [Richard Misrach](/artist/richard-misrach), and a host of American photographers exploded the boundaries of photography through the use of color. After the fact, these artists were grouped by the term New American Color Photography; in concert with their use of color, these artists focused on contemporary life, presenting raw portraits of suburbia and critiques of “The American dream.”",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4ffbf084848eb276e906ca0a",
    "slug": "korea",
    "name": "Korea",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Korea.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5006ec468f02fc0002000afa",
    "slug": "contemporary-vintage-photography",
    "name": "Contemporary Vintage Photography",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_\"My plates are horribly flawed, but of course it's the flaws I like.” —[Sally Mann](/artist/sally-mann)_\n\nAgainst the tide of perfection and eye-popping colors made possible by digital photography, many contemporary photographers have looked to the aesthetics of the past, embracing everything from the soft warmth of a sepia-toned print to the darkroom mishaps and light-spots that used to result from clunky analogue cameras. Artists in this vein employ outdated, labor-intensive techniques, digitally introduce fading, or manually produce the wear-and-tear of vintage photographs—all by way of eschewing the crystal clarity and crisp lighting of much of today's photography.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "502d10e5457f0100020006b5",
    "slug": "south-asia",
    "name": "South Asia",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in South Asia, which includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4f9974d5ebe8a20001000d66",
    "slug": "snapshot-aesthetic",
    "name": "Snapshot Aesthetic",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_“I am a passionate lover of the snapshot, because of all photographic images it comes closest to truth […] The snapshooter's […] pictures have an apparent disorder and imperfection, which is exactly their appeal and their style. The picture isn't straight. It isn't done well. It isn't composed. It isn't thought out. And out of this imbalance, and out of this not knowing, and out of this real innocence toward the medium comes an enormous vitality and expression of life.\" —[Lisette Model](/artist/lisette-model)_  \n\nIn the 1940s, Model was one of the first artists to defend snapshots—photographs that are (or appear) uncomposed, loose, or impulsive—as important and powerful images. By the 1960s, the snapshot had come to be a popular art form, in particular through the gritty, spontaneous street photography of [Diane Arbus](/artist/diane-arbus) (a student of Model's), [Lee Friedlander](/artist/lee-friedlander), and [Garry Winogrand](/artist/garry-winogrand). More recently, artists like [Nan Goldin](/artist/nan-goldin) and [Wolfgang Tillmans](/artist/wolfgang-tillmans) have used what is now often called “the snapshot aesthetic” to capture their lives in a photo-diaristic manner, with a pronounced frankness and sense of familiarity. [Juergen Teller](/artist/juergen-teller) and [Terry Richardson](/artist/terry-richardson) have further mainstreamed the style via their fashion photography.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fec76fd81f8f10001002004",
    "slug": "leisure",
    "name": "Leisure",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Spanning virtually all time periods and cultural traditions, depictions of leisure have enjoyed varying degrees of popularity and veneration in art. Several artifacts from ancient Egypt depict royal subjects at leisure, while later, the more humanized divine subjects of Greek and Roman mythology were often depicted in scenes of leisure or play, notably on a number of Greek ceramics. [Christian art](/gene/christian-art) focused mainly on historical subjects and pious narratives, and as such, scenes of ordinary people at leisure did not become common in the west again until the 17th and 18th centuries, as secular art gained a foothold. Leisure was a central focus of 18th-century [Rococo](/gene/rococo) painters such as [Jean-Honoré Fragonard](/artist/jean-honore-fragonard); the 19th century saw leisure presented in countless different ways, from Édouard Manet’s suggestive [_Luncheon on the Grass_](/artwork/edouard-manet-luncheon-on-the-grass-le-dejeuner-sur-lherbe) to Georges Seurat’s masterwork [A Sunday on La Grande Jatte](/artwork/georges-seurat-a-sunday-on-la-grande-jatte).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f997473690f950001000cda",
    "slug": "photomontage",
    "name": "Photomontage",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Russian artist [Varvara Stepanova](/artist/varvara-fedorovna-stepanova) defined photomontage in 1928 as “the assemblage of the expressive elements from individual photographs.” A technique best known for its close ties to [Dada](/gene/dada), photomontage is a type of collage in which photographs (either taken by the artist or sourced from mass media) are assembled into a single composition. The images may be physically or digitally combined and, in particular in early compositions, may contain text or abstract shapes. During its development in the early 1920s, bragging rights for the invention of photomontage were hotly contested, often in manifestoes, with Dadaists [Hannah Höch](/artist/hannah-hoch), [Raoul Hausmann](/artist/raoul-hausmann), and [John Heartfield](/artist/john-heartfield) in Germany, and [Alexander Rodchenko](/artist/alexander-rodchenko) (Stepanova's husband) in Russia emerging as the foremost names associated with the technique. Although its Dada connotations are still strong, the technique continues to offer a vital visual language to such contemporary artists as [John Stezaker](/artist/john-stezaker).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "500f1415c668770002001473",
    "slug": "related-to-games",
    "name": "Related to Games",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“That little game that men have always played with one another.” —[Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp), answering the question, “What is art?”_\n\nDuchamp, a [Dada](/gene/dada) artist, once took a hiatus from art to pursue a career as a professional chess player, a move that reflected not only his interests, but also his conviction of how art is made: a combination of chance and strategy while outwitting your opponent one move at a time. From the [Surrealists](/gene/surrealism)’ “exquisite corpse”—in which participants added to a composition in sequence, not knowing what others had drawn—to artist collective [JODI](/artist/jodi)’s hacked and reconfigured versions of popular video games, many artworks embrace the unexpected product that can result from infinite play within finite parameters. Such works take their inspiration from the structure and rules of games, drawing on everything from children’s, card, and board games, to games of logic and strategy, to computer and video games.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50243b365d01260002000d61",
    "slug": "printed-matter",
    "name": "Printed Matter",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_“A newspaper that you're not reading can be used for anything.” —[Robert Rauschenberg](/artist/robert-rauschenberg)_\n\nFrom scrapbooks to baseball card collections, ticket stubs saved and newspaper articles clipped, printed matter carries not only important information, but often personal significance. For artists, these cultural ephemera are also ripe with material possibilities: [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) used bits of newspaper as raw material in his iconic [Still-life with Chair Caning](artwork/pablo-picasso-still-life-with-chair-caning). Contemporary artist [Fred Tomaselli](/artist/fred-tomaselli) uses the _New York Times_ in several of his collages, showing that “all the news that’s fit to print” might also be fit for art making.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5025764c1f250900020006b6",
    "slug": "figures-of-the-art-world",
    "name": "Figures of the Art World",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Where there’s art there are people: those who make, transport, buy, sell, hang, restore, study, or spurn it. These people make up “the art world,” as amorphous as it may be. For some, it is an exclusive party or a venerable club; for others, a workplace, or still yet, an all-inclusive sociological study. For artists, it is often all these and more: an endless source of subject matter. (See also [Spaces of the Art World](/gene/spaces-of-the-art-world) and [Art Market Critique](/gene/the-art-market).)",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "502e5da835f55400020003c9",
    "slug": "aboriginal-art",
    "name": "Aboriginal Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "Aboriginal Art refers to art created by the indigenous peoples of Australia. Though incredibly diverse across regions and time periods, there are two generally recognized types of Aboriginal art: figurative and geometric (though these two styles can often be combined). These works in certain contexts carry understood meanings—geometric designs, for example, are variously believed to have been imparted by ancestors. The artist plays a significant role in traditional Aboriginal society, as artworks are seen as sacred forms of religious knowledge. What is widely understood as Contemporary Aboriginal Art has its roots in an art teacher named Geoffrey Bardon, who in 1971 gave art materials to a group of Aboriginal men in Papunya; when it sparked their interest, he worked with 11 men to form a cooperative, the Papunya Tula Artists, which has since grown to include 60 artists nationwide. Known for its complex abstractions of dots and lines in earth tones, Contemporary Aboriginal is arguably the most significant strand of Australian art today.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4fa2e73bb8d4120001001302",
    "slug": "christian-art-and-architecture",
    "name": "Christian Art and Architecture",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "Christian Art and Architecture is a general category for artworks and buildings produced for religious purposes, primarily the veneration of [Christ](/tag/jesus-christ) and his teachings, the [Virgin Mary](/tag/the-virgin-mary), and the [saints](/gene/saints). As the ideas and practices of Christianity have changed and developed over the past nearly two thousand years, so too has the artistic expression surrounding it. Early Christian art developed from the fourth to sixth centuries to address the demands of a growing Christian population. Its formation was marked by the construction of the original basilica of Saint Peter in Rome between 324 and 329 CE. Over a millennium later, this site of pilgrimage was rebuilt to reflect the growing power of the papacy, who commissioned the design from [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) and [Baroque](/gene/baroque) masterminds like [Donato Bramante](/artist/donato-bramante), [Michelangelo Buonarroti](/artist/michelangelo-buonarroti), and [Gian Lorenzo Bernini](/artist/gian-lorenzo-bernini). Perhaps art history’s most enduring [patron](/article/the-art-genome-project-from-mesopotamia-to-1980s-new-york-what-art-history-owes-to-its-patrons), the Church has also sponsored works by modern artists and architects, from [Auguste Rodin](/artist/auguste-rodin) to [Le Corbusier](/artist/le-corbusier), that continue to demonstrate the variety of styles and iconographies that have developed during Christianity’s long history.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fbabaa5be12d400010007c4",
    "slug": "figurative-painting",
    "name": "Figurative Painting",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Paintings that represent recognizable things in the visible world, as opposed to abstract painting. The variety of approaches to figurative painting is enormous, and almost as diverse as the history of art itself. The two poles are, essentially, stylistic: [Photorealism](/gene/photorealistic) (like that of [Chuck Close](/artist/chuck-close)) at one extreme, and nearly abstract and unrecognizable figuration (like [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso)'s Analytic [Cubism](/gene/cubism)) at the other. While for much of the 20th century figurative painting was largely ignored by the Western avant-garde, the course changed with the 1980s emergence of figurative painters like [Anselm Kiefer](/artist/anselm-kiefer), [Jean-Michel Basquiat](/artist/jean-michel-basquiat), and [David Salle](/artist/david-salle); this renewed interest in turn shed light on figurative painters who had long been working in the same vein, from [Lucian Freud](/artist/lucian-freud) and [Alice Neel](/artist/alice-neel) to [Alex Katz](/artist/alex-katz), [Gerhard Richter](/artist/gerhard-richter), and countless others. Today, painters like [John Currin](/artist/john-currin), [Kehinde Wiley](/artist/kehinde-wiley), [Jenny Saville](/artist/jenny-saville), and [Elizabeth Peyton](/artist/elizabeth-peyton) represent the various approaches to figurative work.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "502d192805663900020007f2",
    "slug": "central-asia",
    "name": "Central Asia",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Central Asia, which includes Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "501adc0dd698870002000157",
    "slug": "trompe-loeil",
    "name": "Trompe l’oeil",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_\"Everything we see hides another thing; we always want to see what is hidden by what we see.\" —[René Magritte](/artist/rene-magritte)_ \n\nTranslating literally from French as to deceive or trick the eye, trompe l'oeil describes works whose subjects are presented so realistically that they make viewers wonder whether they are actually real. The concept dates back to the ancient Greeks who developed illusionistic wall painting (depicting marble columns or open windows) to make interiors appear larger.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f9977f188a2320001000d2d",
    "slug": "focus-on-the-social-margins",
    "name": "Focus on the Social Margins",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_\"I really believe there are things which nobody would see unless I photographed them.\" —[Diane Arbus](/artist/diane-arbus)_\n\nWorks that take social difference as their theme, documenting individuals or groups deemed to be marginal by society. Like Jacob A. Riis's seminal social documentary book _How the Other Half Lives_, which captured immigrants and poor people with compassionate directness, or [Honoré Daumier](/artist/honore-daumier)'s political prints of 19th-century France's disenfranchised, such works may destabilize our perception of what is \"mainstream\" or central to a culture, versus what is \"different\" or peripheral. Some of the most famous photographers of the past century, like Arbus and [Nan Goldin](/artist/nan-goldin), have drawn attention to racial, ethnic, or religious minorities, the disabled, bohemians, and individuals marginalized due to their sexual orientation.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fad87d18e013f00010019ca",
    "slug": "shallow-depth-of-field",
    "name": "Shallow Depth of Field",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_\"Every period has its own optical focus.\" —Laszlo Moholy-Nagy_\n\n \n\nUsing a shallow depth of field in photography results in images in which not all fields (fore-, middle-, and background) are in focus. In a portrait, for example, a sitter might be sharp against a blurred background. This effect may be achieved in analogue photography by adjusting the focus on the camera lens, or in digital photography by incorporating blur effects in post-production.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fad88ee8e013f00010019d7",
    "slug": "aerial-view",
    "name": "Aerial View",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Peril and perseverance have long been the photographer's purview, perhaps to most dizzying effect in aerial photography. For the first aerial photograph in 1858, French photographer [Félix Nadar](/artist/felix-nadar) had to solve the problem of the existing \"wet plate\" technology for photographs, which required processing within 20 minutes; he built a portable dark-room and, with it, flew over rural France in a hot air balloon. Luckily for today's photographers, airplanes, helicopters, and tall towers offer ample (and safer) opportunity to photograph the ground below. But the aerial view has continued to evince excitement: In 1928 [Laszlo-Moholy Nagy](/artist/laszlo-moholy-nagy) produced an iconic image of the ground from Berlin's Radio Tower, and contemporary Italian photographer [Olivo Barbieri](/artist/olivo-barbieri) takes the bird's eye view to new heights.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5006ea727945430002000a46",
    "slug": "curvilinear-forms",
    "name": "Curvilinear Forms",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Objects characterized by curving lines and shapes, such as arcs or circles. Throughout history the circle has often been viewed as a symbol of perfection and completion, while the S-curve, named after the mathematical function from which it results, has been considered supremely beautiful, its gentle flow forming the basis of poses for figures since the Classical period. The 18th century English painter [William Hogarth](/artist/william-hogarth) developed an aesthetic theory around this so-called “Line of Beauty”, declaring it the liveliest of shapes, and included a depiction of it, carved in wood, in his self portrait of 1745. Important instances of curvilinear forms in the modern period include Brazilian architect [Oscar Niemeyer'](/artist/oscar-niemeyer)s sensuously curved futuristic buildings cast in concrete, and Frank Lloyd Wright's Solomon R. Guggenheim museum building in New York (1943), which spirals upward and outward from the base. While regular curvilinear forms appear to be created with mathematical precision, irregular ones may appear shaky, organic, or even biomorphic.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5006eec215cbf00002000bc5",
    "slug": "stained-glass-effect",
    "name": "Stained Glass Effect",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "The use of thick, dark lines to enclose planes of vivid color. This technique is most closely associated with Cloisonnism, a style of painting that emerged with [Post-Impressionism](/gene/post-impressionism) in the 1880s, most prominently in the work of [Émile Bernard](/artist/emile-bernard) and [Paul Gauguin](/artist/paul-gauguin). At this time the style was both radical and nostalgic—it brought together influences from both contemporary Japanese prints as well as Gothic art and architecture, abstracting three-dimensional forms to near-decorative, flat shapes. Its name derives from the historic “cloisonné” enameling technique, in which bands of metal are used to outline areas of uniform color. Today, [Julian Opie](/artist/julian-opie) exploits the potential of thick contour lines to create simplified, graphic compositions.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50258685db291000020008cd",
    "slug": "concrete-art",
    "name": "Concrete Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A term coined by Dutch artist and architect [Theo van Doesburg](/artist/theo-van-doesburg) in 1930 to describe abstract art based on mathematic or scientific principles, the visual expression of which was an emphasis on planes and color. Concrete Art has since been associated with other schools of abstraction that spurned expression or gesture, such as the [Bauhaus](/gene/bauhaus) and [Constructivism](/gene/constructivism). Later to be called \"cold abstraction,\" this style was often criticized for its transcendental bent and failure to confront the world. [Lucio Fontana](/artist/lucio-fontana), for example, though associated briefly with the Italian Movimento Arte Concreta (M.A.C.), ultimately found his practice to be at odds with the \"sterile and empty\" formalism of this tendency. A central concept in much of Concrete Art was the idea of “real space,” which was further explored in its Latin American iterations like Arte Concreto-Invención, Arte Madí and the Grupo Neoconcreto. After flourishing for some 20 years, by the 1950s the cerebral concerns of this art—its exploration of pure form and universal principles—were being eclipsed by the more expressive gestural abstraction coming out of the [New York School](/gene/new-york-school) and the [School of Paris](/gene/post-world-war-ii-school-of-paris).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50356574ab74980002000006",
    "slug": "modern-and-impressionist-art",
    "name": "Modern and Impressionist Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_\"Most painting in the European tradition was painting the mask. Modern art rejected all that. Our subject matter was the person behind the mask.\" —[Robert Motherwell](/artist/robert-motherwell)_\n\nWhat is Modern art? Today, most agree that it refers to works made from the rise of [Impressionism](/gene/impressionism) (1880s) until roughly the 1960s. Past these boundaries, defining \"the Modern\" raises a host of (often fierce) debates—over whether it \"began\" with [Gustave Courbet](/artist/gustave-courbet) or [Édouard Manet](/artist/edouard-manet) or [Paul Cézanne](/artist/paul-cezanne) or [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) (or even [J.M.W. Turner](/artist/joseph-mallord-william-turner) or [Jacques-Louis David](/artist/jacques-louis-david)); whether it includes the supposed \"anti-Modern\" or \"anti-aesthetic\" movements of the mid 20th century; whether it includes figurative painting or just abstract works; and whether it is a label that can be applied to non-Western art.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5006eae315cbf00002000aa9",
    "slug": "irregular-curvilinear-forms",
    "name": "Irregular Curvilinear Forms",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Works featuring rounded [geometric](/gene/geometric) forms (such as circles, ellipses, parabolas, and curves) that are executed with an irregular edge or line. This is most often meant to pronounce the presence of the artist’s hand and to distance the work’s creation from an automated or mechanical process.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5006ef738769880002000d9e",
    "slug": "pulled-scraped-and-scratched",
    "name": "Pulled, Scraped, and Scratched",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artwork that are made with paint that has been pulled or scraped across a two-dimensional support, or the technique of scratching or incising the surface. Modern and contemporary artists such as [Willem de Kooning](/artist/willem-de-kooning), [Gerhard Richter](/artist/gerhard-richter), and [Leon Golub](/artist/leon-golub) are frequently associated with these techniques, as well as a host of contemporary artists influenced by their work.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fc7d6627f318a0001001861",
    "slug": "the-abject",
    "name": "The Abject",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A term developed by feminist philosopher Julia Kristeva in her seminal essay \"Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection\" (1982), which explored the human reaction to the fragmented, decayed, or impure human body. Applied to works that reference functions or aspects of the body that are deemed impure or taboo—like wounds, illness, bodily fluids, and death. According to Kristeva, the corpse is the ultimate image of the abject, as it forces us to acknowledge the inevitable corruption of our own bodies.  “[The corpse] is death infecting life,\" she explains. \"Imaginary uncanniness and real threat, it beckons to us and ends up engulfing us.”",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f79f19a3e29b2000100007e",
    "slug": "american-sculpture-1830-1950",
    "name": "American Sculpture 1830–1950",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A general category that comprises sculptures created by American artists between 1830 and 1950.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4f724d8f13d4810001000399",
    "slug": "the-new-fauves",
    "name": "The New Fauves",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Die Neuen Wilden (“The New Fauves”) is one of many contested terms in the thorny artistic landscape of 1980s Germany. It is used to refer to a group of artists—including [Albert Oehlen](/artist/albert-oehlen) and [Martin Kippenberger ](/artist/martin-kippenberger)in Dusseldorf and the Mülheimer Freiheit group in Cologne—who sought to break with both the dominant [Minimalist](/gene/minimalism) and [Conceptualist](/gene/conceptual-art) tendencies of 1970s art, as well as the German art world’s “established figures,” such as [Georg Baselitz](/artist/georg-baselitz), [Anselm Kiefer](/artist/anselm-kiefer), [Sigmar Polke](/artist/sigmar-polke), and [Gerhard Richter](/artist/gerhard-richter). While Oehlen, Kippenberger, and the Freiheit group had widely varied concerns and approaches, these artists are often noted for their relationship to the New Wave and punk scenes, along with their brash attitudes that attacked bourgeois values and the decade’s perceived political apathy. Importantly, the prevalence of figuration and gestural brushwork has led many to label these works [Neo-Expressionist](/gene/neo-expressionism) in style. While Die Neuen Wilden is most closely associated with the neighboring cities of Dusseldorf and Cologne, the term has also been applied to artists throughout [Germany and Austria](/gene/germany-and-austria).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f99d4d440d3cf00010004b3",
    "slug": "extreme-angle",
    "name": "Extreme Angle",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "_Contradictions of perspective... Points of view impossible to achieve in drawing and painting. Foreshortenings with a strong distortion of the objects, with a crude handling of matter. Moments altogether new, never seen before…\" —[Alexander Rodchenko](/artist/alexander-rodchenko)_\n\nIn the 1920s, photographers flaunted the many techniques that lent the camera its unique capacity to capture the modern world. One such technique was particularly striking, turning the world on its head, sometimes literally: the extreme angle. Taken upside-down, from the ground up (what Rodchenko, himself a pioneer of experimental photography, called a \"worm's eye view\"), from the sky (aerial views or \"bird's eye views\"), tilted (sometimes called the \"Batman angle\"), or rotated, photographs can enable us to see the world anew. Such techniques have also been employed—both before and after the advent of photography—by painters, in particular contemporary artists who use photographic source material to show aspects of everyday life from unexpected viewpoints. [Jenny Saville](/artist/jenny-saville), for example, depicts the female figure up-close and from beneath, disorienting the viewer, while [Marilyn Minter](/artist/marilyn-minter) zooms in on individual body parts and accessories from a tilted angle, producing glamorous, off-kilter images with photorealistic precision.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4feda08b7e97d80001001ad2",
    "slug": "math",
    "name": "Math",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_\"The chief forms of beauty are order and symmetry and definiteness, which the mathematical sciences demonstrate in a special degree.\" —Aristotle_\n\nArtworks that depict mathematical principles, systems, or operations, or use them as a point of departure. Areas of exploration include numerical sequences, geometric structures, and algorithmic or rule-based compositional strategies.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4feda308f63cd20001001c0e",
    "slug": "watercolor",
    "name": "Watercolor",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Watercolor painting involves the mixture of pigment, water, and an adhesive agent, typically applied to paper but sometimes silk or vellum. Variations on this practice have existed around the world, with early instances including ancient Egyptian papyrus painting, ancient Chinese silk painting, and medieval manuscripts. Greater standardization in watercolor production was furthered by the wide distribution of a list of usable pigments in 17th-century England and the invention of portable watercolor boxes in the early 18th century. Old Masters like [Albrecht Dürer](/artist/albrecht-durer) and [Sir Anthony Van Dyck](/artist/sir-anthony-van-dyck) used the medium primarily for landscapes, though often as a delicate accent in ink and chalk drawings. Watercolor gained its strongest standing in the United Kingdom, with watercolorists gaining admission to the Royal Academy by the end of the 18th century and [J. M. W. Turner](/artist/joseph-mallord-william-turner) adopting it as a preferred medium. While less admired in continental Europe, the signature Impressionist styles of [Paul Cézanne](/artist/paul-cezanne) and [Camille Pissarro](/artist/camille-pissarro) were both greatly indebted to the medium. In the 20th century, watercolor was widely used by the [Fauvists](/gene/fauvism) and early abstractionists like [Wassily Kandinsky](/artist/wassily-kandinsky) and [Paul Klee](/artist/paul-klee), and then later in figurative painting by the likes of [David Hockney](/artist/david-hockney) and [Francesco Clemente](/artist/francesco-clemente).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4feda2f2bccdfe0001001e82",
    "slug": "relief",
    "name": "Relief",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A type of [sculpture](/gene/sculpture) in which images or forms project out from a flat surface. The depth of imagery in a relief is evaluated as shallow or high‚ the latter indicating imagery that projects out from the surface far enough to be nearly three-dimensional. Two of the most famous historical reliefs are [Lorenzo Ghiberti's baptistry doors in Florence (1425-1452)](/artwork/lorenzo-ghiberti-baptistry-of-s-giovanni-view-of-gates-of-paradise) and the [frieze reliefs among the so-called “Elgin Marbles,” from the Parthenon in Athens](/artwork/horsemen-detail-of-the-procession-from-the-ionic-frieze-on-the-north-side-of-the-parthenon), housed at the British Museum (447-432 B.C.).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50356574ab74980002000005",
    "slug": "old-masters",
    "name": "Old Masters",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The term \"Old Masters\" generally refers to the most recognized European artists—mostly painters—working between the Renaissance and 1800. An informal designation (and not a specific art historical style or movement), this category includes artists who fall within [Gothic Art](/gene/gothic-art), the [Early](/gene/early-renaissance), [High](/gene/high-renaissance), and [Northern Renaissance](/gene/northern-renaissance), [Mannerism](/gene/mannerism), [Baroque](/gene/baroque), the Dutch \"Golden Age,\" [Rococo](/gene/rococo), [Neoclassicism](/gene/neoclassicism), and [Romanticism](/gene/romanticism). Accordingly, Old Masters refers to a range of the most seminal figures in Western art history, from [Leonardo da Vinci](/artist/leonardo-da-vinci), [Michelangelo](/artist/michelangelo-buonarroti), and [Albrecht Dürer](/artist/albrecht-durer) to [Caravaggio](/artist/michelangelo-merisi-da-caravaggio), [Rembrandt](/artist/rembrandt-van-rijn), and [Jacques-Louis David](/artist/jacques-louis-david).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4fad886dfe4e730001001c07",
    "slug": "negative-image",
    "name": "Negative Image",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks—usually photographs—featuring imagery that resembles a “negative.” In [traditional photography](/gene/traditional-photography-prints), a negative image was what was exposed on film when a photograph was taken. The process of printing a picture involved reversing the image, so that all its negative values were made positive. In color photography, the negative image contains complementary colors to that which is being photographed.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fbe54bc34fd9d0001000b89",
    "slug": "net-art",
    "name": "Net Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Net art (or Internet art) describes work made in the 1990s through the early 2000s that uses the Internet as a primary medium. With the popularization of web browsing in the 1990s, artists began to circumvent traditional modes of display in institutional art settings by creating interactive, interconnected viewing experiences. Often used interchangeably with “new media art” (see also [digital art](/gene/digital-art)), net art includes a wide range of works created by artists using web browsers, developer codes, scripts, search engines, and various other online tools. Notable artists and collectives associated with this movement include Natalie Bookchin, Heath Bunting, [Jodi](/artist/jodi) (or jodi.org), [Olia Lialina](/artist/olia-lialina), [Eva and Franco Mattes](/artist/eva-and-franco-mattes) (or 0100101110101101.org), [Evan Roth](/artist/evan-roth), [Alexei Shulgin](/artist/alexei-shulgin), and UBERMORGEN.COM. Many seminal works of net art have been archived and digitally preserved in [Rhizome ArtBase](/rhizome/collection), a database for new media art founded in 1999.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fe4835bdaf5180001001b66",
    "slug": "glitch-aesthetic",
    "name": "Glitch Aesthetic",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Applied to artworks that incorporate, depict, or recreate technological errors—or “glitches”—such as static, spliced or distorted images, and computer bugs or viruses.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "500808453c585a0002000ae4",
    "slug": "viscous-forms",
    "name": "Viscous Forms",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Used mostly for three-dimensional sculptures and design objects that appear to be melting, oozing, or dripping. [Lynda Benglis](/artist/lynda-benglis)'s multicolored floor sculptures and [Jean Arp](/artist/jean-arp)'s fluid figurative forms fall into this category, as do various contemporary tables, chairs, and glass design objects.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5008096a9c81c00002000c15",
    "slug": "fragmented-geometry",
    "name": "Fragmented Geometry",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Fragmented planes, the explosion of linear perspective—this vision of the world put forth by [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) and [Georges Braque](/artist/georges-braque), beginning around 1909, continues to inspire how contemporary artists render space and objects. Fragmented geometry in the [Cubist](/gene/cubism) works of Braque and Picasso turned physical space into a system of scaffolding, blurring the relationship of a figure and the space surrounding it and creating “faceted” planes. This breaking apart of solid volumes, an effect noted art historian Robert Rosenblum has described as a “house of cards,” is often seen as an expression of the uncertainty of modernity—also reflected in the non-linear narratives of modernist writers (in particular James Joyce and Virginia Woolf), the angular forms of modern architecture, or the fractured quality of modern music (as in the atonal compositions of Igor Stravinsky).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5025767d9f2062000200074c",
    "slug": "spaces-of-the-art-world",
    "name": "Spaces of the Art World",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "The spaces in which to view art are as hallowed as they are numerous. After leaving [the artist’s studio](/gene/the-artists-studio), artworks make their way to galleries, art fairs, biennial and triennial exhibitions, collectors’ homes, auction houses, and museums (not to mention the oblivion of storage). With their creations routinely going off into the wide world of art, it is no surprise that many artists document the sites where art is displayed, viewed, bought, or sold.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f99748ea5c03d0001000cc8",
    "slug": "photogram",
    "name": "Photogram",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_\"[T]he essential tool of the photographic process is not the camera but the light-sensitive layer.\" —[Laszlo Moholy-Nagy](/artist/laszlo-moholy-nagy)_\n\nPhotograms (or \"camera-less photographs\") push photography to its logical extreme; they result from exposing photo-sensitive paper directly to light. Any objects blocking the light will leave a white silhouette, while the exposed areas of the paper become black, resulting in a negative image with little or no sense of depth. Widely practiced in botany in the 19th century, beginning in the 1920s this technique gained attention from artists and photographers looking to revolutionize ways of seeing. Invoking photography's literal meaning—\"drawing with light\"—Moholy-Nagy believed photograms exploited \"light as a creative agent,\" embodying the medium's essence and allowing the photographer to create something never-before-seen, as opposed to merely reproducing the world. [Dadaist](/gene/dada) [Man Ray](/artist/man-ray) also staked a claim to the medium, naming it the \"Rayograph\" after himself.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4f99d54747c98f0001000611",
    "slug": "contemporary-fact-versus-fiction",
    "name": "Contemporary Fact versus Fiction",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_\"The documentary form is now more potent than ever, even though we believe less than ever in documentary truth...\" —Hito Steyerl_\n\nSince the 1970s, contemporary photographers and filmmakers have questioned the truth claims of documentary photography. [Jeff Wall](/artist/jeff-wall) is arguably the most famous example—and root—of this tendency; he calls many of his photographs \"near documentary,\" since they appear like snapshots but are, in fact, elaborately staged, and subtly reveal their own artifice upon closer inspection. Works in this category question the widely held belief in the image as evidence, or the way ostensibly objective visual documentation shapes public perception and the historic record.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fc659af5a9a240001000bae",
    "slug": "the-art-market",
    "name": "The Art Market",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that focus on the art market, oftentimes with an element of critique. In particular, such works may concern the commodification of art or the role of the artist within the economic system of the art world—historically central concerns for artists dealing with [Institutional Critique](/gene/institutional-critique). [Joseph Beuys](/artist/joseph-beuys) most succinctly summed up these interrelated concepts in his formulation: “Kunst = Kapital” (“Art = Capital”). The collusion of the private art market and the public museum is also a central focus of [Andrea Fraser](/artist/andrea-fraser), who in her work reveals the personal struggles artists face in balancing artistic independence with commercial considerations. Following a series of works that exposed the authority of the museum, her _Untitled_ (2003) video shows her having sex with a collector who paid close to $20,000 for the experience, showing that even the artist’s body—for the right price—can be bought and sold like any other commodity. In her words: “My first thought was, if I’m going to have to sell it, I might as well sell it.”",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50356574ab74980002000007",
    "slug": "20th-century-art",
    "name": "20th Century Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Arguably the most eventful period in the history of art, the 20th century witnessed the birth (foreshadowed at the end of the 19th century) and outgrowth of abstraction, along with innumerable movements that came and went amidst radical changes across the globe. Some of most influential modern and contemporary art movements and developments of the century include [Fauvism](/gene/fauvism), [Cubism](/gene/cubism), [Futurism](/gene/futurism), [Dada](/gene/dada), [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism), [Abstract Expressionism](/gene/abstract-expressionism), [Pop Art](/gene/pop-art), [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism), [Conceptual Art](/gene/conceptual-art), [Photorealism](/gene/photorealism), and [Neo-Expressionism](/gene/neo-expressionism).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4f9974b188a2320001000c31",
    "slug": "street-photography",
    "name": "Street Photography",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_“Anyday, one can walk down the street in a big city and see a thousand people. Any photographer can photograph these people—but very few photographers can make their prints not only reproductions of the people taken, but a comment upon them [...]” —Langston Hughes_\n\nWith the introduction of the first handheld cameras in the 1880s, photographers could finally leave behind awkwardly long exposure times, get out of the studio, and take to the street. Notable early street photographers include [Paul Strand](/artist/paul-strand) and [Walker Evans](/artist/walker-evans), whose portraits of immigrants and the urban poor continue to shape our image of New York in the early 20th century. The New York Photo League, founded in 1936 by a group of socially conscious photographers, chronicled the gritty realities of urban life, and in so doing exposed both the vibrancy and diversity of the city and the plight and suffering of ordinary people. Such work rejected the cool formalism of modern photography, and increasingly in the 1960s—through the work of [Garry Winogrand](/artist/garry-winogrand) and [Lee Friedlander](/artist/lee-friedlander)—became associated with the snapshot aesthetic. As photographer [Joel Meyerowitz](/artist/joel-meyerowitz) once commented: “On the street each successive wave brings a whole new cast of characters […] if you keep paying attention, something will reveal itself—just a split-second—a crazy cockeyed picture.”",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fa2e77a0385570001001293",
    "slug": "grand-manner",
    "name": "Grand Manner",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A general term for a style of painting, advocated between roughly 1650 and 1825, that depicted historical, mythological, or biblical scenes using the techniques of Renaissance masters (like [Raphael](/artist/raphael)), [Nicolas Poussin](/artist/nicolas-poussin), and the Carracci. European royal academies promoted this style, acting not only as elite institutions of artistic education but also as the foremost tastemakers. The first president of the British Royal Academy, [Sir Joshua Reynolds](/artist/sir-joshua-reynolds), was a notable proponent of the style, specifically recommending clear narratives, life-size proportions, naturalistic figures in [Classical](/gene/classicism) poses, and a variety of human expression as the foundations of excellent painting. These stylistic traits were equally important to the Royal French Academy of Painting and Sculpture under Charles le Brun. The prestige of such compositions went hand-in-hand with the devaluation of \"lesser\" genres, such as still lifes and scenes of ordinary life. It was at the Salons—elaborately staged and tightly controlled exhibitions—that these value judgments were put on view to an increasingly art-interested public.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fa84174e9038a0001000987",
    "slug": "chicago-imagists",
    "name": "Chicago Imagists",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A term describing a number of groups emerging from the School of the Art Institute of Chicago (SAIC) during the post-World War II era. The Chicago Imagists style is broadly characterized by representational work influenced by [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism) and [Art Brut](/gene/art-brut). Encouraged by SAIC professor [Ray Yoshida](/artist/ray-yoshida), many Chicago Imagists also drew on references outside of fine art, such as comics, cartoons, and popular culture. The artists exhibited together in groups like the Monster Roster (late 1950s), Hairy Who (1960s), and, later, Nonplussed Some and False Image.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fad7e09026c5c000100188e",
    "slug": "technology",
    "name": "Technology",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Before and since the [Futurists](/gene/futurism) famously declared that a roaring motor car was more beautiful than _The Winged Victory of Samothrace_ (a seminal sculpture from antiquity housed prominently in the Louvre), many artists have engaged with technology. Works in this category explore alternative applications of new technologies, capture the imagery indebted to new technological developments, or focus on the negative effects of technology—pollution, waste, and the like.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "4fbbc043826fa3000100043c",
    "slug": "post-painterly-abstraction",
    "name": "Post-Painterly Abstraction",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A term coined by art critic Clement Greenberg for the title of an exhibition he curated in 1964. Post-painterly abstraction encompasses a broad group of American painters who reacted to [Abstract Expressionism](/gene/abstract-expressionism), either through the pursuit of Hard-edge abstraction or by creating open compositions of washes and poured areas of color. Other hallmarks of this new generation of painters, according to Greenberg, were thinned-out paint, a lack of an identifiable artistic mark (as in Pollock’s “drips” and “skeins”), a focus on saturated and intense color, and a lack of interest in spontaneity.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fc7d682717ee30001001890",
    "slug": "mutated-bodies",
    "name": "Mutated Bodies",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“The body is comparable to a sentence that invites us to disarticulate it, so that, through a series of endless anagrams, its true contents may be recomposed.” —[Hans Bellmer](/artist/hans-bellmer)_\n\nApplied to both contemporary and historical works that depict contorted, dismembered, or grossly exaggerated human or non-human forms, limbs, and other body parts. Some of the most iconic examples include the works of [Francis Bacon](/artist/francis-bacon), [Egon Schiele](/artist/egon-schiele), Bellmer, and the YBA duo [Jake and Dinos Chapman](/artist/jake-and-dinos-chapman).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5006eb9915cbf00002000aff",
    "slug": "mirrored",
    "name": "Mirrored",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks and design objects whose surfaces include mirrors. Modern and contemporary sculptors, such as [Robert Smithson](/artist/robert-smithson), [Donald Judd](/artist/donald-judd), and [Anish Kapoor](/artist/anish-kapoor), have used mirrors to expand the boundaries of objects or create optical illusions. One of the best-known mirrored sculptures, Kapoor’s _Cloud Gate_ is a 100-ton reflective stainless-steel ellipsis that reflects the sky and clouds on its surface. It has become a Chicago landmark since it was installed in the city’s Millennium Park in 2006.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fa151d6d774e50001002b2d",
    "slug": "new-british-sculpture",
    "name": "New British Sculpture",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A diverse group of British sculptors that emerged in the 1980s, reacting to the influence of [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism) and [Conceptual Art](/gene/conceptual-art) with a return to traditional materials and methods, as well as a focus on figurative imagery.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fa83efb717b4a000100090c",
    "slug": "generative-art",
    "name": "Generative Art",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Art created through the use of autonomous systems, such as natural language rules, algorithms, genetic sequences, machines, or procedural interventions. The various implementation of these “generative” processes yields a range of results, from works that are rigidly ordered to those that rely largely on elements of chance and randomization. Examples of Generative Art come from throughout art history, from the structured geometric tiling of Islamic Art to [Minimalist](/gene/minimalism) and [Conceptual](/gene/conceptual-art) artists who constructed works based on number systems and formal rules.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "4fbaba908b313700010006b2",
    "slug": "abstract-painting",
    "name": "Abstract Painting",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Though traces of abstraction in two-dimensional art date back to the stone ages, abstract painting is popularly understood to have begun with the works of [J.M.W. Turner](/artist/joseph-mallord-william-turner), [Gustave Courbet](/artist/gustave-courbet), [Édouard Manet](/artist/edouard-manet), the [Impressionists](/gene/impressionism), as well as in the early 1900s, when [Paul Cézanne](/artist/paul-cezanne)'s stylized, flattened forms influenced what would eventually be called the [Cubism](/gene/cubism) of [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) and [Georges Braque](artist/georges-braque). Arguably the first [abstract art](/gene/abstract-art) movement, Cubism would prove foundational to countless branches of abstract art, particularly those which lacked any recognizable link to the visible world. [Wassily Kandinsky](/artist/wassily-kandinsky) and [Robert Delaunay](/artist/robert-delaunay) were among the first artists to make such paintings: pure compositions of line, form, and color. While these early artists broke the ice for entirely abstract art, they were just a few among its many important early exponents, which also included [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp), [Francis Picabia](/artist/francis-picabia), [Piet Mondrian](/artist/piet-mondrian), and [Kazimir Malevich](/artist/kasimir-severinovich-malevich).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5025762ffb917d00020007a0",
    "slug": "references-to-art-history",
    "name": "References to Art History",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Works that visually reference a specific work of art or artist. Rather than explicitly sample a pre-existing work, as with appropriation, these works alter or distort their quotations, most often taken from icons of the Western canon. A classic example is [Édouard Manet](/artist/edouard-manet)'s reference in his [_Olympia_](/artwork/edouard-manet-olympia) (1863) to [Titian](/artist/titian)'s [_Venus of Urbino_](/artwork/titian-venus-of-urbino) (1538).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "502cfb406e721400020004a7",
    "slug": "orphism",
    "name": "Orphism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_\"The works of the orphic artist must simultaneously give a pure aesthetic pleasure; a structure which is self-evident; and a sublime meaning, that is, a subject. This is pure art.\" –Guillaume Apollinaire_\n\nThe French poet Apollinaire coined the term Orphism in Paris in 1912, during a period rich with artistic innovations and new “isms” seemingly with every season. Under this term, Apollinaire somewhat arbitrarily championed a number of artists he admired, and whose work demonstrated a more sensuous and exuberant quality than the still-recent [Cubism](/gene/cubism) of [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) and [Georges Braque](/artist/georges-braque). These included [Robert Delaunay](/artist/robert-delaunay), [Fernand Léger](/artist/fernand-leger), [Francis Picabia](/artist/francis-picabia), [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp), and [Frantisek Kupka](/artist/frantisek-kupka), although the term has since become most closely associated with Kupka, and husband and wife Robert and [Sonia Delaunay](/artist/sonia-delaunay). The word _orphique_ originates from the Greek myth of Orpheus, the musician, poet, and prophet who, as the archetypal expressive musician, was a source of inspiration for many artists in the late 19th and early 20th century who explored the analogy between music and art.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5037e4597b18740002000c43",
    "slug": "neo-concrete-art",
    "name": "Neo-Concrete Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_\"There was total freedom. Nothing was dogmatic. Everyone was willing to be creative.\" —[Lygia Pape](/artist/lygia-pape)_\n\nNeo-Concrete Art was established in response to [Concrete Art](/gene/concrete-art), which emphasized the use of planes and colors to convey objective scientific principles. The Swiss artist Max Bill, a major exponent of Concrete Art, had significant exhibitions in São Paulo, Brazil in the early 1950s, inspiring a younger generation of artists there. In 1959, the _Neo-Concrete Manifesto_ was written by a group of artists in Rio de Janeiro—including [Lygia Clark](/artist/lygia-clark), [Hélio Oiticica](/artist/helio-oiticica), and Lygia Pape—who shared a similar interest in abstract forms and the use of color but wanted to insert poetic, and sometimes political, meaning and a greater sense of freedom and flexibility into their work. The merging of art and life was crucial: painting was to be removed from its frame, sculpture taken down from its pedestal, and the work constantly subject to re-invention by its viewers. This led to developments in participatory and immersive art, as exemplified by Oiticica's penetrable environments and wearable sculptures or Pape's envisioning of a world without words in _Book of Creation_. The critic Ronaldo Brito called Neo-Concrete Art a \"rupture\" in Brazilian art history, one that would inspire later generations of artists in Brazil, including those practicing under the repressive military dictatorship between 1964 and 1985.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "503e9ae02b1aaa00020002e1",
    "slug": "royalty-and-aristocracy",
    "name": "Royalty and Aristocracy",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Images of [kings](/tag/king), [queens](/tag/queen), [princes](/tag/prince), and [princesses](/tag/princess), as well as other royals and aristocrats. Such images might also refer to the theme or idea of royalty and aristocracy, without depicting specific people.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50356575ab7498000200000e",
    "slug": "women-artists",
    "name": "Women Artists",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Women artists have been the subject of varying degrees of critical attention and neglect throughout history; as recently as the mid-20th century they have been the subject of outright derision in and exclusion from seminal art historical texts. A number of women artists, especially those who were members of artist families, received training and recognition in the [Renaissance](/gene/high-renaissance), though painter [Artemisia Gentileschi](/artist/artemisia-gentileschi) was the first to receive notable recognition during her life, joining the Italian Academy in 1616. The French Academy, one of the most influential and elite art institutions in Europe, limited female membership to four artists, a practice whose end was successfully petitioned in 1790 by [Rococo](/gene/rococo) painter Adélaïde Labille-Guiard, contemporary with Marie Antoinette’s preferred portraitist, [Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun](/artist/louise-elisabeth-vigee-le-brun). Swiss-born [Neoclassicist](/gene/neoclassicism) [Angelica Kauffman](/artist/angelica-kauffmann) was a founding member of the British Royal Academy in 1768, although no other women were elected until 1922. Women have continued the struggle for recognition in modern and contemporary art spheres, to such an extent that feminist collective Guerilla Girls asked in 1989, “Do women have to be naked to get into the Met[ropolitan] Museum?”",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "503d3c51145fa900020001b9",
    "slug": "greek-art-and-architecture",
    "name": "Greek Art and Architecture",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "Greek Art and Architecture refers to the artworks, [archaeological objects](/gene/archaeological-object), and architectural constructions produced in the Greek-speaking world from the ninth century to the first century BCE and ending with the emergence of the Roman Empire. Greek Art’s [Geometric period](/tag/geometric-period) is characterized by geometric designs and stylized [figures](/gene/silhouettes) painted on the bodies of pottery [vessels](/gene/vessel). Beginning in the seventh century BCE, the Archaic period witnessed the introduction of the human marble statuary as a vehicle for the production of images of idealized youth, known as the [kouros](/tag/kouros) and [kore](/tag/kore). During the Classical period, artists further refined sculptures of the human figure to reflect a canon of ideal beauty: [Praxiteles](/artist/praxiteles)’s _[Aphrodite of Knidos](/artwork/praxiteles-aphrodite-of-knidos-greco-roman-variant-on-the-original-marble-of-ca-350-bc)_ would become one of the Greek statues most reproduced in the Hellenistic period and later by the Romans, who heavily copied and emulated Greek artworks and styles. While one trend within Hellenistic art adhered to the idealism of Classical models, another involved a shift to depictions of [human drama](/artwork/dying-gaul-gallic-trumpeter-from-commemorative-group-at-pergamum-in-asia-minor-1) and genre-like figures. Greek architecture reached its apogee in the so-called golden century of Pericles at the height of Athenian democracy, with the creation of the [Parthenon](/artwork/kallikrates-and-iktinos-parthenon-acropolis), a temple in honor of goddess [Athena](/tag/athena) (built by [Kallikrates and Iktinos](/artist/kallikrates-and-iktinos) between 447 to 432 BCE). The building exhibits perfected architectural proportions (subtle deviations from absolute regularity) that give it an adjusted appearance when viewed.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "504f74d047c6a40002000420",
    "slug": "oil-painting",
    "name": "Oil Painting",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Oil has been the most consistently and widely used medium in the tradition of Western painting. Its use in Europe dates from at least the 12th century A.D.; however, the clarity and precision in color and three-dimensional form that the medium enabled was mastered by Dutch painters such as [Jan Van Eyck](/artist/jan-van-eyck) in the 15th century. The shift towards oil paint over egg tempera, and then towards canvas over wood panel, occurred over the course of the next century in southern Europe as well, most notably amongst [Venetian School](/gene/venetian-school) painters such as [Titian](/artist/titian-tiziano-vecellio) and [Tintoretto](/artist/jacopo-robusti-called-jacopo-tintoretto). The subsequent history of oil painting is filled with countless stylistic and technical innovations: these include [Caravaggio](/artist/michelangelo-merisi-da-caravaggio)'s use of [chiaroscuro](/gene/chiaroscuro) lighting, the layering of [impasto](/gene/impasto) brushwork by [Rembrandt van Rijn](/artist/rembrandt-harmensz-van-rijn-1), new forms of mark-making under [Impressionism](/gene/impressionism) and later [Abstract Expressionism](/gene/abstract-expressionism), the bright and vivid colors of [Fauvism](/gene/fauvism), and the incorporation of everyday materials into the canvas by [Neo-Dada](/gene/neo-dada) artists [Jasper Johns](/artist/jasper-johns) and [Robert Rauschenberg](/artist/robert-rauschenberg).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc185f5d4ca0002000971",
    "slug": "bamileke-art",
    "name": "Bamileke Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc1a092a60b00020009d2",
    "slug": "indonesian-art",
    "name": "Indonesian Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc2666bf58900020009c9",
    "slug": "asante-art",
    "name": "Asante Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50356575ab7498000200000f",
    "slug": "contemporary-photography",
    "name": "Contemporary Photography",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A general category for photography from the 1970s onward. Over the past few decades, the medium has been defined by new technologies and formats, among the most important being color photography, digital manipulation, and large-scale printing techniques. Contemporary photographers often use these developments to present new perspectives on traditional subjects and compositions. The [New Topographics](/gene/new-topographics) documented expansive, deadpan views of nature, while, more recently, [Alec Soth](/artist/alec-soth) and [Taryn Simon](/artist/taryn-simon) have captured portraits of subjects from the fringes of society. There is also a recurring blurring of the division between documentary and fiction, inspired by the elaborate staging of images by photographers such as [Cindy Sherman](/artist/cindy-sherman), [Jeff Wall](/artist/jeff-wall), and [Gregory Crewdson](/artist/gregory-crewdson).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5048fb493403ed0002000366",
    "slug": "mexico",
    "name": "Mexico",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Mexico.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5048da523403ed0002000202",
    "slug": "greece",
    "name": "Greece",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Greece.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "504fb994f7bd350002000372",
    "slug": "contemporary-asian-art",
    "name": "Contemporary Asian Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A general category for art made since roughly 1980 in Central, East, and Southeast Asia. While the worldwide proliferation of biennials, fairs, and contemporary art museums has made the boundaries between regions more porous, Asia continues to sustain an extreme breadth of traditional practices. The rapid economic transformations of recent decades have had a significant impact on artists' works, manifest in a variety of styles including 1990s [Political Pop](/gene/political-pop) in China, [Takashi Murakami](/artist/takashi-murakami)’s highly commercialized practice, or Indian artist [Subodh Gupta](/artist/subodh-gupta)’s monumental installations made from everyday objects. More direct political practice and performance have also been dominant tendencies of the last 20 years, the best known example being Chinese artist [Ai Weiwei](/artist/ai-weiwei), who has become internationally recognized for his activist critique of state policy.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "503d3ee51c5c1a0002000228",
    "slug": "mughal-art",
    "name": "Mughal Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "504514f2a224ae000200003f",
    "slug": "hellenistic-art",
    "name": "Hellenistic Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5048db3ebcefce00020001f5",
    "slug": "edo-art",
    "name": "Edo Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc2c6928fbf0002000986",
    "slug": "art-of-the-ivory-coast",
    "name": "Art of the Ivory Coast",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5048da6d13e9090002000225",
    "slug": "iran",
    "name": "Iran",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Iran (historically referred to as Persia).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "503d38bf145fa90002000191",
    "slug": "roman-art-and-architecture",
    "name": "Roman Art and Architecture",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "The term “Roman Art” covers a span of over 1,000 years, from roughly 743 B.C. until 1453, though it generally refers to art created during the Roman Empire, from 27 B.C. to about A.D. 476. During its height—around the year A.D. 117—the empire was the most powerful civilization in the world, governing over 20 percent of the world’s population. Roman Art borrowed heavily from [Greek](/gene/greek-art-and-architecture) and Etruscan examples and, while in Greece artists were revered, in Rome they were underappreciated as craftsmen. Roman Art came in various forms—[paintings](/gene/painting) and murals (the most famous being those found at Pompeii), as well as [mosaics](/gene/mosaics), but they are noted most for [sculpture](/gene/sculpture) and [architecture](/gene/architecture-1). Roman sculptures of politicians and aristocrats are some of the finest remnants of the ancient world, as are architectural icons such as the [Pantheon](/artwork/apollodorus-of-damascus-the-pantheon) and the [Colosseum](/artwork/colosseum-flavian-amphitheater).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "503d3d0d145fa900020001e3",
    "slug": "mayan-art-and-architecture",
    "name": "Mayan Art and Architecture",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "Mayan civilization was based in present-day Mexico and Central America from approximately 300 BC to the 16th century CE. While unified by certain cultural and religious characteristics, the expansive territory never experienced centralized political rule but rather a continuous shifting of allegiances to various regional entities. In cities such as Tikal, Chichén Itzá, and Tulum (each of which was prominent at a different time), the Mayan people developed architectural forms, such as the pyramid temple and the palace, that employed [masonry construction](/gene/masonry-construction) and were at times adorned with [mosaics](/gene/mosaics). Other developments in Mayan culture included a shared calendar system, the mythological narratives and iconography of the Popol Vuh text, and various instruments used for personal and communal religious functions. The last major Mayan confederacy collapsed as a result of infighting around 1450. Because centralization in Mayan territories was absent, the Spanish conquest of the Yucatán Peninsula was met with over two decades of local resistance before colonial control was solidified in 1546. Nevertheless, pockets of Guatemala remained under Mayan control throughout the 17th century, and Mayan language and customs persist in the region today.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "503d3627e4abbb0002000167",
    "slug": "ancient-egypt",
    "name": "Ancient Egypt",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "503d3db3b556a90002000205",
    "slug": "phoenician-art",
    "name": "Phoenician Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "504f7335de9164000200041a",
    "slug": "contemporary-british-art",
    "name": "Contemporary British Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Since the mid-1990s, Britain has been at the center of the international art world. The root of this was arguably the emergence of the [Young British Artists (YBAs](/gene/young-british-artists-yba)), first identified through [Damien Hirst](/artist/damien-hirst)’s 1988 \"Freeze\" show and internationally recognized via the Royal Academy’s \"Sensation\" exhibition (which subsequently traveled to the Brooklyn Museum). Countless artists and art movements have followed the energy and influence of this initial group, which included Hirst, [Gary Hume](/artist/gary-hume), and [Tracey Emin](/artist/tracey-emin), and whose practices are generally characterized by a fusion of [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism) and [Conceptualism](/gene/conceptual-art) with “sensational” content.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50537fb6b3c6bd000200048b",
    "slug": "contemporary-african-art",
    "name": "Contemporary African Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A general category for post-1970 work by artists from Africa. Contemporary African artists who grew up in the 1960s and '70s experienced a period of substantial change and upheaval, as many African nations declared independence from their colonial rulers. Drawing on these histories and looking at life in a post-colonial era, these artists have dealt with a range of issues—such as national identity, economic disparity, and public health—in a wide array of styles and mediums.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc15bf5d4ca0002000969",
    "slug": "yoruba-art",
    "name": "Yoruba Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "503d3d88145fa90002000211",
    "slug": "etruscan-art",
    "name": "Etruscan Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505643a07f3276000200030e",
    "slug": "19th-century-american-art",
    "name": "19th Century American Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A general category for artworks made in the United States between 1800 and 1900. While until 1820 American art was largely derivative of European styles, [Thomas Cole](/artist/thomas-cole) and the [Hudson River School](/gene/hudson-river-school) would develop a distinctive style of painting that highlighted the American landscape, a subject that was later explored and imbued with nationalist themes by [Albert Bierstadt](/artist/albert-bierstadt) during his travels through the American West. The realism of [Thomas Eakins](/artist/thomas-eakins) and [Winslow Homer](/artist/winslow-homer) sought to convey democratic values with subtly heroic images of American life; [Albert Pinkham Ryder](/artist/albert-pinkham-ryder) and [Henry Ossawa Tanner](/artist/henry-ossawa-tanner), on the other hand, were less nationalistic, often imbuing Biblical subject matter with a mystical quality in their Symbolist style. [Mary Cassatt](/artist/mary-cassatt) and [John Singer Sargent](/artist/john-singer-sargent), both known for their intimate late-19th-century portraits, painted society subjects on both sides of the Atlantic. During the same time, [Timothy O’Sullivan](/artist/timothy-h-osullivan) developed unique styles of documentary and landscape photography, while socially motivated [Jacob Riis](/artist/jacob-august-riis) trained his lens on New York City tenement life. In architecture, the revivalist styles of [Neoclassicism](/gene/neoclassicism) and Neo-Gothic were used in the construction of monuments in the early half of the century, while the latter saw the development of industrial techniques for building skyscrapers, most notably from the Chicago School.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc29192a60b0002000a0b",
    "slug": "art-of-burma",
    "name": "Art of Burma",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "503d35b8ab0e3b0002000196",
    "slug": "manuscript",
    "name": "Manuscript",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Manuscripts are one-of-a-kind written documents. One of the most celebrated illuminated (meaning illustrated) manuscripts, _[The Book of Kells](/artwork/iona-scotland-or-northumbria-united-kingdom-chi-rho-iota-page-from-the-book-of-kells-matthew-1-18)_ (c. 800) animates the story of the Christian Gospels with religious symbols, mythical figures, and elaborate ornamental patterns. During the 20th century, self-taught “[outsider](/gene/outsider-art)” artist [Henry Darger](/artist/henry-darger) produced a monumental manuscript—spanning 15,000 single-spaced pages and 300 paintings and discovered only after the artist’s death—that explored themes of slavery, war, and innocence. While most manuscripts are made by hand and often feature elegant calligraphy or decorative designs, manuscripts can also be typed documents, provided they are not mass-produced.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "503e9b01b2bde80002000349",
    "slug": "royal-slash-court-commission",
    "name": "Royal/Court Commission",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A work of art that was commissioned by a royal family.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "503d3cd8edcaae0002000205",
    "slug": "aztec-art",
    "name": "Aztec Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "503d4129b556a9000200026e",
    "slug": "islamic-art-and-architecture",
    "name": "Islamic Art and Architecture",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "Islamic Art generally refers to work made beginning in the 7th century, a period when the Islamic faith was first developing under the prophet Muhammad, in regions in which Islam was the dominant religion. While Islam shares the prophetic tradition of Judaism and Christianity, the monotheistic religion has its own tenets and rituals, such as the belief in Allah as the one god and Muhammad as his prophet, daily prayer, charity, fasting during Ramadan, and, if possible, a pilgrimage to Mecca. However, Islamic art is difficult to define: not all Islamic art is religious, and not all artists who created it were Muslim. Islamic art includes [architecture](/gene/architecture-1), [calligraphy](/gene/arabic-slash-farsi-calligraphy), decorative arts ([carpets](/artwork/turkey-ottoman-prayer-rug), ceramics, and metalware, among other examples), and [painting](/gene/painting) and stems from territories as diverse as the Arab world: Iranian lands, Turkey, India, China, and Spain. Early instances of Islamic art combined elements from existing traditions within [Greco-Roman](/gene/greek-and-roman-art-and-architecture), [Byzantine](/gene/byzantine-art), and Sasanian art, as exemplified by [The Dome of the Rock](/artwork/the-dome-of-the-rock-interior-view) in Jerusalem. Over time, Islamic art developed a unique artistic language whose hallmarks included all-over decoration and the use of vegetal and geometric patterns, such as the [Arabesque](/gene/arabesque-slash-scroll), among other forms. As writing is highly valued in Islam, calligraphy is ubiquitous, serving as decoration for objects and buildings. Additionally, while figuration is found in secular examples of Islamic Art, it is absent from religious works, in which the depiction of the human form is considered idolatry. While maintaining common elements, Islamic art across the globe is highly diverse, linking the [Alhambra Palace](/artwork/granada-spain-alhambra) in Granada, Spain, to the [Taj Mahal](/artwork/agra-india-mughal-period-taj-mahal) in India.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5036a9f69da54500020004ac",
    "slug": "water",
    "name": "Water",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that depict the fleeting forms and colors of water as observed from a distance, studied microscopically, or experienced from within. Notably included are works by [Impressionists](/gene/impressionism) like [Claude Monet](/artist/claude-monet), who famously rendered the subtleties of a body of water at sunset, with its varying shades of blue and dancing flecks of orange and yellow. In photography, [Peter Hujar](/artist/peter-hujar) captured the tonal contrast of waves while [Hiroshi Sugimoto](/artist/hiroshi-sugimoto)’s black-and-white, nearly abstract photographs present the quiet calm of undisturbed seascapes. And even in sculpture and land art, [Maya Lin](/artist/maya-lin) explores water’s various phases and shapes, as in _Wavefield_, her iconic work that transformed a grassy field into a sea of undulating waves.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "504e657bbb39040002000a4e",
    "slug": "belgium",
    "name": "Belgium",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Belgium.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "504fb4584ed2d60002000344",
    "slug": "abstract-art",
    "name": "Abstract Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_“It is well to remember that a picture, before being a battle horse, a nude woman or some anecdote, is essentially a flat surface covered with colours assembled in a certain order.” —[Maurice Denis](/artist/maurice-denis)_\n\nWhile abstraction is evident around the world in art and functional objects, its art-historical significance is as a category for 20th-century Western art that moved away from the faithful representation of nature. The origins of abstraction are commonly located in the works of [J.M.W. Turner](/artist/joseph-mallord-william-turner), [Gustave Courbet](/artist/gustave-courbet), [Édouard Manet](/artist/edouard-manet), the [Impressionists](/gene/impressionism), as well as in the early 1900s, when [Paul Cézanne](/artist/paul-cezanne)'s stylized, flattened forms influenced what would eventually be called the [Cubism](/gene/cubism) of [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picass) and [Georges Braque](artist/georges-braque). Arguably the first abstract art movement, Cubism would prove foundational to countless branches of abstract art, including [Futurism](/gene/futurism) in Italy, the non-objective abstraction of [Wassily Kandinsky](/artist/wassily-kandinsky), [Kasimir Malevich](/artist/kasimir-malevich), and [Piet Mondrian](/artist/piet-mondrian), and the [Purism](/gene/purism) of [Le Corbusier](/artist/le-corbusier) and [Amédée Ozenfant](/artist/amedee-ozenfant). Though the intervening decades have seen returns to representation in different movements, virtually all of the dominant art forms of the latter half of the 20th century—including [Abstract Expressionism](/gene/abstract-expressionism), [Neo-Dada](/gene/neo-dada), [Pop Art](/gene/pop-art), [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism), and [Conceptual Art](/gene/conceptual-art)—have embraced the power and aesthetic of formal abstraction in lieu of literal representation.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50538adfcb21bb0002000533",
    "slug": "california-art",
    "name": "California Art",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists have flocked to California since the 1840s, but it was not until after World War II that the state gained internationally renown as an art center. Major post-war art movements associated with California include the [Light and Space Movement](/gene/light-and-space-movement) and [Bay Area Figurative](/gene/bay-area-figurative-art) art, and artists consistently identified with the state include [Wayne Thiebaud](/artist/wayne-thiebaud), [Ed Ruscha](/artist/ed-ruscha), [Robert Irwin](/artist/robert-irwin), and [Richard Misrach](/artist/richard-misrach). The 2011-12 exhibition \"Pacific Standard Time\" was a major effort by institutions across California to cement the state's presence in postwar American art history.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5053cac73499a90002000010",
    "slug": "contemporary-indian-art",
    "name": "Contemporary Indian Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "India is the world's largest democracy, home to a \"transitional society\" that by many accounts is the most diverse on earth. Contemporary Indian art matches the cultural and idealogical diversity of the nation, and thanks to rapid globalization is becoming increasingly visible in the international art world. [Subodh Gupta](/artist/subodh-gupta)'s often-monumental installations link the realities of life in northern India with the broader forces of urbanization and globalization, while [Zarina](/artist/zarina) makes intimate works on paper that engage with the violent partition of India and Pakistan, as well as her own dislocation from home.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5058f057d0c2eb4f3200030d",
    "slug": "prints",
    "name": "Prints",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A general category for works, typically on paper, that consist of an impressed or stamped image. Printmaking incorporates a large number of techniques and processes, such as [etching, engraving](/gene/etching-slash-engraving), [intaglio](/gene/intaglio), [woodcut](/gene/woodcut-slash-linocut), and more recently, various photomechanical processes. The art form has a long and rich history in numerous artistic traditions. Woodblock printing is believed to have been invented in China in the seventh century and to have spread to Korea and Japan in the following centuries. In the West, devotional woodcut prints appeared beginning in the early 15th century in northern Europe. Since then, prints have been used to numerous ends, from Antonio Pollaioulo’s exploration of the nude form in motion to [Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec](/artist/henri-de-toulouse-lautrec)’s Parisian nightlife posters and [Francisco de Goya](/artist/francisco-de-goya)’s \"Caprichos\", which indicted the follies of European society. Contemporary artists like [Wade Guyton](/artist/wade-guyton) continue to experiment with new forms of printmaking.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50356575ab7498000200000d",
    "slug": "emerging-art",
    "name": "Emerging Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A general category for contemporary artworks created by young artists whose careers are on the rise. In addition to younger artists and newer works, the category also includes artists who are relatively under-recognized but for the most part considered on the path to critical and/or market acceptance. While characteristically championed by smaller galleries and art fairs focused on younger artists, larger galleries and institutions regularly focus their energy on so-called emerging artists to define new styles and careers.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5040d8322c14de0002000123",
    "slug": "abstract-landscape",
    "name": "Abstract Landscape",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“My pictures are full of climates, abstract climates. They're not nature per se, but a feeling.” —[Helen Frankenthaler](/artist/helen-frankenthaler)_\n\nFor many artists, even the purest abstraction is derived from nature—indeed, to invent the first non-objective painting in 1913, [Wassily Kandinsky](/artist/wassily-kandinsky) channeled his love of nature as an experience of color. Countless artists since, [Abstract Expressionist](/gene/abstract-expressionism) Frankenthaler included, have captured the [landscape](/gene/landscape) not in a literal likeness, but rather in its forms, colors, effects, or the subjective experience it gives rise to.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5048da0c51b5630002000214",
    "slug": "turkey",
    "name": "Turkey",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Turkey.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "504f728ff41bee000200037c",
    "slug": "contemporary-latin-american-art",
    "name": "Contemporary Latin American Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A general category for art created in Latin America since roughly 1970. Despite the obvious difficulty of casting broad generalizations about such a large and diverse region, the most dominant themes of the last 30 years have been the rise of [Conceptual](/gene/conceptual-art), [Minimalist](/gene/minimalism), and [Performance art](/gene/performance-art) during the 1960s and '70s, and the concurrent and ongoing strand of political practices that engage the contradictions, absurdities, and horrors of Western imperialism and military dictatorships. Contemporary artists like [Doris Salcedo](/artist/doris-salcedo) take the personal histories of political victims as a starting point, while [Vik Muniz](/artist/vik-muniz) focuses on materials to represent the effects of globalization and economic inequality. Especially since the 1990s, Latin American artists (like most artists around the world) work in a context increasingly exposed to the international art world through the proliferation of art fairs, biennials, and museums.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505b5a9b930ad000020008e0",
    "slug": "abstract-versus-figurative-art",
    "name": "Abstract versus Figurative Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_“There is no abstract art. You must always start with something. Afterward you can remove all traces of reality.” —[Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso)_\n\nOf all the art battles and debates of the 20th century, none has been as divisive as that between abstract and figurative art. With the emergence of [Cubism](/gene/cubism) and the movements and artists that followed it, as well as the writings of American critics like Clement Greenberg, the progression towards a non-objective abstraction (wherein no objects could be recognized) became the dominant story of modern art; in turn, figuration became discredited, labeled as retrograde and aligned with enemy politics (read: Communism and [Socialist Realism](/gene/socialist-realism), or the National Socialist dictate of figurative art). Yet in reality, for many artists throughout the 20th century and into the present day, the dividing line between abstraction and figuration was much more porous, leading these artists to create paintings and works on paper somewhere in between the two. In the immediate post-war period in Europe, [Francis Bacon](/artist/francis-bacon) walked what he called the “tightrope between abstraction and figuration” to ask existential questions about the image of man, while contemporary artists like [Cecily Brown](/artist/cecily-brown) continue the tradition of [Willem de Kooning](/artist/willem-de-kooning), pushing their figures even closer to complete abstraction.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc045c15c5000020008fa",
    "slug": "benin-art",
    "name": "Benin Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc1e6c15c500002000962",
    "slug": "mende-art",
    "name": "Mende Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "Art created by the Mende, one of the two largest ethnic groups in Sierra Leone. The Mende live in southern Sierra Leone and parts of Liberia, and are well known for their wooden [masks](/tag/mask), which are said to endow their wearers with spiritual power.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505cbfa96bf589000200093e",
    "slug": "yombe-art",
    "name": "Yombe Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc2a767ad450002000a23",
    "slug": "oku-art",
    "name": "Oku Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50356575ab7498000200000c",
    "slug": "contemporary-chinese-art",
    "name": "Contemporary Chinese Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Deng Xiaoping’s modernizing policies of the late 1970s offered artists more opportunities to learn about art from around the world, as well as the ability to work independently of state commission and the sanctioned [Socialist Realist](/gene/socialist-realism) style. A profusion of different styles and experimental tendencies subsequently emerged. [The Stars Group](/gene/the-stars-art-group-xing-xing), which included [Ai Weiwei](/artist/ai-weiwei), produced works spanning several different Western avant-garde styles, while the Xiamen Dada group created enigmatic works that subverted the logic of modernization. The ['85 New Wave](/gene/85-new-wave) culminated in the 1989 “China Avant-Garde” exhibition, which was shut down by the state after two days when [Xiao Lu](/artist/xiao-lu) shot a bullet into her own sculpture. The early 1990s saw the ascendancy of two styles that engaged in sharp cultural critiques: [Political Pop](/gene/political-pop) and [Cynical Realism](/gene/cynical-realism), as well as the performance-oriented [East Village movement](/gene/beijing-east-village) in Beijing. More recent movements include the [Post-70s Ego Generation](/gene/post-70s-ego-generation), which consists of young artists raised under China’s One Child policy who tend to take the self as subject rather than the collective. Many contemporary Chinese artists, however, such as [Cai Guo-Qiang](/artist/cai-guo-qiang) and Ai Weiwei most famously, continue to take broader social issues and traditions as the basis for their work.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50356574ab74980002000008",
    "slug": "post-war-american-art",
    "name": "Post-War American Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "America emerged from World War II relatively unscathed, with an economy on the rise and an artist population inspired by the European avant-garde, many of whom had relocated to the U.S. While Europe began the process of dealing with immeasurable trauma, New York emerged as a center of artistic activity, challenging Paris as the center of the international art world. [Abstract Expressionism](/gene/abstract-expressionism) would emerge in the 1950s, followed by the rise of [Neo-Dada](/gene/neo-dada), [Pop](/gene/pop-art), [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism), and [Conceptual Art](/gene/conceptual-art), among many other movements over the next decade. Rather than a style or set of ideas, Post-war American Art merely defines a time period, and is most often by auction houses to refer to art created between 1945 and 1970 (differentiating from [Modern and Impressionist](/gene/modern-and-impressionist-art) before and Contemporary after.)",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": null,
    "slug": "brutalism",
    "name": "Brutalism",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "Brutalism, an architectural aesthetic based on the idea of \"honest\" construction, was practiced from the 1950s to the 1970s. Brutalist buildings are recognizable for their rough appearance, linear, fortresslike, and blocky construction, as well as their use of common, industrial materials such as steel, glass, brick, and, most characteristically, raw concrete. Additionally, many Brutalist structures' functional components (such as water tanks, electrical towers, and support pillars) are left exposed on the outside of the building. As an architectural philosophy, Brutalism was often associated with utopian socialist ideology. Completed in 1952, Le Corbusier’s Cité radieuse—a public housing complex in Marseille that was built under the premise that each resident should have the same amount of space and equal access to sunlight—is often cited as the initial inspiration for the Brutalist style. Criticism of the style centers around its cold appearance. Brutalist buildings are often also associated with urban decay since they were often built by governments with little money, subject to poor maintenance, and the raw concrete weathered poorly and was subject to vandalism.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5045166c0827c100020000b7",
    "slug": "neo-plasticism",
    "name": "Neo-Plasticism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_\"The rhythm of relations of color and space makes the absolute appear.\" —Piet Mondrian_\n\nTerm coined by Dutch abstract painter [Piet Mondrian](/artist/piet-mondrian) and used as the title for a collection of writings he published in 1919. Neo-Plasticism, which can be best described as a philosophy, attempted a total overhaul and purification of all art that had come before in its exclusive application of horizontal and vertical lines and primary colors, black, and white. Rejecting the individualistic, emotional tenor of the then dominant [German and Austrian Expressionism](/gene/austrian-and-german-expressionism), the style harnessed the power of the \"mutual relation of forms,\" which could express a spiritual, even transcendental harmony. The universal and lasting purity achieved at the intersection of horizontal and vertical acted as a hopeful opportunity for wholeness and redemption after the nightmare of World War One. And aesthetically, the pared-down essentialism and flat, geometric sensibility of Neo-Plasticism would, like [Constructivism](/gene/constructivism), prove significant across several mediums and movements, like [Bauhaus](/gene/bauhaus), [Concrete Art](/gene/concrete-art), [Purism](/gene/purism), and later American abstraction.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "504e5712b8fb02000200061a",
    "slug": "portugal",
    "name": "Portugal",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Portugal.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505cbfeb92a60b00020009a3",
    "slug": "iban-art",
    "name": "Iban Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc072928fbf00020008ff",
    "slug": "hopi-art",
    "name": "Hopi Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "503d3ec1c8363c0002000262",
    "slug": "ottoman-art",
    "name": "Ottoman Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "504664d93187090002000114",
    "slug": "artists-books",
    "name": "Artists’ Books",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_“An art book is a museum without walls.” —André Malraux_\n\nArtists' books span the range from sculptures in the form of pop-up books to artworks realized in a more traditional book format. The much-debated term, attributed to curator Diane Vanderlip in her 1973 exhibition “Artists’ Books” at the Moore College of Art in Philadelphia, emerged in a climate of social and political activism in the late 1960s and '70s, wherein artists viewed books as a democratizing medium in line with thinking about the dematerialization of the art object. Artists including [Sol Lewitt](/artist/sol-lewitt), [Ed Ruscha](/artist/ed-ruscha), and [Lawrence Weiner](/artist/lawrence-weiner) viewed their books as “alternative spaces” to display their artworks, much in the same vein as alternative exhibition spaces.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "504664c43187090002000111",
    "slug": "pastel",
    "name": "Pastel",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Pastel refers to a drawing tool made of colored powder molded into a stick. This inherently fragile chalky material produces rich and luminous colors of a particular softness. Pastels were in use as early as the 16th century, when artists such as [Leonardo da Vinci](/artist/leonardo-da-vinci) incorporated the material into preparatory drawings to add touches of coloring. During the 18th century pastels became a popular medium for works of portraiture, such as those by artists [Maurice Quentin de la Tour](/artist/maurice-quentin-de-la-tour) and [Jean-Siméon Chardin](/artist/jean-simeon-chardin). With a variable nature particularly suited for capturing motion, changes in light, and other fleeting effects, the medium was an ideal one for the [Impressionists](/gene/impressionism). [Edgar Degas](/artist/edgar-degas) widely experimented with pastels, sometimes adding water and other painting media including watercolor and gouache. In his depictions of ballerinas, he used pastels to convey the dancers’ diaphanous, fluttering costumes, illuminated by the glow of stage lights.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc0af6bf589000200098a",
    "slug": "papua-new-guinea-art",
    "name": "Papua New Guinea Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc3d86bf5890002000a13",
    "slug": "yaka-art",
    "name": "Yaka Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507433d3cd92460002000cee",
    "slug": "buddhist-art-and-architecture",
    "name": "Buddhist Art and Architecture",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc35d67ad450002000a42",
    "slug": "guatemalan-art",
    "name": "Guatemalan Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "506485437c58620002000441",
    "slug": "antiquity-as-subject",
    "name": "Antiquity as Subject",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that visually reference antiquity (Greek and Roman culture), from ruins like the Colosseum to idealized depictions of the human body, such as ancient sculptures of Venus. Importantly, in addition to the various Classicist movements throughout the ages, many other art movements—from Orientalism to [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism)—frequently pictured antiquity.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4c8eb5f0450002001b55",
    "slug": "floor-lamp",
    "name": "Floor Lamp",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "Lighting that characteristically includes a heavy base and a long neck, upon which a light source is attached. Floor lamps are often installed near a couch or chair to provide light for reading.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "506c6b483445b40002000e2a",
    "slug": "parties-and-celebrations",
    "name": "Parties and Celebrations",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "For centuries, art has been used to commemorate special events, such as coronations, important battles, and royal weddings. However, it was only in the 19th century that [Impressionist](/gene/impressionism) artists like [Pierre-Auguste Renoir](/artist/pierre-auguste-renoir) brought parties and celebrations of everyday people to the forefront, depicting the leisure activities of a new middle class. Ever since, artists have used multiple media to document religious, personal, political, and social festivities pulled from a broad spectrum of society. For example, [Judy Chicago](/artist/judy-chicago)’s _[The Dinner Party](/artwork/judy-chicago-the-dinner-party-1)_ famously reimagined the Last Supper (probably the most reproduced party in art history) as a get-together of women undervalued in history as a way to highlight and celebrate their accomplishments.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4b55b5f0450002001b22",
    "slug": "vase",
    "name": "Vase",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "A container that is deeper than it is wide, and which is either for decoration or for holding plants and flowers. Vases—and the paintings adorning them—are one of the principal ways in which we have learned about [Greek art](/gene/greek-art-and-architecture) and life, thanks to the ability of ceramics to withstand the test of time and the sheer quantity of these produced in Greek culture.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc39a6bf5890002000a07",
    "slug": "mbole-art",
    "name": "Mbole Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5060a8f969b33a0002000102",
    "slug": "western-zhou-dynasty",
    "name": "Western Zhou Dynasty",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5064838c78b81c00020004a1",
    "slug": "the-afterlife",
    "name": "The Afterlife",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "The concept of the afterlife—a realm after death in which the deceased retain some form of existence—is central to the philosophy and religion of many pre-modern cultures and finds explicit manifestation in the artwork of such cultures. In ancient Greek and Roman funerary tombstones, the deceased are depicted in the company of living family members, a convention often interpreted to represent the continuing connection between the living and the dead and the possibility of reunion in the afterlife. In contemporary art, [Damien Hirst](/artist/damien-hirst)’s _Monument to the Living and the Dead and I Am Become Death, Shatterer of Worlds_ explore the fluid boundaries of existence between life and death. Rather than providing concrete depictions of the afterlife, Hirst’s works imply that mankind experiences a continually present living death.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5069c023d770f60002000595",
    "slug": "venetian-school",
    "name": "Venetian School",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Denotes the thriving and distinctive artistic style of Venice from the last quarter of the 15th century to the mid-late 16th century pioneered by [Gentile](/artist/gentile-bellini) and [Giovanni Bellini](/artist/giovanni-bellini). While also yielding considerable political power, the Venetian school favored inventive use of color and the sensuous depiction of light and color over the rationality and primacy of line that characterized the [High Renaissance](/gene/high-renaissance) in the Florentine and Roman schools. Epitomized in the paintings of [Giorgione](/artist/giorgione), [Titian](/artist/tiziano-vecellio-called-titian), [Tintoretto](/artist/jacopo-robusti-called-jacopo-tintoretto), and Veronese, the _scuole_ punched up religious and classical subject matter with luminous nudes, dynamic compositions, and brilliant hues. Indeed, the forward-looking Venetian school was also responsible for the shift toward the now-dominant use of oil paint on canvas and wood panel as opposed to fresco wall painting, perhaps owing to the overwhelming humidity near the sea. The school's influence proved great stylistically, too: its pleasure-seeking, even poetic sensibility, which stood in contrast to the cool, studied quality of Italian [Mannerism](/gene/mannerism) paved the way for the melodramatic vividness of 17th century [Baroque](/gene/baroque).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5074a1e2e6df1f0002001ac2",
    "slug": "19th-century-american-paintings-and-works-on-paper",
    "name": "19th Century American Paintings and Works on Paper",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The evolution of styles in 19th-century American art captured the development of the country itself—from young, rural republic to international superpower. Influenced by the [Romantics](/gene/romanticism), [Thomas Cole](/artist/thomas-cole) and the [Hudson River School](/gene/hudson-river-school) (the first homegrown American movement) celebrated nature and expanse in dramatic fashion in the early-mid century, their canvases an expression of American pride. Watercolor also gained new currency among serious painters, becoming a technique that would thrive in the last quarter of the century. By the 1860s and after the devastating Civil War, painters like [Winslow Homer](/artist/winslow-homer) and [Thomas Eakins](/artist/thomas-eakins) emphasized the dark and austere realism of everyday scenes in their work, responding also to the dominant style of European academies. This tradition of emulation continued in the 1870s and '80s with the [American Impressionists](/gene/american-impressionism), working outdoors to render hazy landscapes with broad brushwork. Likewise, [Tonalism](/gene/tonalism)—a progressive movement of transcendentalists—treated nature expressively, even mysteriously, with a spiritual underpinning. At the close of the century, artists brilliantly showcased the wealth and opulence of turn-of-the-century Gilded Age society, though they never entirely strayed from classically American outdoor scenes. From the richly textured portraits of [John Singer Sargent](/artist/john-singer-sargent) and stylized subjects of [James Abbott McNeill Whistler](/artist/james-abbott-mcneill-whistler), to Homer’s windswept landscapes, American art showcased both sophistication and the vast and fruitful American landscape.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4bfec51f290002001bd4",
    "slug": "rug",
    "name": "Rug",
    "family": "Textiles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4c35b5f0450002001b4a",
    "slug": "lighting",
    "name": "Lighting",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "Lighting has been a central concern in architecture and design since ancient times. While the use of natural light has always been an aspect of architectural practice, for thousands of years buildings considered the effects and uses of early forms of artificial lighting, such as candles, rushlights, and oil lamps. Developments in lighting saw rapid changes during the Industrial Revolution. Gas street lamps arrived in London in 1815; the electric arc lamp, made from two carbon electrodes, was developed in the early 19th century and first used at the Paris Opéra in 1844; and the Englishman Joseph Swan and American Thomas Edison developed the first incandescent electric lamps in 1878 and 1879, hugely increasing access to electrical lighting. Iconic lamp designs, such as those by [Tiffany Studios](/artist/tiffany-studios) and [Isamu Noguchi](/artist/isamu-noguchi), have become iconic, historical works. In the mid-20th century, fluorescent lighting was widely installed in offices and schools. In recent decades, energy conservation has been a major concern, leading to the continued development of more efficient technologies and designs.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5064a05b7c58620002000538",
    "slug": "song-dynasty",
    "name": "Song Dynasty",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507479c1cd92460002001828",
    "slug": "classical-mythology",
    "name": "Classical Mythology",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that depict Greek and Roman mythology. Greek mythology, concerned largely with the lives of gods and heroic humans, has origins in oral tradition but was recorded by poets such as Homer, Sophocles, and Euripides. Roman mythology, which borrowed heavily from Greek predecessors, often dealt with myths of origin, social institutions, and human destiny; key poets included Virgil and Ovid and central stories include those of the She-Wolf of the Capitoline and the Rape of the Sabine Women. Mythological narratives were represented widely in Greek and Roman art, particularly in pottery, sculpture, and mosaics. The allegorical power of the widely known stories remained long after the decline of associated pagan religions, and overlaps between pagan and Christian imagery are visible in the tombs of the earliest Christians. While classical imagery was largely dormant in the Medieval period, it returned in full force in iconic Renaissance paintings and sculptures by the likes of [Botticelli](/artist/alessandro-filipepi-called-sandro-botticelli), [Titian](/artist/tiziano-vecellio-called-titian), and [Raphael](/artist/raphael-raffaello-sanzio-da-urbino) in Italy and [Albrecht Dürer](/artist/albrecht-durer) in Germany, all of whom sought to reconcile Christian piety with Classical thought. Subsequent painters who dealt regularly with classical themes included [Peter Paul Rubens](/artist/peter-paul-rubens) and [Nicolas Poussin](/artist/nicolas-poussin), and in 17th- and 18th-century academic painting, the use of classical stories was an esteemed technique. In the last two centuries, artists have treated classical myths with a great deal of flexibility, examples including [Gustave Moreau](/artist/gustave-moreau)'s Symbolist depictions, [Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso)'s works concerning the Spanish Civil War, and [Romare Bearden](/artist/romare-bearden)'s retelling of classical stories with black subjects.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50786fb891f2b00002000478",
    "slug": "caucasus",
    "name": "Caucasus",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in the Caucasus region. While the definition of the Caucasus region is contested, it is generally considered to include the countries of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia (including its contested territories, Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, and South Ossetia, the statehood of which is partially recognized); as well as parts of northern Iran, northeastern Turkey and southwestern Russia.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "506486687ca2ea00020004ca",
    "slug": "ceremonial-object",
    "name": "Ceremonial Object",
    "family": "Antiquities, Artifacts, and Religious Objects",
    "description": "Objects created specifically to be used in a ceremony. Throughout history, various objects—both symbolic and those with a given function—have been central to religious and cultural events. These could be used to communicate with gods or goddesses; enable the participation of ancestors; or allow basic functions of a service to progress. Examples include types of vessels, masks, sculptures of deities, incense burners, and decorations and adornments on religious scrolls and books.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50774c3be2910d00020004d3",
    "slug": "american-mid-century-design",
    "name": "American Mid-Century Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "From the end of World War II and into the mid-1960s, American Mid-Century design is characterized by the use of new materials, like plastic, and of organic shapes. Designers include Charles and Ray Eams, Edward Wormley, R. Buckminster Fuller, and Greta Magnusson Grossman.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50784d5530de9800020010ee",
    "slug": "israel",
    "name": "Israel",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Israel.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4cdf623c020002001bf2",
    "slug": "ceiling-light",
    "name": "Ceiling Light",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "[Lighting](/gene/lighting) suspended from the ceiling, such as chandeliers, hanging lights, and hanging lamps. Wealthy homeowners in Europe, such as those seen in the _Arnolfini Wedding Portrait_ (1434) began installing chandeliers as of the 15th century. Silver chandeliers appeared in France and England from the 16th century, and in the 19th century, gas and electric lighting became available. As in all areas of design, the discovery of new materials and improvements in manufacturing technology in the 20th century allowed for great innovation in lighting.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4d96623c020002001c08",
    "slug": "flatware",
    "name": "Flatware",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "Forks, knives, spoons, or any utensils used for eating.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc30ec15c500002000988",
    "slug": "maranao-art",
    "name": "Maranao Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5077473b1b2a1100020004f2",
    "slug": "mycenaean-art",
    "name": "Mycenaean Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "506e389ed5ef4a0002000b06",
    "slug": "bronze",
    "name": "Bronze",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Bronze, an alloy of copper, tin, and sometimes lead, has long been a favored medium for sculpture and decorative objects around the world. Craftsmen developed techniques for working with bronze in early civilizations in China, the Eastern Mediterranean, the Middle East, South Asia, and later in the Americas and West Africa. The period of widespread use of Bronze throughout Europe, from around 2500 and 800 B.C., has been coined \"the Bronze age.\" In Greece around the 7th Century B.C., new casting techniques allowed for the creation of a large number of highly detailed, life-size sculptures, a tradition that was passed on to Rome. These developments paved the way for iconic works such as [Lorenzo Ghiberti](/artist/lorenzo-ghiberti)'s doors for the Florence Baptistry, [Donatello](/artist/donatello)'s _David_ (1440), and then the works of [Auguste Rodin](/artist/auguste-rodin), [Constantin Brancusi](/artist/constantin-brancusi), [Alberto Giacometti](/artist/constantin-brancusi), [Fernando Botero](/artist/fernando-botero), and [Louise Bourgeois](/artist/louise-bourgeois). Contemporary artists such as [Thomas Schütte](/artist/thomas-schutte) and [Kiki Smith](/artist/kiki-smith) continue to present new takes on the human form in bronze.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c48c4c9348a00020019ac",
    "slug": "wood",
    "name": "Wood",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "A general category for art and design works in which wood is a primary material. Wood is one of the oldest materials mankind has used to create objects, and the number of ways in which artists and craftsmen manipulate and incorporate the material is almost infinite. Various artists working today showcase its natural rawness in assemblages or as incorporated found objects, while others like [Tony Cragg](/artist/tony-cragg) sand and polish wood down so it becomes incredibly smooth and refined.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4a2f024bd200020019a2",
    "slug": "storage",
    "name": "Storage",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "A term that can apply to a wide range of design objects, from classic modern shelving and cabinets to eclectic contemporary coat racks. Generally speaking, storage refers to a category of objects intended to organize, contain, or store other objects or items.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4cb0dbf32e00020019ef",
    "slug": "table-lamp",
    "name": "Table Lamp",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "Light sources that are meant to be placed on [tables](/gene/table). Contemporary lamps come in an endless variety, though the most common include a heavy base and a round tapered shade that covers the lightbulb.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "506110c6627f030002000534",
    "slug": "contemporary-middle-eastern-and-north-african-art",
    "name": "Contemporary Middle Eastern and North African Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Art created in the Middle East and North Africa since roughly 1980. Given the region's incredible diversity and breadth, spanning from the Mediterranean to Iran, the category is necessarily general. Middle Eastern artists often work in contexts fraught with conflict, finding themselves in war zones or at the crossroads of tradition and rapid development. In many cases, due to censorship and other constraints, artists originally from the region now work in exile. These artists often call the West’s prevailing representations of the Middle East into question, as well as exploring their own dislocation from home. [Shirin Neshat](/artist/shirin-neshat-2), for example, makes allegorical films and photographs about fundamentalist Islam after the Iranian Revolution, while Emily Jacir and [Walid Raad](/artist/walid-raad) engage the subjective processes of remembering and documenting the histories of regions and peoples in conflict.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50748cc457362b0002001aca",
    "slug": "southeast-europe",
    "name": "Southeast Europe",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Southeast Europe, which includes Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5075dfe34659e400020010f4",
    "slug": "kushan-empire",
    "name": "Kushan Empire",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50774c67e410960002000503",
    "slug": "american-studio-craft-movement",
    "name": "American Studio Craft Movement",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "While the 1920s and '30s in the U.S. were marked by widespread mechanization and the industrial output of design, during the postwar period American designers began creating works that foregrounded historic craft methods and rejected mass-production. A major root of this rejection was the previous generation of European avant-gardes who came to the U.S. before and after WWII, many of whom (like [Josef](/artist/josef-albers) and [Anni Albers](/artist/anni-albers)) were educated at the Bauhaus and took up teaching posts at U.S. institutions like Black Mountain College and Cranbrook Art Academy. The period's financial prosperity allowed for this rejection of mass-production to happen—particularly training in applied arts (supported by the G.I. Bill) and the support of studios set up for one-of-a-kind object production. Notable figures in this movement include [George Nakashima](/artist/george-nakashima), [Wharton Esherick](/artist/wharton-esherick), and [Sam Maloof](/artist/sam-maloof).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4682c9348a0002001960",
    "slug": "chair",
    "name": "Chair",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "The history of the chair is long and diverse, with distinct styles emerging in ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome, and China. In [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) and [Baroque](/gene/baroque) Europe, designers of the most coveted chairs tended towards a great deal of embellishment. In the 19th century, designers sought out means of making more comfortable chairs for everyday use, and groups such as the [Arts and Crafts Movement](/gene/arts-and-crafts-movement) and the [Wiener Werkstätte](/artist/wiener-werkstatte) created simple, vernacular designs that could be more widely produced and obtained. In the 20th century, a number of iconic modernist styles of chair emerged, envisioned by designers such as [Marcel Breuer](/artist/marcel-breuer), [Charles and Ray Eames](/artist/charles-and-ray-eames), and [Gerrit Rietveld](/artist/gerrit-thomas-rietveld).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4a05177a7a0002001afa",
    "slug": "bed",
    "name": "Bed",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "Beds—not depictions of them, in [paintings](/gene/painting) or [photographs](/gene/photography), but the physical objects. Beds could be functional, standalone items of [furniture](/gene/furniture); exquisitely designed [objects](/gene/design); or components of [sculptures](/gene/sculpture).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50774701a748ae0002000516",
    "slug": "minoan-art",
    "name": "Minoan Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50649fb47ca2ea00020005d7",
    "slug": "east-asian-calligraphy",
    "name": "East Asian Calligraphy",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50649fd87ca2ea00020005da",
    "slug": "arabic-slash-farsi-calligraphy",
    "name": "Arabic/Farsi Calligraphy",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "While the exact date and location of the origin of Arabic writing is debated, the earliest evidence dates to the 6th century AD. The prophet Muhummad's revelations, which were recorded as the contents of the Qu'ran, occurred in the early part of the 7th century. During the spread of Islam in subsequent centuries, a legible script printed on parchment was essential for transporting and sharing the Qu'ran. In the 9th century, paper became the preferred medium, which led to the development of a more fluid, cursive script in place of the more angular style of the past; paper permitted not only the spread of religious texts, but also the publishing of large numbers of secular books. Farsi calligraphy reached its height around 1400 AD and was regularly used for poetry. While Arabic continued to be the language of sacred texts, Farsi was considered the language of highest literary merit, even as far away as the Ottoman and Mughal empires (present-day Turkey and India, respectively). Images of God were forbidden by the Qu'ran, and figurative art was often suspected of idolatry, so calligraphy is amongst the highest art forms in the Muslim world. Contemporary uses of calligraphy can be found in [Ghada Amer](/artist/ghada-amer)'s sculptures, [Shirin Neshat](/artist/shirin-neshat-2)'s photography, and [Shahzia Sikhander](/artist/shahzia-sikander)'s drawings and paintings.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c47023dda300002001963",
    "slug": "table",
    "name": "Table",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "An item of [furniture](/gene/furniture) that features a flat top and legs, a pillar, or trestles. The earliest known tables existed in [Egypt](/gene/egypt) during the Fourth Dynasty. Until the 20th century, basic table designs were simple, featuring either a circular or rectangular design and legs or a single foot. The use of [metals](/gene/metal), plastics, and glass since the early 1900s has enabled tables to take an almost endless array of forms.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507c49492ea57a00020018a8",
    "slug": "armchair",
    "name": "Armchair",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "A [chair](/gene/chair) with extensions at its sides to support a person’s arms. At a rectangular [table](/gene/table), an armchair is usually employed alongside [side chairs](/gene/side-chair). Armchairs are positioned at the heads of the table—and are traditionally for the more important or senior members of a group—while armchairs are positioned at the sides.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c499a024bd20002001986",
    "slug": "dining-table",
    "name": "Dining Table",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "506617db6988580002000080",
    "slug": "yuan-dynasty",
    "name": "Yuan Dynasty",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507c49e3177a7a0002001aed",
    "slug": "chaise-lounge",
    "name": "Chaise Lounge",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "Chaise lounges—elongated chairs designed for reclining—go by many names, including _chaise longues_, long chairs, and daybeds. In the Victorian era, the chaise lounge became popular as a “fainting couch” for tightly-corseted women, and symbolized luxury and relaxation in the home. In collaboration with [Charlotte Perriand](/artist/charlotte-perriand) and [Pierre Jeanneret](/artist/pierre-jeanneret), the famed architect [Le Corbusier](/artist/le-corbusier) designed a modern version of the chaise lounge in 1928, which featured a sleek metal frame that could move up or down to meet the user’s preferences. The American duo [Charles and Ray Eames](/artist/charles-and-ray-eames) produced multiple chaise lounges, including the white fiberglass “La Chaise” (1948), the “Billy Wilder” napping couch (1968), and the ever-popular plywood and leather “Lounge Chair and Ottoman” (1956).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4b2c2ea57a0002001915",
    "slug": "bowl",
    "name": "Bowl",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "A round dish used for food, liquid, or ornamentation.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5064837849bc8800020003f4",
    "slug": "caricatures-and-parody",
    "name": "Caricatures and Parody",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“The caricaturist plays with the likeness of his victim, and distorts it to express just what he feels about his fellow man.” –E.H. Gombrich_\n\nCaricatures exaggerate features of individuals for the purpose of humor, mockery or criticism. Related to caricature, parody is a narrative or literary device—as opposed to a type of visual depiction—that imitates an original work or set of conventions while distorting it to comic, satirical or critical effect. In Western art, parody can be traced back to ancient Greek drama, while caricature is generally considered to have emerged out of 16th-century carnivalesque culture and grotesque disfigurations of the human figure. Over the course of the late-18th and 19th centuries in Europe and the United States, caricatures circulated in the press and pamphlets often delivered pointed political or social commentary. [William Hogarth](/artist/william-hogarth), considered the father of English caricature, made light of English social mores in his paintings and prints of the late 1700s, and by the 1830s in France a publication devoted entirely to the form, _La Caricature_, provided a forum for [Honoré Daumier](/artist/honore-daumier)’s political drawings. These modes—in particular parody—have been of interest to late-20th-century artists in part because of their prevalence in culture at large, as the popularity of the mockumentary, satirical sketch comedy, lampoons, and spoofs attests.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc37992a60b0002000a24",
    "slug": "art-of-tonga",
    "name": "Art of Tonga",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507c48ff2ea57a00020018a0",
    "slug": "furniture",
    "name": "Furniture",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "A general category for functional design objects used in living and working spaces. The history of furniture, which spans virtually all cultures and time periods, reveals a tremendous variety of functions and styles. In France, for example, resplendent 17th-century court furniture by craftsman such as [André-Charles Boulle](/artist/andre-charles-boulle-the-elder-1) gave way to the stark simplicity and functionalism of 20th-century designs by the likes of [Jean Prouvé](/artist/jean-prouve) and [Charlotte Perriand](/artist/charlotte-perriand). While the modern Western home and office are strongly associated with items such as the couch and the desk, traditional Japanese interiors almost entirely lack freestanding furniture. In the 20th century, furniture design was an integral part of the modernist artistic practice of icons such as [Donald Judd](/artist/donald-judd) and [Isamu Noguchi](/artist/isamu-noguchi).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507c497581f5960002001a71",
    "slug": "side-chair",
    "name": "Side Chair",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "A chair without arms, meant for the side of a [table](/gene/table). Chairs at the head of a table characteristically have arms.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c49bf177a7a0002001ae0",
    "slug": "side-table",
    "name": "Side Table",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4b75b5f0450002001b2b",
    "slug": "tray",
    "name": "Tray",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "Trays—not depictions of them, in [paintings](/gene/painting) or [photographs](/gene/photography), but the physical objects. Trays can be functional, standalone items; exquisitely designed objects; or components of [sculptures](/gene/sculpture).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505cc2ef67ad450002000a2a",
    "slug": "moche-art",
    "name": "Moche Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5075e00586203100020010ed",
    "slug": "sui-dynasty",
    "name": "Sui Dynasty",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505fa1601e26740002000072",
    "slug": "post-world-war-ii-school-of-paris",
    "name": "Post-World War II School of Paris",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_\"The number, the diversity of movements and the personalities of the creating artists, not ... a school but rather a salutary anti-school.\" —[Pierre Soulages](/artist/pierre-soulages)_\n\nA center of artistic innovation in the early 20th century, Paris welcomed back a cohort of important modern artists after WWII, including [Matisse](/artist/henri-matisse), [Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso), and [Giacometti](/artist/alberto-giacometti). It also hosted a new generation of international artists, working in a variety of styles and together revitalizing the Paris art scene. Perhaps most closely associated with this loose, geographical community is a style of lyrical abstraction practiced by Soulages and [Nicolas de Staël](/artist/nicolas-de-stael), as well as the newly minted \"[Art Brut](/gene/art-brut)\". In this diverse artistic milieu, the Kineticism of [Victor Vasarely](/artist/victor-vasarely) and [Jean Tinguely](/artist/jean-tinguely) could be seen alongside Los Disidentes (a group of expatriate Latin American artists). A series of exhibitions in the 1950s helped to mythologize the School and cement for the public a list, however informal, of its members.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5064a08c49bc880002000537",
    "slug": "qing-dynasty",
    "name": "Qing Dynasty",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507478a6c9aa95000200176e",
    "slug": "related-to-religion",
    "name": "Related to Religion",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A general category for artworks that feature religious subject matter or are in some respect connected to religion, but are not immediately understood as works of religious art (i.e. those made for a church or sacred space). Examples come from a wide range of movements and include subject matter from Christian, Islamic, Buddhist, Hindu, and other faiths; these works are often understood as openly criticizing religious subject matter. Recent examples include controversial works like [Andres Serrano](/artist/andres-serrano)'s _Piss Christ_ and [Chris Ofili](/artist/chris-ofili)'s _The Holy Virgin Mary_ (which included elephant dung).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5078769ce8db2100020005b5",
    "slug": "post-war-european-art",
    "name": "Post-War European Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A general category for European artists working in the period following World War II (roughly 1945-70). Though necessarily broad, in general this group of artists attempted to re-establish identity and cope with the trauma of the war, the onset of the Cold War, and the shift in the art world center from New York to Paris. The period saw a multitude of movements appear across the continent—including Tachisme, [Art Informel](/gene/art-informel), [Nouveau Réalisme](/gene/nouveau-realisme), [Fluxus](/gene/fluxus), and [Arte Povera](/gene/arte-povera)—both originating in Europe and informed by international developments, particularly in the United States and Japan. Some of the countless major artists to emerge included [Jean Dubuffet](/artist/jean-dubuffet), [Alberto Giacometti](/artist/alberto-giacometti), and [Francis Bacon](/artist/francis-bacon).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4bb3f18a5a0002001bc4",
    "slug": "tapestry-and-wall-hanging",
    "name": "Tapestry and Wall Hanging",
    "family": "Textiles",
    "description": "A form of [textile arts](/gene/textile-arts), tapestry making involves the often-meticulous process of weaving continuous and discontinuous threads of fabric to produce either pictorial or abstract designs. While the earliest tapestries date to 11th-century Germany, in several European centers the commercial production of tapestries for nobility began in the 14th century and expanded thereafter. Among the most iconic works produced during this period are the seven tapestries of [_The Hunt of the Unicorn_](/artwork/the-unicorn-at-bay-from-the-hunt-of-the-unicorn-tapestries), which are made of wool, silk, and metallic thread and follow a detailed, symbol-laden narrative. With changing tastes and attitudes in Europe, commercial tapestry production substantially decreased in the 19th century. Interest in tapestry was renewed in the late 19th century by the [Arts and Crafts movement](/gene/arts-and-crafts-movement) in England and the Wiener Werkstätte in Germany, which advocated preindustrial craftsmanship. In the 20th century, artist [Anni Albers](/artist/anni-albers) was a proponent of tapestry weaving at the [Bauhaus](/gene/bauhaus) and at [Black Mountain College](/gene/black-mountain-college), while present-day artists such as [Sheila Hicks](/artist/sheila-hicks) continue in this tradition. [Alighiero e Boetti](/artist/alighiero-e-boetti) is known for involving other craftsmen in the production of tapestries, while [El Anatsui](/artist/el-anatsui) incorporates scrap metal and discarded plastic into his intricate tapestry-like wall hangings.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4d4ab5f0450002001b6b",
    "slug": "jewelry",
    "name": "Jewelry",
    "family": "Artistic Disciplines",
    "description": "A category for objects of personal adornment—such as rings, bracelets, necklaces, earrings, and pendants. Since antiquity, jewelry has often fulfilled a functional as well as decorative role, whether as protective and magical talismans or signifiers of wealth and power. Jewelry was also used to distinguish members of a particular religion or indicate social status, a tradition that persists to this day along with the custom of giving jewels as tokens of love and friendship. The art of jewelry-making includes intricate and delicate metalwork, gem engraving, enamel painting, and all different aspects of design.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "505ce943b6bf600002000162",
    "slug": "art-of-the-congo",
    "name": "Art of the Congo",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5060aafc7b9158000200015d",
    "slug": "eastern-zhou-dynasty",
    "name": "Eastern Zhou Dynasty",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5064a04377539e0002000585",
    "slug": "ming-dynasty",
    "name": "Ming Dynasty",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "506b655dbf313e00020014f7",
    "slug": "art-of-the-upper-paleolithic",
    "name": "Art of the Upper Paleolithic",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4a66c51f290002001b92",
    "slug": "vessel",
    "name": "Vessel",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "[Bowls](/gene/bowl), [vases](/gene/vase]), and other hollow containers characteristically used for liquids.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c6812f1a2ab0002000309",
    "slug": "poster",
    "name": "Poster",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Large printed pictures—usually a combination of images and words—that advertise events or messages. Posters are usually printed without regard for edition size and installed in public for a mass audience. The first large-scale color posters (printed using color lithography) appeared in the mid-19th century in Paris and became popular in other European countries and in the United States toward the end of the 19th century. Through the late 20th century, developments in [photography](/gene/photography) and [photomontage](/gene/photomontage) made posters one of the most influential forms of propaganda and advertising, as well as an important way in which youth culture identified itself.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4f9bf18a5a0002001cb3",
    "slug": "chrome-plated",
    "name": "Chrome-Plated",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "While this category primarily concerns [design objects](/gene/design), it applies to any works featuring a chromium layer that has been electroplated onto all or part of its [metal](/gene/metal) or [plastic](/gene/plastic) surface(s). Chrome-plating is used to help surfaces resist abrasion and corrosion, as well as to create a highly polished finish. Chrome is most often associated with automobiles, particularly those of the 1950s and [’60s](/gene/1960s).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507c50212ea57a0002001a50",
    "slug": "wallpaper",
    "name": "Wallpaper",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "Decorative paper that is applied in strips to the walls of a room. In Europe, wallpaper became popular in the [17th century](/gene/17th-century). In the [18th century](/gene/18th-century), machines were developed for printing wallpaper, and during the [19th century](/gene/19th-century) it became widely available in varieties that contained as many as 20 colors. While wallpaper was popular during the first third of the [20th century](/gene/20th-century-art), Modernism’s preference for white walls led to its decline.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "508037a378fe1e0002000581",
    "slug": "patinated-and-oxidized",
    "name": "Patinated and Oxidized",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Patination and oxidation are chemical reactions that change the surface appearance of metals like bronze or copper, creating a green, pigmented “patina,” or “verdigris.” This chemical change occurs naturally as metal ages, as with [ancient ritual bronzes](https://www.artsy.net/artwork/504604d92c4be800020002a4) from China, but it may also be the deliberate choice of the sculptor. Bronze sculptures from [classical Greece and Rome](https://www.artsy.net/gene/greek-and-roman-art-and-architecture/artworks?for_sale=&include_medium_filter_in_aggregation=true&medium=sculpture), such as the famous [_She-Wolf of the Capitoline_](https://www.artsy.net/artwork/she-wolf-of-the-capitoline), were cherished by [Renaissance](https://www.artsy.net/gene/renaissance/artworks?for_sale=&include_medium_filter_in_aggregation=true&medium=sculpture) artists like [Donatello](https://www.artsy.net/artist/donatello), who mimicked those works’ patina to connote antiquity. Today, contemporary artists like [Igor Mitoraj](https://www.artsy.net/artist/igor-mitoraj) replicate this aesthetic. Other artists have exploited oxidation processes for various formal effects, including [Andy Warhol’s](https://www.artsy.net/artist/andy-warhol) infamous Oxidation paintings—made from the reaction of urine on metallic copper paint—or the rust on [Richard Serra’s](https://www.artsy.net/artist/richard-serra) [_Tilted Arc_ (1981)](https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-how-richard-serra-changed-the-course-of-public-art), the result of the public steel sculpture being subjected to the elements.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "509854e6eb9b19000200000e",
    "slug": "etching-slash-engraving",
    "name": "Etching/Engraving",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Most likely derived from the decoration of metal armor in Northern Europe during the 15th century, etching and engraving are the two major intaglio printmaking techniques. Though they produce visually similar results, etching involves incising a wax-coated metal plate with a sharp tool and placing the plate into an acid bath. The acid corrodes the exposed lines, leaving the waxy ground unaffected; the plate is then inked and printed, forcing the paper into the incised lines. Considered one of the great masters of the technique, [Rembrandt van Rijn](/artist/rembrandt-van-rijn) harnessed the medium’s similarity to drawing with a pencil or pen. Engraving, the oldest intaglio technique and the most common method seen in Old Master prints, involves directly incising a metal matrix and then printing. Engraving arguably reached its pinnacle with [Albrecht Dürer](/artist/albrecht-durer), who mastered the technique's precise and tapered lines to achieve great tonality as seen in [this print](artwork/albrecht-durer-st-anthony).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50870332a1b4cc000200070c",
    "slug": "linear-forms",
    "name": "Linear Forms",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "A term for artworks that foreground straight lines and discrete shapes as if drawn with a ruler, without indication of the artist’s hand. While lines demonstrating a mathematical precision and edge can be found in figurative works emphasizing linear perspective as well as classical architecture, such forms are generally found in abstract art, design, and architecture. Classic examples include paintings by [Piet Mondrian](/artist/piet-mondrian) or [Josef Albers](/artist/josef-albers), [Donald Judd](/artist/donald-judd)'s [Minimalist](/gene/minimalism) sculptures, or [Bauhaus](/gene/bauhaus) architecture.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5081759541b889000200022c",
    "slug": "altered-and-substituted-canvases",
    "name": "Altered and Substituted Canvases",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_“While working on one of my perforated canvases, I do not want to make a painting: I want to open up space, create a new dimension for art . . . I have not attempted to decorate a surface but on the contrary I have tried to break its dimensional limitations.” —[Lucio Fontana](/artist/lucio-fontana)_\n\nSince the 1950s, many artists working with canvas have used the medium to probe the fundaments not of paint on a support, but of the support itself. Some have explored the material properties of the support by perforating and slashing it (as did Fontana), twisting and contorting it (like Stephen Parreno), or replacing it entirely with everything from metallic foil to plastic. For Fontana, the alteration of a canvas in his \"Concetto Spaziale\" (spatial concept) series was a way to move beyond the picture plane and activate the space behind and around the work. German artist [Blinky Palermo](/artist/blinky-palermo)’s “Cloth Paintings” (produced between 1966-72) were made by sewing two different colors of cloth together and stretching them over a canvas, which for Palermo expressed the “spiritual presence of color.”",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50984057b7979c000200142e",
    "slug": "cambodian-art",
    "name": "Cambodian Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50985816e45e130002000043",
    "slug": "transfer",
    "name": "Transfer",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A general label for the technique of transmitting an image from one surface to another. Artists have long incorporated the transfer technique into a variety of artistic practices. During the late 14th century [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) artists transferred preparatory drawings or designs to moist plaster when making fresco paintings—a method that is also often incorporated into the process of developing a painting or print. In the 1750s, transfer printing was invented to decorate enamels and ceramics. [Robert Rauschenberg](/artist/robert-rauschenberg) used the technique in the 1960s as an art form in and of itself, creating “transfer drawings” from found imagery culled from newspapers and magazines, which he soaked in solvent and rubbed face down onto paper.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "508844241c7f9600020001c1",
    "slug": "tool",
    "name": "Tool",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "Tools—not depictions of them, in [paintings](/gene/painting) or [photographs](/gene/photography), but the physical objects. Tools could be functional, standalone items; exquisitely designed [objects](/gene/design); or components of [sculptures](/gene/sculpture).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c5351024bd20002001c59",
    "slug": "postmodern-architecture-and-design",
    "name": "Postmodern Architecture and Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "Postmodern architecture and design originated in the late 1970’s as a response to Modernism. In architecture and design, Postmodernity is characterized by the return of ornament and symbol to form. [Robert Venturi](/artist/robert-venturi), one of the most prominent Postmodernist architects, wrote two books that were instrumental in defining the movement: _Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture_ (1966) and _Learning from Las Vegas_ (1972). In the former, Venturi argued that Modernism, in its search for “purity” through use of minimal materials and a functionally driven aesthetic, was reductive, calling instead for the return of wit, ornament, and historical reference. Other prominent architects and designers associated with Postmodernism include [Frank Gehry](/artist/frank-gehry), [Ettore Sottsass](/artist/ettore-sottsass), and [Phillip Johnson](/artist/philip-johnson). In their work, the functional and formalized shapes and spaces of the Modernist style are replaced by diverse aesthetics: styles collide, form is adopted for its own sake, and new ways of viewing familiar styles and spaces abound.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4f70623c020002001c5b",
    "slug": "silver",
    "name": "Silver",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Artworks or design objects that are wholly or partly made of silver. In recent years, artist [Jacob Kassay](/artist/jacob-kassay) has become well known for his series of “silver paintings,” which he created by electroplating silver over acrylic on canvas.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50882ad2da1bda0002001d6b",
    "slug": "celtic-art",
    "name": "Celtic Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "508d444eedee4b0002000db0",
    "slug": "aluminum",
    "name": "Aluminum",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Artworks and design objects created from aluminum. Many of the works in this category are contemporary photographs or prints that are mounted to aluminum, rather than a more traditional frame.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "509b2d82b59f29000200007c",
    "slug": "ceramic",
    "name": "Ceramic",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "_“Earth, water, air and fire so simple, but so complex.” —Unknown_\n\nCeramics are made by shaping water, earthen powders, and clay into forms, which are then fired at high temperatures. Around the globe, the earliest examples were developed purely out of the need for hand-formed tools and ceremonial objects; some of the earliest surviving ceramics include the [_Venus of Willendorf_](/artwork/venus-of-willendorf) (24,000 B.C.) and the Qin Dynasty’s Terracota Army (210 B.C.). Since, ceramics have evolved into an increasingly complex, versatile art form. Interrogating the boundaries of sculpture, form, and function, ceramics encompass a myriad of techniques and styles, such as Japanese raku, wheel-throwing, slab construction, and hand-forming, as well as various clay types including terracotta, stoneware, and porcelain. Having bridged the art-craft divide, present-day ceramic artists like [Katsuyo Aoki](/artist/katsuyo-aoki), [Shio Kusaka](/artist/shio-kusaka), and [Rachel Kneebone](/artist/rachel-kneebone) are evolving the traditional techniques of ceramics practiced by pioneers like Paul Daschel, Edmond Lacenal, and [Galileo Chini](/artist/galileo-chini) to produce increasingly innovative and experimental contemporary ceramic works.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50ac09562bd73983a000045e",
    "slug": "enamel",
    "name": "Enamel",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "A glass or vitreous paste that has historically been used to coat and decorate metals and ceramics. The paste is fused to the metal or ceramic—and made incredibly solid—through the application of heat, whether in a kiln or through a smaller heat source like a blowtorch.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5089a1ceb135730002001a38",
    "slug": "new-american-documentary-photography",
    "name": "New American Documentary Photography",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "An informal grouping of 1950s and '60s American photographers who introduced a variety of new perspectives on documentary photography. [Diane Arbus](/artist/diane-arbus), [Garry Winogrand](/artist/garry-winogrand), and [Lee Friedlander](/artist/lee-friedlander) introduced \"snapshot\" angles and concentrated on subcultures, as well as absurd and incendiary subject matter. At the same time, [Stephen Shore](/artist/stephen-shore) and [Robert Adams](/artist/robert-adams) documented the changing American landscape, while [William Eggleston](/artist/william-eggleston) broke ground with his use of color photography.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "509c222d98201270e00008ff",
    "slug": "international-style",
    "name": "International Style",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "The International Style describes a trend in early 20th century architecture characterized by modern, pared-down buildings largely devoid of ornamentation. In 1932, art historian Henry-Russell Hitchcock and architect [Philip Johnson](/artist/philip-johnson) co-curated Modern Architecture: International Exhibition—the first architecture show at the [Museum of Modern Art](/museum-of-modern-art)—coining the term “International Style” to describe the streamlined designs of [Walter Gropius](/artist/walter-gropius), [Ludwig Mies van der Rohe](/artist/ludwig-mies-van-der-rohe), and [Le Corbusier](/artist/le-corbusier). Their buildings were at the forefront of technological advancement, featuring cantilever constructions, [iron and steel frames](/gene/steel-slash-iron-frame-construction), and reinforced concrete. The exteriors of these modern buildings were lined with bands of windows, making them appear visually weightless. More familiarly, International Style skyscrapers like the [Seagram Building](/artwork/5228de08139b2187d800045b) in Chicago continue to dominate skylines across the globe.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50896b24a77b3b0002001099",
    "slug": "gold",
    "name": "Gold",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Artworks, design objects, or architectural works that are composed, at least in part, of gold. This category includes objects as wide-ranging as contemporary [jewelry](/gene/jewelry), 15th-century [altarpieces](/gene/altarpiece), illuminated [manuscripts](/gene/manuscript), and the [Mask of Agamemnon](/artwork/mask-of-agamenon-funerary-mask-from-the-royal-tombs-grave-circle-a-mycenae-greece)—for gold has been a valued precious metal around the world since the beginning of recorded history.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "509843847d77920002001578",
    "slug": "hindu-art-and-architecture",
    "name": "Hindu Art and Architecture",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "As diverse as the world’s third-largest religion itself, Hindu art and architecture consists of multiple strands, regional variations, deities, and paths to salvation. In this tradition, architecture and religion are intimately intertwined, with architectural sculptures frequently depicting Hindu’s main deities—[Vishnu](/tag/vishnu/artworks?for_sale=false), [Shiva](/tag/shiva/artworks?for_sale=false), Brahma, and the Goddess, who represent facets of the Supreme Enlightenment (the _Brahman_). Hinduism’s visual tradition encompasses both mythological and secular themes, narrating the religion’s goals for life on earth: achieving spiritual salvation (_moksha_), righteous living (_dharma_), love (_kama_), and prosperity (_artha_). Over centuries, Hindu temple structures have evolved from rock caves carved into cliffs to large monuments with symbolically multifaceted spaces. As cultural traditions changed rapidly in the late 19th century, artist Ravi Varma pioneered the use of color lithography to mass-produce his Western-influenced paintings of Hindu deities, subjects that contemporary Indian painter [Manjit Bawa](/artist/manjit-bawa) also later depicted, referring to them as “icons of my country.”",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50a14b03509ee8ebb8000f7b",
    "slug": "history-painting",
    "name": "History Painting",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A genre of [painting](/gene/painting) that was influential from the mid-[15th century](/gene/15th-century) through the [19th century](/gene/19th-century). A history painting was generally understood to depict an important event or action involving several people. These events could be historical, religious, mythical, or the stuff of fable. History painting was long considered to be the highest (and most challenging) genre of painting, due to its connection to powerful subject matter and its ability to educate the public in lofty themes and virtues. Before the 19th century, history painting was subject to certain requirements—as elucidated by [Joshua Reynolds](/artist/sir-joshua-reynolds), among others. While history painting’s popularity has waned, some [modern](/gene/modern) and [contemporary](/gene/contemporary-art) artists still engage with the genre, often attempting to update or revise its themes and styles.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c57a6b5f0450002001e69",
    "slug": "tableware",
    "name": "Tableware",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "The dishware used for setting a table or serving food, exclusive of flatware. Tableware generally includes glassware, silverware, and ceramics, but can vary from culture to culture.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "508062257ce06c000200097a",
    "slug": "color-photography",
    "name": "Color Photography",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "From snapshots to [fashion photography](/gene/fashion-photography), [photojournalism](/gene/photojournalism) to art, color photography has become so ubiquitous that it is perhaps the defining visual language of today. However, this is a relatively recent development; although early experiments with various photosensitive chemicals began in the 1840s shortly after photography’s birth, it was not until the 1890s that such chemical processes were successfully applied to the production of color film, and only a few early experimenters—mostly amateur scientists or intrepid travelers—used the medium to capture nature, cultural sites, or the occasional sitter. And it wasn't until Kodak’s breakthroughs in the mass manufacture of color film in 1935 that color photography became widely accessible, and commercial photographers swiftly adopted the new “Kodachrome” brand. In art, the delay took even longer; the watershed moment was [William Eggleston](/artist/william-eggleston)’s exhibition at The Museum of Modern Art in 1976—the first major museum exhibition of color photography. The invention of digital photography and advances in printing technologies have further expanded its scope—from digital manipulation to the monumental printing techniques often associated with the [Dusseldorf School of Photography](/gene/dusseldorf-school-of-photography)—and contemporary artists continue to explore new paths for color photography, such as through the use of [photograms](/gene/photogram), diaristic works, or even approaching the photographic print as a sculptural material.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "509b3406770bbc0002000112",
    "slug": "stone",
    "name": "Stone",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "A general category for artworks, design objects, or architectural works made from rock, such as [marble](/gene/marble), granite, or limestone.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507c53d02ea57a0002001b5e",
    "slug": "design-slash-architecture-study",
    "name": "Design/Architecture Study",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Preparatory studies for design objects or buildings.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507d7d80ee758f0002002202",
    "slug": "mirror",
    "name": "Mirror",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "Objects that are understood to be “mirrors” date to roughly 6000 B.C. and can be traced to Anatolia (Turkey). These objects were polished obsidian discs. In subsequent history, handled or tanged mirrors made from copper or [bronze](/gene/bronze) were found in Mesopotamia, while in places like Egypt, evidence has been found that indicates the early use of wet stones for the purposes of isolating a reflection. The Romans created glass mirrors out of sections of glass bubbles, which were then backed with a resin or metal to create a reflective surface.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507d7fd6d9c36500020022b2",
    "slug": "iridescence-slash-opalescence",
    "name": "Iridescence/Opalescence",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Surfaces that seem to change color when viewed from different angles. Mesopotamian artisans in the 9th century learned how to create iridescent pottery (“lusterwear”) using metal glazes, and this technique was frequently used in [Islamic art](/gene/islamic-art-and-architecture) over the following centuries. The finish became especially popular among [Art Nouveau](/gene/art-nouveau) artists working at the turn of the 20th century—such as [Louis Comfort Tiffany](/artist/louis-comfort-tiffany), [Lajos Mack](/artist/lajos-mack), and [Lucien Levy Dhurmer](/artist/lucien-levy-dhurmer)—who were drawn to the optical nature of lustrous glasses and ceramic glazes. While modern designers largely abandoned the finish for a more austere aesthetic, recently fashion designer [Alexander McQueen](/artist/alexander-mcqueen) and artist [Tomas Saraceno](/artist/tomas-saraceno) have exploited its futuristic qualities and otherworldly appearance.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50882b555643870002001df7",
    "slug": "mesopotamian-art",
    "name": "Mesopotamian Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50898001c9687d0002001460",
    "slug": "clock",
    "name": "Clock",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "508d6d79c86a0f0002000127",
    "slug": "concrete",
    "name": "Concrete",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Beginning in Rome in the 1st century BC, concrete came into use as a key technological breakthrough for the construction of bridges and aqueducts. In the 1st century CE a new type of architecture took advantage of refinements in the use of the material, as in [the Pantheon](/artwork/apollodorus-of-damascus-the-pantheon) in Rome, constructed of a large dome atop a massive concrete cylinder. Strong, cheaper than traditional stone, and easily transportable, concrete is made by combining water with an aggregate (such as small pieces of stones or brick) and a binder (such as lime or cement) and then allowing the malleable mass to harden; it is often reinforced with steel bars (rebar) to increase its tensile strength. Underutilized for centuries after the classical period, it became a mainstay of modern architecture and infrastructure. It has been used to construct both masterpieces of aesthetic innovation, such as Le Corbusier’s [_Notre Dame du Haut_](/artwork/le-corbusier-chapelle-de-notre-dame-du-haut-ronchamp-france), and the massive housing blocks and anonymous, utilitarian structures that fueled 20th-century urbanization. Artists have since employed the material to exploit both its physical properties and its complex modernist legacy. British sculptor [Rachel Whiteread](/artist/rachel-whiteread) creates concrete casts of the interiors of buildings slated for demolition, giving form to empty urban spaces.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c65cbe181bb00020020d9",
    "slug": "door",
    "name": "Door",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "Doors—not depictions of them, in [paintings](/gene/painting) or [photographs](/gene/photography), but the physical objects. Doors could be functional and/or exquisitely designed [objects](/gene/design), or components of [sculptures](/gene/sculpture).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4fd9b5f0450002001c50",
    "slug": "upholstered-furniture",
    "name": "Upholstered Furniture",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50855e87d3bf6500020004f5",
    "slug": "sofa",
    "name": "Sofa",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "A sofa is a long, upholstered seat with a back and arms that is made for two or more people. The word sofa derives from the Arabic _suffa_, and it was first commonly used in France and England at the end of the 17th century. While today “sofa” is used interchangeably with “couch,” they have historically meant different things. Sofas were specifically for sitting on—a less upholstered version is a settee—while couches were characteristically for reclining, akin to contemporary daybeds. Since the 19th century and particularly the introduction of the coiled spring, sofas have become available in a variety of forms, such as the Chesterfield, the loveseat, the club sofa, the Tuxedo sofa, or the Lawson-style sofa.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50817b7741b88900020003c2",
    "slug": "marbleized",
    "name": "Marbleized",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks or design objects whose entire surface, or parts within it, appear to be made out of polished [marble](/gene/marble). Throughout history, objects and walls of homes have been painted to look like marble; marbleizing was particularly popular in [Rome](/gene/roman-art), during the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance), and in 19th-century Britain, where Thomas Kershaw was considered the most influential practitioner.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5080374c78fe1e000200057a",
    "slug": "steel",
    "name": "Steel",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "While the use of steel in [armor, weaponry](/gene/arms-and-armor), and decorative objects dates back to antiquity in both Europe and Asia, the large-scale production of steel was made possible by technological advances only in the late 19th century. Notable for its strength, steel became widely used for reinforced concrete in architecture, as well as for domestic objects. Steel played a key role in the construction of skyscrapers in the rapidly growing cities of the 19th and 20th centuries. One hallmark of the [International Style](/gene/international-style) in architecture, which emerged in the 1940s with architects such as [Mies van der Rohe](/artist/mies-van-der-rohe), was its use of steel and glass curtain walls. Steel has also prominently featured in modern and contemporary sculpture; it is the defining material of found object [assemblages](/gene/assemblage) by [Anthony Caro](/artist/anthony-caro), monumental works by [Richard Serra](/artist/richard-serra), and large-scale sculptures by [Jeff Koons](/artist/jeff-koons).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4eb6177a7a0002001be2",
    "slug": "plastic",
    "name": "Plastic",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Invented in the mid-19th century, plastic is one of the most prominent materials used in day-to-day life, and thanks to 20th century adopters, now in art. Artists have integrated many different kinds of plastics into their works—such as plexiglass, vinyl, fiberglass, and PVC—turning to the medium for its flexibility, durability, affordability, and reproducibility. For example, the American [Minimalist](/gene/minimalism) [Donald Judd](/artist/donald-judd), the [Young British Artist](/gene/young-british-artists-yba) [Liam Gillick](/artist/liam-gillick), and Venezuelan [Op Artist](/gene/op-art) [Carlos Cruz-Diez](/artist/carlos-cruz-diez) have all featured colorful and transparent plastics in their sculptures, using the material to explore the effects of visual perception. [Eero Aarnio](/artist/eero-aarnio) pioneered the use of fiberglass in furniture design in the 1970s, and many designers have continued to eschew traditional materials like wood and stone in favor of this accessible medium.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c67aa5f6aca00020002d2",
    "slug": "arms-and-armor",
    "name": "Arms and Armor",
    "family": "Antiquities, Artifacts, and Religious Objects",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "508838f2c3e8ac000200004d",
    "slug": "marble",
    "name": "Marble",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Artworks and design objects wholly or partially composed of marble, a type of limestone that has recrystallized due to extreme heat. Historically, and especially during [antiquity](/gene/greek-and-roman-art-and-architecture) and the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance), marble was one of the most highly valued stones for sculpture and architecture. Sculptors particularly favored its slight transparency, which lent it to renderings of human skin. Italian Carrara is probably the most famous type of marble, while the most iconic marble sculpture is arguably [Michelangelo](/artist/michelangelo-buonarroti)’s _David_.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "508846f0058e8e0002000161",
    "slug": "tang-dynasty",
    "name": "Tang Dynasty",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "509854bad7d0430002000025",
    "slug": "intaglio",
    "name": "Intaglio",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Most likely developed from the decoration of precious metals in medieval times (and with its named derived from the Italian  intagliare, or “to cut into”), intaglio printmaking refers to all printmaking in which an acid or pointed tool is used to incise a metal matrix generally composed of copper, iron, steel, or zinc. The plate is then inked and printed under pressure, forcing the paper into the recessed areas and picking up the ink resulting in characteristically raised lines. Intaglio techniques include [etching, engraving](/gene/etching-slash-engraving), aquatint, photogravure, mezzotint, and drypoint; oftentimes used  in combination, these techniques can produce variations in both tone and contrast, as seen in this [intaglio print](/artwork/francisco-de-goya-figures-dancing-in-a-circle-from-los-disparates) by Francisco Goya.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "509b287b04366d00020000e8",
    "slug": "metal",
    "name": "Metal",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "A general category for artworks, typically sculptures, and design/decorative objects made of metal. Generally, metals are both malleable and durable, and so make for sturdy art objects ranging from minuscule to monumental in size. Metals and their various alloys can produce a vast range of colors and surface qualities, and therefore have long been the subject of artistic and craft experimentation around the world. The processes of casting, pressing, joining, and decorating metal are similarly vast in scope. Metals are the subject of numerous different cultural associations about utility and value; steel, for instance, is typically associated with durability and functionality, while precious metals such as gold and silver are associated with material wealth. However, contemporary artists continue to push the boundaries of these materials and challenge their cultural connotations.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507c4dd6c9348a0002001af1",
    "slug": "objets-de-vertu",
    "name": "Objets de Vertu",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "A category for tiny decorative pieces noted for their fineness of material and craft, often reflecting considerable effort and finesse on the part of the maker. While such objects date from antiquity and appear in various world cultures, they are commonly associated with European customs of religious devotion and later, the consumption habits of aristocrats and nobles. The former category includes crucifixes, religious figurines, rosaries, and reliquaries, while the latter includes brooches, cameos, snuff boxes, statuettes, and watch pieces. Materials varied locally and over time, but enamel, gemstone, ivory, hard-stone, and precious metals were regularly used. Objects of vertu were often adorned with royal or aristocratic portraits, scenes from iconic paintings, historical events, flora or purely decorative forms. Perhaps the most prized examples today are the resplendent series of easter eggs made by the Russian [House of Fabergé](/artist/house-of-faberge) for Tsars Alexander III and Nicholas II in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50a578df7ff077605f0001cb",
    "slug": "union-des-artistes-modernes",
    "name": "Union des Artistes Modernes",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "The Union des Artistes Modernes was a group of French architects and designers founded in 1929 by [Robert Mallet-Stevens](https://www.artsy.net/artist/robert-mallet-stevens). Rejecting the tradition of elite luxury crafts exemplified by the Société des Artistes-Décorateurs and the [Art Deco](https://www.artsy.net/gene/art-deco) movement, the UAM embraced industrial materials like glass and steel and emphasized functionality over ornament. Members utilized new materials like Plexiglas in [industrial designs](https://www.artsy.net/gene/industrial-and-product-design) that aimed to affordably to meet the needs of the modern everyman. A prime example of the group's spare aesthetic is Jean Prouvé's utilitarian _[Chair No. 4](https://www.artsy.net/artwork/jean-prouve-chaise-n-degrees-4-verte)_, made from sheet steel and molded plywood. Well-known members of the group include [Sonia Delaunay](https://www.artsy.net/artist/sonia-delaunay), [Le Corbusier](https://www.artsy.net/artist/le-corbusier), and [Charlotte Perriand](https://www.artsy.net/artist/charlotte-perriand). The UAM disbanded during World War II, but regrouped thereafter and produced objects until its definitive dissolution in 1958.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "509c1cff98201270e000083e",
    "slug": "religious-building",
    "name": "Religious Building",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "Buildings and man-made structures constructed for religious practice. The category captures buildings spanning ancient times to modernity, and it includes buildings constructed for religions that are no longer practiced today. The structures of Roman Polytheism, such as [The Alter of Zeus](/artwork/pergamon-views-of-the-zeus-altar), come into conversation with the [Hagia Sophia](/artwork/anthemius-of-tralles-and-isidorus-of-miletus-hagia-sophia) and other iconic places of worship.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50ac09c4dd918b72d1000435",
    "slug": "natural-fibers",
    "name": "Natural Fibers",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Design objects created using threads derived from plants and animals.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50898b10c9687d0002001622",
    "slug": "bench",
    "name": "Bench",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "A seat for two or more people. Benches are most often used in public spaces and are made of wood, metal, and recycled materials, among other materials.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "509825637f47bb0002001147",
    "slug": "contemporary-realist-portrait-photography",
    "name": "Contemporary Realist Portrait Photography",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_\"I refuse to make it a sociological exercise, to analyze personalities, or to use a style that gives clues to the person's personality. The truth is that I merely capture the person's appearance.\" —[Thomas Ruff](/artist/thomas-ruff)_\n\nAttempts at objective portraiture—the honest, real, unmediated portrayal of a person—have a long history in photography. In a series of sober portraits from the 1920s, German photographer [August Sander](/artist/august-sander) systematically documented his countrymen; the uniform staging and composition of these works accentuated social and professional markings, turning his subjects into social types. This series revealed a tension between a photograph’s ability to reveal something of a sitter’s individuality and inner life, and its exact representation of outward appearance. In recent practice, many photographers have also tried to present their subjects as they really are, flaws and all, while allowing for moments of candidness and vulnerability. Less austere (and more deliberate) than a mug shot, these works often bring facial features into high relief, allowing expressiveness to recede and making the sitter seem somehow up-close and removed at the same time. As Alfred Döblin said in 1928, “These photographs, like a fingerprint, are only one fact by which to identify a certain person.”",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "509a8f498a45d00002000960",
    "slug": "porcelain",
    "name": "Porcelain",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "A general category for works (mainly vessels and sculptures) made from clay-based products hardened by heat. Ceramics represents an extraordinary range of specific materials, techniques, and styles dating from the earliest permanent human settlements, and the practice has distinct histories in all regions of the world. Broad sub-categories of ceramics include pottery, porcelain, and terracotta, each of which also have distinct histories across different regions and time periods. Notable early developments in ceramics include Cuneiform, the first known form of handwriting, which was produced on ceramic tablets in Mesopotamia as early as 3000 B.C; pottery spinning in ancient Egypt, China, and the Near East; and the invention of porcelain in China in the 7th or 8th century A.D. A broad cross-section of contemporary artists continue to push the technical and aesthetic boundaries of ceramics.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "509be505661727c4f20002ff",
    "slug": "digital-print",
    "name": "Digital Print",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Prints created with a computer, using highly saturated, pigment-based archival inks on paper, canvas, or vinyl. These prints are often created with large-scale inkjet printers that emit a fine mist of tiny ink droplets onto the surface in order to produce a uniformly toned image. A digital print is only considered an original print if it was intended as a unique artwork; it is not a copy or reproduction of an artwork in a different medium.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50881fea4a4a890002001c1a",
    "slug": "funerary-slash-commemorative-object",
    "name": "Funerary/Commemorative Object",
    "family": "Antiquities, Artifacts, and Religious Objects",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "509840b77f47bb000200145c",
    "slug": "thai-art",
    "name": "Thai Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "509855f0553cb80002000090",
    "slug": "monotype-slash-monoprint",
    "name": "Monotype/Monoprint",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Printmaking techniques that, unlike most others, produce editions of one instead of multiples. (However, sometimes a second and weaker impression, referred to as a “ghost”, can be pulled from the inked surface.) Though often used interchangeably, monoprinting, as seen in this Mel Bochner [work](/artwork/mel-bochner-sputter), involves manipulating additional ink on an already etched and inked plate. Monotyping, coined as a term in the late 19th century and used by artists such as [Edgar Degas](/artist/edgar-degas) and [Jean Dubuffet](/artist/jean-dubuffet), involves drawing or painting in ink on a smooth surface, then producing an exact reverse of the original drawing. Often in conjunction with other media, Degas reworked his “ghosts” with pastel or gouache, as seen in [this café scene](/artwork/edgar-degas-femmes-a-la-terrasse-dun-cafe-le-soir-women-on-the-terrace-of-a-coffeehouse). Heralded for its spontaneity and freedom, as well as the painterly quality of its final images, monotyping straddles definitions of drawing, painting and printmaking.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "509c23a53905453fec000937",
    "slug": "deconstructivism",
    "name": "Deconstructivism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A term used to describe a tendency in architecture that began in the 1980s and rejected the basic premises of modern architecture. Architects who worked in this tradition spurned functionalist, anonymous aesthetics, instead focusing on complex geometries and surface treatments. Inspired in part by the theories of semiotic analysis known as “deconstruction” developed by French philosopher Jacques Derrida, they dissected standard modernist forms (such as the cube and right angles), often creating spaces with a preponderance of angles (regarding the angularity of her designs, [Zaha Hadid](/artist/zaha-hadid) has commented, “There are 360 degrees, so why stick to one?”). Deconstructivism is most closely associated with the architects Peter Eisenman, [Frank Gehry](/artist/frank-gehry), Hadid, Coop Himelblau, [Rem Koolhaas](/artist/rem-koolhaas), Daniel Liebeskind, and Bernard Tschumi, largely due to the Museum of Modern Art’s 1988 exhibition “Deconstructivist Architecture,” which first brought them together. Most of these architects, however, reject this association because it implies a homogenous style or set of concerns. While there is disagreement as to the nature of deconstructivism, the architect Philip Johnson (co-curater of the MoMA exhibition) has summarized it by saying, “It is the ability to disturb our thinking about form that makes these projects deconstructive.”",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50a2be40e882f4d0c90003ac",
    "slug": "work-and-workers",
    "name": "Work and Workers",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Art depicting or referencing work or the workforce, whether portraits of professionals or scenes of people doing their jobs. Major historical examples include the [Mexican Muralists](/gene/mexican-muralism), the American [Social Realists](/gene/social-realism) of the 1920s and '30s, and painters like [Gustave Courbet](/artist/gustave-courbet) who were engaged with socialist ideas. Modern and contemporary artists have by no means ignored work as subject matter—particularly photographers like [Sebastião Salgado](/artist/sebastiao-salgado), whose photographs of international labor have become touchstones for workers' rights advocacy.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50a3c40292e5b977b70006ad",
    "slug": "ivory",
    "name": "Ivory",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Artworks and design objects that include what is technically known as dentine, a material that comes from the tusks of elephants, as well as other mammals. The earliest ivory ornaments are human and animal figures made between 22,000 and 18,000 B.C. Since the Paleolithic Period, ivory was most often used in the cultures where it was most common, such as in Africa, India, the American Northwest, and Siberia.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c52b22ea57a0002001b28",
    "slug": "post-war-french-design",
    "name": "Post-War French Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "The post-war period in France saw a wide array of inventive and creative contributions to the history of design. In particular, socially conscious design was encouraged by new industrial advancements, limitations of available materials, and housing necessities. [Jean Prouvé](/artist/jean-prouve), for example, who was particularly interested in mass production, continued his wartime research for prefabricated structures that could be assembled quickly and accommodate refugees, veterans, and other homeless after the war. Under the senior leadership of [Le Corbusier](/artist/le-corbusier), [Charlotte Perriand](/artist/charlotte-perriand) and [Pierre Jeanneret](/artist/pierre-jeanneret) extended their pre-war Modernist visions focusing on social concerns. The economic growth and hope of postwar France is perhaps best illustrated by the whimsical and painterly designs of [Jean Royère](/artist/jean-royere).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "507c66865f6aca000200028d",
    "slug": "desk",
    "name": "Desk",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "Up until the [17th century](/gene/17th-century), desks were relatively rare, luxury objects, in the West and it wasn't until the [19th century](/gene/19th-century) and the expansion of the modern office that desks became widely used and mass-produced with increasingly cheaper materials. Toward the end of the 19th century, the rolltop desk became a popular means to handle the massive increase in paper that was dealt with by workers on a daily basis. At the beginning of the [20th century](/gene/20th-century-art), steel desks were introduced to handle the weight of typewriters. The invention of the desktop computer led to the addition of trays for keyboards and design solutions for managing power cords and peripherals like printers.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "507d7f7f4d1baf000200209b",
    "slug": "the-aesthetic-movement",
    "name": "The Aesthetic Movement",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The Aesthetic Movement—spanning both the fine and decorative arts—rose in England and the United States in the 1870s and 1880s. Adopting theories from authors Walter Pater and Oscar Wilde, Aesthetic artists like [James Abbot MacNeil Whistler](/artist/james-abbott-mcneill-whistler) valued “art for art’s sake,” favoring an artwork’s pure beauty over its social or political meaning. Whistler titled his paintings as _Harmonies_ and _Symphonies_, using the language of music to deemphasize the importance of the specific subjects depicted and instead focus on the image’s holistic mood, color, surface and composition. [Japonisme](/gene/japonisme)—the late 19th century European craze for Japanese art and aesthetics—was a major influence not only on Whistler’s paintings, but also in the decorative arts. Designers from this movement such as [Christopher Dresser](/artist/christopher-dresser) and [E.W. Godwin](/artist/edward-william-godwin) revolutionized the applied arts, creating artful furnishings and interior decorations that brought immersive aesthetic experiences into the home. This legacy in the decorative arts continued on in [The Arts and Crafts Movement](/gene/arts-and-crafts-movement) and later [Art Nouveau](/gene/art-nouveau).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50881cc6da1bda0002001be8",
    "slug": "tablet-slash-stele",
    "name": "Tablet/Stele",
    "family": "Antiquities, Artifacts, and Religious Objects",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "508868a765d0c700020000ed",
    "slug": "gemstone",
    "name": "Gemstone",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Because of their scarcity and beauty, gemstones such as diamonds, pearls, emeralds, sapphires, and rubies have been used for centuries to indicate wealth, status, and power in visual culture. Some ancient societies believed certain gemstones had supernatural properties, and many cultures have their own gem lore. In religious art—including that of Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism—gemstones decorate devotional offerings and divine objects such as [reliquaries](https://www.artsy.net/gene/reliquary), [altars](https://www.artsy.net/tag/altar), and [holy book covers](https://www.artsy.net/artwork/5035a0fc08fbbc0002000859) to indicate their sacred importance. Likewise, around the world, royal and ruling classes have long used gemstones in their jewelry and décor, a tradition updated in French contemporary jewelry designer [Victoire de Castellane](https://www.artsy.net/artist/victoire-de-castellane)'s fantastical rings and necklaces. Playing on this history of [ornament](https://www.artsy.net/gene/highly-ornamented) and its signification, [Damien Hirst](https://www.artsy.net/artist/damien-hirst)'s [For the Love of God](https://www.artsy.net/artwork/56b0f75a9c18db4d5c000071) (2007), a platinum skull with over 8,000 diamonds, demonstrates the spectacle, dominance, and status-generating capabilities of the current [art market](https://www.artsy.net/gene/the-art-market).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "509d1e40d0c2eb4507002a7c",
    "slug": "textile-arts",
    "name": "Textile Arts",
    "family": "Textiles",
    "description": "The craft of designing or creating textiles—materials composed of a web of natural or artificial fibers-—spans global cultures and represents one of the earliest human technologies. Techniques for producing them include weaving, crocheting, knitting, felting, pleating and looping, resulting in an extraordinary range of materials (cotton, linen, silk, wool, etc.). Textiles have long served various purposes, including the decorative, for instance in tapestries and rugs. The 230 ft. long [Bayeux Tapestry](/artwork/bayeux-tapestry) (1070-1080 AD), for example, serves as an important historical document in the telling of the Norman conquest of England in 1066 AD. In the 20th century, as with many other mediums, artists began to use textiles in new contexts as well as explore the social and conceptual implications of their usage. [Sophie Taeuber-Arp](/artist/sophie-taeuber-arp) as well as [Anni Albers](/artist/anni-albers) and her student [Sheila Hicks](/artist/sheila-hicks) designed and produced textiles to further the period’s exploration of abstraction and develop a medium typically associated with the domestic sphere and “feminine” work. Artists since, like [Betye Saar](/artist/betye-saar), [Faith Ringgold](/artist/faith-ringgold), [Rosemarie Trockel](/artist/rosemarie-trockel), or [Alighiero e Boetti](/artist/alighiero-e-boetti), whose iconic “[Mappa](/alighiero-e-boetti-mappa-acquolina-in-bocca-dellanno-84-alighiero-e-boetti-afghanistan)” series includes the embroidery work of Afghan craftswomen, have taken an interest in the textile arts to critique the split between “folk” and “high” art.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "509d5f8989c4d7239d0008f5",
    "slug": "meiji-art",
    "name": "Meiji Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50ac0a2c80220fe6cd00048c",
    "slug": "inlay",
    "name": "Inlay",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Refers to materials, such as mosaic tiles, that have been embedded or sunken into the surface of an object to create a design.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50b98fba0a77d5469100011f",
    "slug": "people-at-home",
    "name": "People at Home",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A general category for depictions of human beings in the various rooms of the home. These rooms might be the kitchen, dining room, living room, bedroom, or bathroom. In many of these works, as within the actual home, the line between private and public is often blurred.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50ac17e8057118c56a0006e9",
    "slug": "whimsical-design",
    "name": "Whimsical Design",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "_“Fantasy is a necessary ingredient in living, it’s a way of looking at life through the wrong end of a telescope.”—Dr. Seuss_\n\nWhile whimsical design cannot be defined by a single aesthetic, it encompasses those designs that evince a feeling of playfulness, lightheartedness, and fancy. From the cheerfulness of [Jean Royère](/artist/jean-royere)’s sensually curving furniture, to [Studio Job](/artist/studio-job)’s anthropomorphic, bowing [Tour Eiffel lamp](/artwork/studio-job-tour-eiffel), designers have long infused a sense of whimsy into their work. Among post-war 20th-century designers, Italians embraced playfulness perhaps the most, paralleling [Arte Povera](/gene/arte-povera)’s use of humble materials and embrace of uniqueness and the bizarre, comic, and absurd. The tendency of designers such as [Gaetano Pesce](/artist/gaetano-pesce), Studio Alchimia, and [Ettore Sottsass](/artist/ettore-sottsass)’s Memphis Group to embrace humor has resulted in some of the most iconic and colorful works of the past century.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50b38d40213d44515900001a",
    "slug": "shang-dynasty",
    "name": "Shang Dynasty",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50ac17272bd73983a0000654",
    "slug": "radiating-lines",
    "name": "Radiating Lines",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Art and design in which the overall composition is defined by radial stripes emanating from a single or multiple points.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50b2a215379926bef6000057",
    "slug": "resin",
    "name": "Resin",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Resin—which can be derived organically from plants or produced synthetically in the lab—is a liquid material that can permanently harden into a transparent solid form. The [Postminimalist](/gene/postminimalism) artist [Eva Hesse](/artist/eva-hesse) was one of the first sculptors to work with synthetic fiberglass resin, using the medium in her sculpture series _Repetition Nineteen_ (1968) to create irregular [biomorphic](/gene/biomorphic) forms that she anticipated would discolor and deteriorate over time. Resin casting, a process in which synthetic resin is poured into a mould, has become a popular technique among contemporary sculptors, who turn to the medium for its low cost, durability, and capacity to retain almost any shape. The French artist [Arman](/artist/arman) and American sculptor [Dustin Yellin](/artist/dustin-yellin) have both suspended found objects in clear resin, creating works that seem to defy the laws of gravity.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50ac0acf80220fe6cd00049a",
    "slug": "computer-aided-manufacturing",
    "name": "Computer-Aided Manufacturing",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Objects made with the help of computerized manufacturing processes, such as 3-D printing or computer numerically controlled (CNC) routing and milling. By translating designs made on a computer into physical form (a process called computer-aided design, or [CAD](/gene/cad-computer-aided-design), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) can create objects with complex geometries relatively quickly and with a high degree of precision. First developed in the 1960s for the automotive and aerospace industries, CAM has become more consumer friendly in recent years. This is partly due to the diminishing cost barriers of 3-D printing, a process in which typically plastic- or metal-based materials are deposited layer by layer. Other CAM processes include subtractive techniques, in which material is removed from a large starting block (usually of wood or metal) until the digitally designed form is achieved. The two most common types of this technique are CNC routing and milling. Both use a movable rotating cutter guided by digital instructions that cut into and carve a starting block of material. While CAM was originally developed for industrial purposes, artists, architects, and designers have adopted it for its relative speed and cost effectiveness compared to traditional manufacturing techniques.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50b99070b296e7ef46000130",
    "slug": "figure-studies",
    "name": "Figure Studies",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_\"To get the right proportions in painting living creatures, first visualize their bony insides, for bones, being rigid, establish fixed measurements.\" —[Leon Battista Alberti](/artist/leon-battista-alberti)_\n\nFigure studies—preparatory drawings typically rendered in chalk, charcoal, crayon, or ink—have played an integral role in the history of Western Art. [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) artists, concerned with exacting the human form and discovering ideal proportions, began drawing from live models and cadavers at the beginning of the 15th century as preparation for their paintings; ever since, figure studies have been appreciated as wholly independent works of art. During the Renaissance, figure studies also proved essential to fresco painters—who aimed to depict accurate figures in the fast-drying medium—as well as for artists needing to show plans to patrons for commissions. The preparation of studies was later central to the practices of French academic painters and [Neoclassicists](/gene/neoclassicism). While in subsequent years, with the more expressive tendencies of [Romanticism](/gene/romanticism) and [Impressionism](/gene/impressionism), preparatory stages were omitted in favor of direct application of paint on the canvas, the medium endured. [Henri Matisse](/artist/henri-matisse), for one, became, well-known for his expressive line drawings of nudes, and today, the figure study continues to be a widely-used tool by students of painting.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50c633721738c723c6000207",
    "slug": "igbo-ibo-art",
    "name": "Igbo (Ibo) Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50ca4d402a65cb979e00080f",
    "slug": "yale-university-school-of-art",
    "name": "Yale University School of Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "One of the oldest and most prestigious art schools in America, Yale School of Art was founded in 1864 with classes in drawing, sculpture, and art history. Today it has departments in graphic design, painting/printmaking, photography, and sculpture. Its alumni include iconic figures of modern and contemporary art such as [Chuck Close](https://www.artsy.net/artist/chuck-close), [Richard Serra](https://www.artsy.net/artist/richard-serra), [Peter Halley](https://www.artsy.net/artist/peter-halley), and most recently [Wangechi Mutu](https://www.artsy.net/artist/wangechi-mutu) and [Matthew Barney](https://www.artsy.net/artist/matthew-barney). Several of Yale’s faculty members have defined the school’s success, most notably [Josef Albers](https://www.artsy.net/artist/josef-albers), chair of the Department of Design from 1950 to 1958, and [Walker Evans](https://www.artsy.net/artist/walker-evans), who taught photography in the department from 1964 to 1972. Albers’s understanding of art as a process, as opposed to a finished product, transformed the teaching of art and design in the 20th century. Other notable faculty members include [Rochelle Feinstein](https://www.artsy.net/artist/rochelle-feinstein), [Gregory Crewdson](https://www.artsy.net/artist/gregory-crewdson) (current director of Graduate Studies in photography), [Trevor Paglen](https://www.artsy.net/artist/trevor-paglen), [Shirin Neshat](https://www.artsy.net/artist/shirin-neshat), [Huma Bhabha](https://www.artsy.net/artist/huma-bhabha), [Carroll Dunham](https://www.artsy.net/artist/carroll-dunham), and Barbara London.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50f077108ee0282587000068",
    "slug": "the-seasons",
    "name": "The Seasons",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Throughout art history, the turning of the seasons has provided subject matter for artists. Across eras and cultures, artists have commonly drawn on the imagery of the seasons to reflect on primal themes of life, death, rebirth, and the power of nature.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50f07a16e9a3fe93ee00008d",
    "slug": "emphasis-on-linear-perspective",
    "name": "Emphasis on Linear Perspective",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Works in which one-point linear perspective—wherein all aspects of a composition are laid out according to a mathematically derived vanishing point—plays a central part. While various forms existed previously, it was not until the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) that one-point linear perspective became a central method of depicting the world. The practice was invented in the early Renaissance by the engineer and architect [Filippo Brunelleschi](/artist/filippo-brunelleschi), and was further discussed in [Leon Battista Alberti](/artist/leon-battista-alberti)'s treatise, _De Pictura_.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51b661ae275b24d15b000047",
    "slug": "1960s",
    "name": "1960s",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "One of the most significant decades in 20th-century art, the 1960s saw the rise of [Pop Art](/gene/pop-art), [Op Art](/gene/op-art), [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism), [Conceptual Art](/gene/conceptual-art), [Performance Art](/gene/performance-art), and [Feminist Art](/gene/feminist-art), among countless other styles and movements. Among the leading artists of the period—many of whom continue to influence contemporary artists today—are [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol), [Bridget Riley](/artist/bridget-riley), [Donald Judd](/artist/donald-judd), [Robert Morris](/artist/robert-morris), [Sol LeWitt](/artist/sol-lewitt), [Vito Acconci](/artist/vito-acconci), and [Judy Chicago](/artist/judy-chicago).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50b9915bc2f9a4a28b000164",
    "slug": "classical-figure",
    "name": "Classical Figure",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A term referring to works made in the tradition of classical Greek art, in which a figure is depicted in an idealized form, recalling that of Hercules or the goddess Venus. Classical figures are typically nude or draped in loose cloth, showcasing a strong, youthful form. [Praxiteles](/artist/praxiteles)’ _Doryphoros_ was a paramount example of a male classical body—and went on to become an archetype for the figure during the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance). Renaissance artists, including [Michelangelo](/artist/michelangelo-buonarroti), [Donatello](/artist/donatello), and [Botticelli](/artist/alessandro-filipepi-called-sandro-botticelli), as well as other Western artists into the 19th century, created figures in the vein of classical forms in both sculptural and two-dimensional works, in order to recall Greek mythology, recount Biblical narratives, or simply to serve as an idealized form. Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, even though artists have provided countless alternatives to the classical figure, it continues to reappear in works seeking to present—or, as is more often the case, criticize—idealization.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5148970f5c844917990001ee",
    "slug": "heian-period",
    "name": "Heian Period",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "514cd69aa110cb7662000047",
    "slug": "eastern-africa",
    "name": "Eastern Africa",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in the geographic region of Eastern Africa, which includes the countries of Botswana, Burundi, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, South Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5182bdcc87d161c1a3000012",
    "slug": "flanders-and-luxembourg",
    "name": "Flanders and Luxembourg",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51b661eb275b242a46000042",
    "slug": "1918-1939-interwar",
    "name": "1918–1939 (Interwar)",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "The “interwar” period in European history refers to the volatile decades (1918–1939) between some of the world’s most devastating wars. This contradictory era witnessed both the march of Progressivism and the rise of Fascism. The art of this period was also polarized, as movements like [Dada](/gene/dada) and [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism) responded to the unprecedented death toll of World War I by embracing absurdity, irrationalism, and the unconscious, while other artists “[returned to order](/gene/post-world-war-i-european-classicism)” by painting in more classical styles. In a similar way, utopian movements like [de Stijl](/gene/de-stijl), Russian [Constructivism](/gene/constructivism), and [Suprematism](/gene/suprematism) pushed the limits of abstraction, while populist figuration flourished with American [Regionalism](/gene/american-regionalism), Russian [Socialist Realism](/gene/socialist-realism), and [Mexican Muralism](/gene/mexican-muralism). This period was brought to an abrupt end by the rise of the Nazi party in Germany and Fascism in Italy, leading to World War II.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50d4bafa3b69478b95000037",
    "slug": "taiwan",
    "name": "Taiwan",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Taiwan.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "515b44dbd0c2ebb9420007f7",
    "slug": "sustainable-design",
    "name": "Sustainable Design",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "Design objects created with materials or using processes that do no damage to the earth’s resources. Sustainable design has become central to the thinking of leading manufacturers, designers, and progressively, politicians. Likewise, the realities of global warming and environmental destruction, as well as developments in sustainable design, have made the public more conscious of these issues.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "517974c492cd453de00001b9",
    "slug": "slumped-slash-draped",
    "name": "Slumped/Draped",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks that are slumped or draped in form. In sculpture from ancient Greece and Rome through the Renaissance, the ability to mimic folded or draped cloth attested to one’s artistic skill, as it required artists to suggest a convincing dynamism or to echo the curvature of the body in static materials like stone. In the mid-20th century, many abstract artists challenged the assumption that a painting’s surface had to be stretched taut and hung flat against the wall and that sculpture needed to be a standalone object with stable material properties. [Robert Morris](/artist/robert-morris) created [felt sculptures](/artwork/robert-morris-untitled-brown-felt) that, when fixed to the wall, sagged under their own weight over time, while [Sam Gilliam](/artist/sam-gilliam) created stained paintings that he then twisted and folded to mirror the dynamism of their colors. Slumped or draped forms may evoke a mood of heaviness or fatigue or may be employed to emphasize the volumetric effects of material under the force of gravity.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5182beded1c10743a100001f",
    "slug": "andes-region-bolivia-colombia-ecuador-peru-venezuela",
    "name": "Andes Region (Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela)",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or have lived in the Andes Region, which includes Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51a7a398275b24418e00038e",
    "slug": "contemporary-furniture-and-design",
    "name": "Contemporary Furniture and Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "Contemporary designers explore new technologies, experiment with materials, and rely on cutting-edge fabrication techniques. [Zaha Hadid](/artist/zaha-hadid) and [Frank Gehry](/artist/frank-gehry) create works that are conceived in virtual modeling programs and fabricated using modern techniques such as [3D printing](/gene/3d-printed) and laser cutting. Others are part of a shift toward DIY, with designers like [Wendell Castle](/artist/wendell-castle) emphasizing a return to hand-craftsmanship and sculptural form in their work. In more conceptual work, designers like [Sebastian Errazuriz](/artist/sebastian-errazuriz) blur the line between art and design with often non-functional and forward-thinking work.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50f07ad0d1ac162574000075",
    "slug": "gold-leaf-and-gilding",
    "name": "Gold Leaf and Gilding",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "[Gold](/gene/gold) leaf, which is created by hammering gold into very thin sheets, is used to gild paintings, sculptures, and architectural details. In art, the use of gold leaf is perhaps most closely associated with the technique of “gold ground,” a process that involves applying gold leaf to a wooden panel and using a burnisher to create a resplendent shine. In the works of master painters [Cimabue](/artist/cimabue) and [Duccio](/artist/duccio) in 13th-century Italy, where this technique emerged, the surface would then be embellished with incised lines and small, ornamental stamps, often visible in the halos of the deities depicted in the foreground of paintings in tempera paint. The technique became strongly associated with [Christian art](/gene/christian-art-and-architecture), and gold ground was often used on devotional objects like altarpieces. Other examples of gold leaf in art include Japanese works-on-paper, and the canvases of [Gustav Klimt](/artist/gustav-klimt).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51505e04508c09dabd00006a",
    "slug": "bone",
    "name": "Bone",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Artworks and design objects made in whole or in part from bone, including any part of the skeleton of an [animal](/gene/animals), such as a [skull](/tag/skull). Bone objects—like simple [tools](/gene/tool), points, and fish-hooks—are among the earliest crafted by humans, dating as far back as 500–450,000 BCE. In [Egypt](/gene/egypt) and [Mesopotamia](/gene/mesopotamian-art), bone was inlaid as decoration and used for cooking and sewing tools, though ivory was the preferred material. In [Greece and Rome](/gene/greek-and-roman-art-and-architecture), [metals](/gene/metal) replaced bone for cooking and hunting tools. Subsequently, in cultures around the world, bone has been used primarily to create decorative and ritual objects.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5154d0fb1c815580b1000005",
    "slug": "south-africa",
    "name": "South Africa",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in the country of South Africa.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5182be6c88dad02da1000023",
    "slug": "lebanon-syria-jordan-and-palestine",
    "name": "Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Palestine",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51b5e2458b3b81ec270000c8",
    "slug": "spray-paint",
    "name": "Spray Paint",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Invented in 1949 by paint salesman Ed Seymour to apply aluminum coating to radiators, spray paint is paint that sprays onto any surface (walls, wood, metal, glass, plastic, or canvas) from an aerosol can. By 1979, an entire spray-paint industry had developed, with over 270 million cans being sold annually in the United States. This rise coincided with the prominence of graffiti art in the 1970s, a form centered in New York City. Spray paint was portable, affordable, and easy to use, making it the medium of choice for the illegal activity. Some early practitioners of graffiti art included Lady Pink, CRASH, Lee Quinones, and Fab 5 Freddy. In the 1990s and 2000s, contemporary graffiti artists such as [Shepard Fairey](https://www.artsy.net/artist/shepard-fairey) and [Banksy](https://www.artsy.net/artist/banksy) built on these earlier artists’ work. Galleries began showing graffiti paintings in the 1980s, and since then spray paint has been increasingly used by non-graffiti artists, including Peter Peri, Blue and Joy, Rita Ackermann, and Jaybo Monk, often in combination with other materials and techniques. Spray paint has a noticeable aesthetic, void of brushstrokes, and many application techniques, including burns, fades, and flares. Depending on the amount of pressure painters apply to the nozzle and the time they spend in a particular spot, spray-paint lines can be thin, thick, layered, splattered, and/or dripped. The graffiti artist KATSU [has recently advanced](https://www.artsy.net/article/editorial-the-spray-paint-armed-drones-of-graffiti-artist) spray-painting techniques using new technology by spraying paint from drones.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50b97e060a77d546910000db",
    "slug": "bathers",
    "name": "Bathers",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "People taking baths or showers—either to clean themselves or for comfort—as well as people swimming. Images of bathers, usually women, have a long tradition in Western art history. Artists such as [Titian](/artist/titian), [Michelangelo](/artist/michelangelo-buonarroti), [Rembrandt](/artist/rembrandt-harmensz-van-rijn-1), [Edgar Degas](/artist/edgar-degas), [Paul Cézanne](/artist/paul-cezanne), and [Henri Matisse](/artist/henri-matisse) created iconic works employing this subject. Feminist art historians in the 20th century attacked this tradition for its consistent presentation of, in the words of Linda Nochlin, “masculine mastery and feminine display.”",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50b99130bf92aeca17000120",
    "slug": "body-parts",
    "name": "Body Parts",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that emphasize parts of the [human body](gene/human-figure). The isolation of certain body parts has served various purposes throughout the history of art. These have included the contemplation of the beautiful or the [erotic](gene/erotic), observation of the intricacies or functions of the human body, and reflection on [mortality](gene/mortality), death, or dismemberment. Certain body parts—particularly eyes, hands, feet, and lips—are more commonly represented than others, however what is (and what is not) represented is highly dependent on the specific culture in which the art is created.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50f0774c8ee0282587000076",
    "slug": "saints",
    "name": "Saints",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Depictions of saints—figures officially canonized by the Roman Catholic or Eastern Orthodox church for exceptional piety in life, and who have a distinguished position in heaven as a result. Saints played a major role in [Byzantine](/gene/byzantine-art) and [Medieval](/gene/medieval-art) art, appearing in church decorations and on devotional icons. Reliquaries contained supposed physical remnants of saints, and would at times inspire the construction of entire churches and religious complexes, a prime example being St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican. Various saints have captured the attention of artists; [Northern Renaissance](/gene/northern-renaissance) painter [Hans Memling](/artist/hans-memling) captured St. Veronica with the veil she allegedly used to wipe Jesus's forehead. Baroque sculptor [Gian Lorenzo Bernini](/artist/gian-lorenzo-bernini) immortalized [St. Theresa’s ecstasy](/gian-lorenzo-bernini-ecstasy-of-saint-teresa), an image that street artist [Banksy](/artist/banksy) later juxtaposed with a fast food meal.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50f0783a8542186cdd00008f",
    "slug": "sfumato",
    "name": "Sfumato",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "In painting, a technique of almost transparent shading that allows transitions between different lines, color and tones to be blurred to the extent that they appear to almost (to use the literal meaning of the term) evaporate like smoke. [Leonardo da Vinci](/artist/leonardo-da-vinci)'s work is most commonly associated with the term; for example, see the face—especially the eyes—of the [_Mona Lisa_](/artwork/leonardo-da-vinci-mona-lisa-la-gioconda).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51782eb93d56d494b00000cc",
    "slug": "geometric",
    "name": "Geometric",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks that foreground the precise rendering of lines, angles, and shapes. These works are dictated by the principles of Euclidean geometry, which favors straight lines and hard angles, often suggesting the use of tools like a straight-edge or compass. A focus on geometry was central to several abstract movements and tendencies of the 20th century, including [Constructivism](/gene/constructivism) and [Suprematism](/gene/suprematism), which originated in Russia; [Concrete Art](/gene/concrete-art) (which was founded in Europe in the 1930s but quickly took hold in Latin America); and the predominantly American 1960s practices of [hard-edged painting](/gene/hard-edged-1), [post-painterly abstraction](/gene/post-painterly-abstraction), and [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5182bd7ed1c10743a1000019",
    "slug": "brazil",
    "name": "Brazil",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Brazil.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5182bea34b72c8f22300005d",
    "slug": "austria",
    "name": "Austria",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Austria.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5182beb987d161c1a300001b",
    "slug": "germany",
    "name": "Germany",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Germany.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51b662538b3b8190570001e2",
    "slug": "late-19th-century",
    "name": "Late 19th Century",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "A general category for works created between 1870 and 1900. In Western Art, particularly in France, this period witnessed an incredible amount of artistic activity. [Impressionism](/gene/impressionism)—one of the most important movements in the history of Modern Art—was arguably the most influential movement of the era, as it sought to capture the transient aspects of visual reality, especially light and color. Also significant during this time were the [Post-Impressionist](/gene/post-impressionism) and [Symbolist](/gene/symbolism) movements.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51b662628b3b8149ed0002e8",
    "slug": "19th-century",
    "name": "19th Century",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "In the West, the 19th century witnessed major social and technological upheavals, spurred in large part by the Industrial Revolution and correlating trends: urbanization, frequently poor working and living conditions, and territorial expansion by emerging global superpowers. In this period, artistic patronage shifted increasingly towards the capitalist bourgeoisie and national academies, with a rising profile for art dealers and critics. The hub of Western artistic activity was Paris, and the French Academy and Salon represented the establishment, favoring [Neoclassicism](/gene/neoclassicism) at the beginning of the century and later [Romanticism](/gene/romanticism). Social and political commentary appeared in the history paintings of [Théodore Géricault](/artist/theodore-gericault) and [Francisco Goya](/artist/francisco-jose-de-goya-y-lucientes-1) as well as the Social Realist works of [Gustave Courbet](/artist/gustave-courbet) and [Honoré Daumier](/artist/honore-daumier). Broad defiance of the Salon system swelled in the second half of the century with provocative works by the likes of [Édouard Manet](/artist/edouard-manet), the new styles of [Impressionism](/gene/impressionism) and [Post-Impressionism](/gene/post-impressionism), and the birth of the concepts of modernism and the avant-garde. Japan's opening to global trade and the subsequent arrival of Japanese objects in Europe were a significant influence. At the same time, photography emerged as a means of documenting social realities and an art form accessible to non-elites. Architecture was characterized by the use of new industrial materials and techniques, on the the one hand, and the revival of Classical and Gothic styles, on the other. In design and decorative arts, the [Arts and Crafts Movement](/gene/arts-and-crafts-movement) and [Art Nouveau](/gene/art-nouveau) both responded to industrialization and mass production through their emphasis on handmade craft and organic forms.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51b662718b3b816b5c00034b",
    "slug": "18th-century",
    "name": "18th Century",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "A category for any work of art created during the 18th century, which witnessed two of the most influential periods of the modern age: the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. In Western art history, the movements most often associated with the 18th century include the [Rococo](/gene/rococo) and [Neoclassicism](/gene/neoclassicism), while the artists most often associated with the period are [Jean-Honoré Fragonard](/artist/jean-honore-fragonard), [Jean-Antoine Watteau](/artist/jean-antoine-watteau), and [Jacques-Louis David](/artist/jacques-louis-david).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50f077cb5c4d5614ff00007f",
    "slug": "seduction-and-courtship",
    "name": "Seduction and Courtship",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Throughout history, perhaps no other activity has preoccupied cultures as much as the cycle of courtship, seduction, and marriage—what Shakespeare summed up as \"wooing, wedding, and repenting.\" It is no surprise that art the world over has depicted and dissected the often complex social mores and rituals that accompany this pursuit, and those particularly adept at it—from Don Juan to the Troubadours—have become household names. In ancient Greek myth, however, the line between seduction and abduction was thin—Cupid's arrows compelled many a god to abscond with a beautiful mortal woman (scenes such as the Rape of Europa or Leda and the Swan have been idealized by painters ever since). The [Rococo](/gene/rococo) in France and Italy in the 17th century witnessed a particular obsession with themes of love and courtship, from the subtle advances portrayed by [Jean-Antoine Watteau](/artist/jean-antoine-watteau) to the titillating flirtations in [Jean-Honoré Fragonard](/artist/jean-honore-fragonard)’s paintings.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50f07b549e7a8f04d200008f",
    "slug": "chalk",
    "name": "Chalk",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "While today most often associated with sidewalks and classrooms, chalk has been used as an art-making medium for thousands of years in its naturally occurring colors—red, white, and black (manufactured chalks did not appear until the 18th century). Red chalk, also called sanguine, was used in Egyptian and Roman art for creating wall paintings; [Leonardo da Vinci](/artist/leonardo-da-vinci)'s use of red chalk for drawings on paper proved highly influential, and the medium would continue to be particularly valued for portrait studies because of its closeness to European skin tones.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "515b44b6d0c2ebb9420007c4",
    "slug": "attenuated-figure",
    "name": "Attenuated Figure",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Representations of the human form in which a figure is stylized so as to look elongated or thinned out. As far back as the 16th century, the mannerist painter [El Greco](/artist/el-greco-domenikos-theotokopoulos) departed from the idealized, classical figures of [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) art in his drawn-out depictions of the human figure. [Egon Schiele](/artist/egon-schiele) later adopted a similar style, often rendering grotesquely thin figures with a long wavering line, as if to express the precarious state of the individual in modern society. In response to the atrocities of World War II, [Alberto Giacometti](/artist/alberto-giacometti)’s textured bronze sculptures of gaunt human figures echoed the emaciated bodies of Jews persecuted during the Holocaust.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5182c4be242227fbd7000047",
    "slug": "french-guiana-guyana-and-suriname",
    "name": "French Guiana, Guyana and Suriname",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or have lived in French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51b6617a275b243b16000023",
    "slug": "1990s",
    "name": "1990s",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "The robust art market of the 1980s was devastated in the wake of a stock market crash in 1987 and a severe recession in the early '90s. As a result, at the beginning of the decade, artists tended to look more outside the art world for their subject matter, which ranged from current issues such as the AIDS crisis, gun control, and homelessness to often-charged explorations of class, race, gender and sexual identity. This coincided with an emerging notion of artist as a kind of ethnographer, as well as an exploration of broken or grotesque bodies and identities, by the likes of [Paul McCarthy](/artist/paul-mccarthy) and [Kiki Smith](/artist/kiki-smith). The most recognized movement of the decade, the [Young British Artists (YBAs)](/gene/young-british-artists-yba), rose to international recognition through ambitious and provocative works such as [Rachel Whiteread](/artist/rachel-whiteread)'s _House_ and [Damien Hirst](/artist/damien-hirst)'s formaldehyde-encased animals, highlighted in the exhibition, \"Sensation\". In the 1990s, video art became more and more influential, especially due to works like [Matthew Barney](/artist/matthew-barney)'s _Cremaster Cycle_ and large-scale video installations by artists such as [Doug Aitken](/artist/doug-aitken). Concurrently, artists (like [Andreas Gursky](/artist/andreas-gursky) and [Jeff Wall](/artist/jeff-wall)) used the increasingly sophisticated tools of photo-manipulation to blur the lines of fact and fiction (or make a more perfect reality).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "512657a523f3037e4c000602",
    "slug": "contemporary-faux-naif",
    "name": "Contemporary Faux Naïf",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_“Children also have artistic ability, and there is wisdom in their having it! The more helpless they are, the more instructive are the examples they furnish us.” —Paul Klee_\n\nIn the early 20th century, artists like [Paul Klee](/artist/paul-klee) attempted to reform art's staid conventions of beauty by returning to supposed primal or elementary beginnings. The art of children or those with mental disorders, which Klee championed and mimicked in his own work, seemed to offer access to authentic experience, unaffected by the trappings of civilization. Since then, many artists have attempted to present ostensibly unmediated expressions of creativity by eschewing traditional painting technique, a strategy that can be called “faux naïf”, derived from the French for “falsely naïve”. In contemporary practice, artists like [Tal R](/artist/tal-r) and [Jules de Balincourt](/artist/jules-de-balincourt) seek to address the modernist search for authenticity by adopting a child-like style.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50ac0be5dd33f68a6700042f",
    "slug": "asymmetrical",
    "name": "Asymmetrical",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Applied to design objects with multiple components that do not mirror each other's shape or composition.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50ac1760169cefbd0c0007cc",
    "slug": "slender",
    "name": "Slender",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Sculptures and Design objects that are tall, thin, or elongated.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "512b9dfc11d99e386800031f",
    "slug": "traces-indexes-and-implied-presence",
    "name": "Traces, Indexes, and Implied Presence",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "As a type of sign, an index communicates meaning through direct physical effect—for example, a tire track represents a car; a thumbprint represents a person; and a crater represents a meteor. The traces of a physical impact imply the presence or action that created them. Artists since the prehistoric era have left traces of themselves in their work, from the pigmented handprints of cave paintings to the skeins of paint that trace arm motions in [Jackson Pollock](https://www.artsy.net/artist/jackson-pollock/works)'s drip paintings. Contemporary artists continue to engage with this concept of trace, index, and presence, as in [David Maisel](https://www.artsy.net/artist/david-maisel)'s series Shadow Paintings, where he reveals traces of old paintings through ghostly x-rays.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50b99005c2f9a4a28b00015a",
    "slug": "family",
    "name": "Family",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that depict family scenes, ranging from joyous depictions of the [Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten and his family](/artwork/akhenaten-nefertiti-and-the-royal-princesses), to the solemn [_Portrait of Arnolfini and his Wife_](/artwork/jan-van-eyck-portrait-of-giovanni-arnolfini-and-his-wife-the-arnolfini-portrait) by Jan Van Eyck. Generations of [Christian artists](/gene/christian-art) depicted the holy family with the utmost admiration, and [Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun](/artist/louise-elisabeth-vigee-le-brun) painted Marie Antoinette’s family with a great deal of affection. Court painters like [Diego Velázquez](/artist/diego-velazquez) and [Francisco de Goya](/artist/francisco-de-goya), who depicted their subjects in more traditional configurations, used subtle tactics to demonstrate that even the most esteemed families might not be all that different from our own.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51b6618e8b3b8102b90001cc",
    "slug": "1980s",
    "name": "1980s",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "Departing from the visually sparse and intellectual [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism) and [Conceptualism](/gene/conceptual-art) of the previous decade, the 1980s saw a proliferation of artistic approaches that included painting, photography, [graffiti](/gene/graffiti-slash-street-art), and sculpture. Conservatism surged during the decade, a backlash to the radical countercultural efforts of the 1960s and 1970s, while booming economic growth dramatically revived the art market, bringing [Neo-Expressionist](/gene/neo-expressionism) painting, particularly the work of [Julian Schnabel](/artist/julian-schnabel) and [Anselm Kiefer](/artist/anselm-kiefer), to the fore in New York City, Italy, and Germany. A new visual culture emerged from the decade’s increase in consumption and mass media, and many artists responded to it, including [Cindy Sherman](/artist/cindy-sherman), of the [Pictures Generation](/gene/the-pictures-generation); [Neo-geo](/gene/neo-geo) artist [Jeff Koons](/artist/jeff-koons); and [East Village](/gene/east-village-art) artist [Jenny Holzer](/artist/jenny-holzer). As the Culture Wars played out during the decade’s end, many artists, such as [Gran Fury](/artist/gran-fury), [Nan Goldin](/artist/nan-goldin), and [Richard Serra](/artist/richard-serra), pushed back against right-wing politics as they fought to bring awareness to the AIDS epidemic and an end to censorship.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50afcd16fa481a41150005b1",
    "slug": "central-america-1",
    "name": "Central America",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Central America, which includes Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51efe2708b3b8196fc000462",
    "slug": "eye-contact",
    "name": "Eye Contact",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that depict a subject who is making direct eye contact with the viewer. In addition to her enigmatic smile, the [_Mona Lisa_](/artwork/leonardo-da-vinci-mona-lisa-la-gioconda) has perhaps the most recognized gaze in art history with eyes that reciprocate the viewer’s attention and appear to follow their spectator across the room. Replete with a number of social connotations, eye contact can convey confidence, attraction, humor, and even enmity. Portraying this loaded interaction in art can enable a work’s subject to transcend the picture plane and establish a personal connection with the viewer.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50b98f888c65b4a57600012a",
    "slug": "crowds",
    "name": "Crowds",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Any depiction of a group of over three human beings not purposefully presented as a [portrait](/gene/group-portrait). Examples could include crowds at protests or concerts, commuters or members of government, factory [workers](/gene/work-and-workers), royal or ordinary [families](/gene/family), mourners, prisoners, body builders, soldiers, or [bathers](/gene/bathers).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5182befa3bc01b0a3900000c",
    "slug": "southern-cone-argentina-chile-paraguay-uruguay",
    "name": "Southern Cone (Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay)",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or have lived in the Southern Cone region, which includes Argentina, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5182d9a01e3129c048000059",
    "slug": "pakistan",
    "name": "Pakistan",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or have lived in Pakistan.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50b98fe08c65b4a57600012c",
    "slug": "face",
    "name": "Face",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks whose focus is the human face. Considered central to human identity and human expressions of emotion, faces have historically been the primary feature of [portraiture](/gene/portrait) in Western art. The range of potential facial presentations seems infinite, though the most common are three-quarter and frontal views. In the West, since the 19th century, the increasing access to art and the tools of art making—especially achieved through the means of photography—has widened portraiture’s accessibility. Prior to the 19th century, portraits were commissioned only by the elite, though today ubiquitous digital technology allows virtually anyone to be the subject of a portrait.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50b99048b296e7ef4600012e",
    "slug": "hybrids-and-imaginary-creatures",
    "name": "Hybrids and Imaginary Creatures",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Imaginary creatures, from part-human hybrids to entirely fantastic beasts, have captured the attention of artists since Greek and Roman antiquity. Classical mythology and literature, filled with tales of centaurs, satyrs, and countless other mythic creatures, have inspired artists ever since, from [Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo](/artist/giovanni-domenico-tiepolo) to [Auguste Rodin](/artist/auguste-rodin). While relatively few imaginary creatures appear in biblical narratives, artists such as [Hieronymus Bosch](/artist/hieronymus-bosch), [Matthias Grünewald](/artist/matthias-grunewald), and [Albrecht Dürer](/artist/albrecht-durer) invented some of art’s most fantastic monsters as metaphors for earthly temptation and the terrors of hell. In a secular context, imaginary creatures, both friendly and devious, were key to the worlds created by [Surrealist](/gene/surrealism) artists such as [Max Ernst](/artist/max-ernst), [Victor Brauner](/artist/victor-brauner), and [Wifredo Lam](/artist/wifredo-lam). Contemporary artists such as [Marcel Dzama](/artist/marcel-dzama) and [Raqib Shaw](/artist/raqib-shaw) continue to invent worlds inhabited by these beasts and hybrids, while street artist [Invader](/artist/invader) borrows 8-bit extraterrestrials from 1970s arcade games and covertly sticks them onto city surfaces.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50b990c41e2b6f811700015b",
    "slug": "interlaced-bodies",
    "name": "Interlaced Bodies",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "“For me, the nude body is like a raw material. Another artist might use oil or clay. I love the fact that, en masse, it can be turned into an infinite number of shapes or abstractions.”\n—[Spencer Tunick](/artist/spencer-tunick)\n\nImages of human bodies crossing, passing over each other, or seemingly entangled have long been seen in Western art. Greek sculptors and artists like [El Greco](/artist/el-greco-domenikos-theotokopoulos), [Peter Paul Rubens](/artist/peter-paul-rubens), [Théodore Géricault](/artist/theodore-gericault, [Carolee Schneemann](/artist/carolee-schneemann), [Keith Haring](/artist/keith-haring) and [Spencer Tunick](/artist/spencer-tunick), for example, have included combinations of bodies in representations of the fall of Christ, starvation, warfare and battle, rioting, bathing, dancing, sex, and societal liberation.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50c7ca036ed95447250009d8",
    "slug": "brooklyn-artists",
    "name": "Brooklyn Artists",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists historically based in or currently living and working in Brooklyn, New York.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50f07a4ea9e852367800008f",
    "slug": "rembrandtesque",
    "name": "Rembrandtesque",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Recalling the style and techniques of [Rembrandt van Rijn](/artist/rembrandt-van-rijn). Most often this refers to Rembrandt's signature use of [chiaroscuro](/gene/chiaroscuro), as well as his combination of intense observation, broad and lively brushwork, and the dramatic stillness of the sitters in his late work.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51a7a64a8b3b814d96000604",
    "slug": "scandinavian-furniture-and-design",
    "name": "Scandinavian Furniture and Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "Design objects from Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland. Since the 1940s Scandinavia has become a world-renowned center of both mass-market and avant-garde design, particularly in furniture. During the past 20 years, Scandinavian mid-century-modern design—especially the work of designers such as [Arne Jacobsen](/artist/arne-jacobsen), [Verner Panton](/artist/verner-panton) and [Eero Saarinen](/artist/eero-saarinen)—has become one of the most collected styles of historical design.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51b662878b3b81ec27000281",
    "slug": "17th-century",
    "name": "17th Century",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "The 17th century was marked by increasingly robust global networks of trade, which brought a great deal of exchange of artistic objects and the global spread of styles. This was facilitated by British and Dutch trading companies in South Asia, the trade routes of the Ottoman Empire, and the Spanish administration of South America, amongst many other channels. China, Japan and Korea each experienced dramatic economic expansion and artistic flourishing, but while Chinese goods travelled widely through the global market, Japan maintained a closed economy. The great variety of artistic production in Europe in the 17th century is often loosely grouped under the term “[Baroque](/gene/baroque)”, which in general terms is characterized by a heightened sense of movement and lighting in compositions. In painting, these elements were perhaps first mastered by Caravaggio, who heavily influenced artists across Europe; amongst these were [Diego Velázquez](/artist/diego-velazquez) in Spain and and [Rembrandt](/artist/rembrandt-harmensz-van-rijn-1) in Holland. The exuberance of Baroque aesthetics combined with the fervor of the Catholic Counter-Reformation is evident in the re-constructed St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican, a project which was seen to completion by [Gian Lorenzo Bernini](/artist/gian-lorenzo-bernini). The taste for Baroque art travelled to the Americas, as evidenced by ornate religious buildings most notably in Mexico and Peru. In France, the century witnessed the consolidation of power under absolute monarchy, whose decadence was made visible in the construction of Louis XIV's royal palace at Versailles; the French Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture was also established under his rule. In the Dutch Republic, whose independence was gained from Spain after 80 years of conflict, an affluent mercantile class created the conditions for a dynamic art market with a preference for portraits, still lifes, cityscapes, and scenes of everyday life.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51b662c48b3b8190570001e6",
    "slug": "1000-1400-ce",
    "name": "1000–1400 CE",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "A general category for any artwork created between 1000 and 1400. In Europe, this span of 500 years witnessed the Middle Ages, the construction of the great gothic cathedrals, and the [early Renaissance](/gene/early-renaissance) in Italy.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5126a2014e1b39be680001c6",
    "slug": "documents-and-documentation",
    "name": "Documents and Documentation",
    "family": "",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "512cf5bc11a414d5960000c9",
    "slug": "black-arts-movement",
    "name": "Black Arts Movement",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The Black Arts Movement (mid-1960s to mid-1970s) was led by African American cultural practitioners as the “aesthetic and spiritual sister” of the Black Power movement. Its activist principles encouraged the foundation of black-run publishing houses, theaters, and spaces of artistic production and exhibition. Advanced in 1968 as envisioning an art that “speaks directly to the needs and aspirations of Black America” by poet Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) and writer Larry Neal, the Black Arts Movement urged the reinforcement of such mantras as “Black is beautiful” and James Brown’s “Say It Loud, I’m Black and I’m Proud” in the form of a recognizable iconography. For example, Jae Jarrell created [_Urban Wall Suit_](/artwork/jae-jarrell-urban-wall-suit) (1969), a multicolored suit crafted to appear as a graffiti-covered brick wall and a walking sign of the public voice. Iconic images of activists such as [Bob Marley](/tag/bob-marley), Angela Davis, and [Malcolm X](/tag/malcolm-x) pervaded art and popular culture at this time, as did other symbols like the raised fist, Afro hairstyle, and vivid graphic patterns inspired by art and textiles of the [African Diaspora](/gene/african-diaspora). Visual artists often used techniques such as [appropriation](/gene/appropriation), [photo-screen printing](/gene/silkscreen), and [collage](/gene/collage), which lent themselves easily to reproduction and dissemination.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5182bdff87d161c1a3000018",
    "slug": "iraq",
    "name": "Iraq",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in Iraq.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "518ba7fd9c0dedda83000235",
    "slug": "atmospheric-landscapes",
    "name": "Atmospheric Landscapes",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A general category for landscapes with a particularly hazy or soft-focus look. Major examples include paintings by [Tonalists](/gene/tonalism), [Impressionists](/gene/impressionism) (like [Claude Monet](/artist/claude-monet)), and [Romantics](/gene/romanticism) (like [Joseph William Mallord Turner](/artist/joseph-mallord-william-turner)), as well as, more recently, the works of [Wolf Kahn](/artist/wolf-kahn).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51a7c0998b3b81d4620006c4",
    "slug": "pastel-colors",
    "name": "Pastel Colors",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Generally refers to light colors with medium saturation. The term derives from [pastel crayons](/gene/pastel), which consist of a chalky, colored pigment mixed with a binding substance. Though the advent of pastels dates to the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance), their popularization is generally credited to [Rosalba Carriera](/artist/rosalba-carriera) in 18th-century France. The grace, soft focus, and powdery finish of her society portraits may explain why both the technique and pastel color palette have often been perceived as soft, dainty, or associated with the “feminine”.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51a7c0ba8b3b813af1000170",
    "slug": "black-and-white",
    "name": "Black and White",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks, including photographs, that are either all black, all white, or a combination of the two. In the West in the 20th century various reasons accounted for painters’ use of this simplified palette. For example, Kazimir Malevich’s [_Black Square_](/artwork/kasimir-severinovich-malevich-black-square) was one of the first expressions of the artist’s [Suprematist](/gene/suprematism) theories. Additionally, [Robert Rauschenberg](/artist/robert-rauschenberg) made his modular panel “[White Paintings](/artwork/robert-rauschenberg-white-painting-seven-panel)” in 1951 with the aim of creating something that did not look as if it were done by hand. In doing so, he paved the way for later [Minimalist art](/gene/minimalism). In 1961, [John Cage](/artist/john-cage) famously referred to Rauschenberg’s works as “airports for the lights, shadows, and particles,” proposing a reading of them as reflections (and recipients) of the life occurring in front of them.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51b662eb8b3b8190570001ea",
    "slug": "prehistoric-art",
    "name": "Prehistoric Art",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "A term that refers to Stone Age, Paleolithic, and Neolithic art and artifacts, literally referring to the time before recorded history. As the first building blocks of art history, prehistoric artifacts provide crucial insights into the origin of image- and craft-making; they take the form of tools and small objects, as well as a select few architectural ruins. Art from this period was a powerful form of communicating information between tribes and generations; for instance, the Lascaux caves in Southern France demonstrate hunting techniques through the use of basic narrative structure and iconography dating back to 15,000 B.C. Another iconic Prehistoric artwork is the [_Venus of Willendorf_](/artwork/venus-of-willendorf) (est. 24,000-22,000 B.C.) a bulbous, palm-sized figurine of a woman, thought to be a symbol of fertility and also the earliest surviving depiction of the female nude.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50b9919b0a77d54691000128",
    "slug": "political-events",
    "name": "Political Events",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks depicting political events, whether commissioned by governments to celebrate political milestones or independently created by artists to document or critique the political sphere. One of the earliest surviving depictions of political events is the [Arch of Titus](/artwork/arch-of-titus), built in 82 AD by the Roman Emperor Domitian to honor the military achievements of his deceased brother, Titus. The government was also a patron to the Romantic painter [Francisco de Goya](/artist/francisco-jose-de-goya-y-lucientes-1), who hauntingly portrayed Napoleonic troops’ mass execution of Spanish civilians in his seminal work, _[The Third of May](/artwork/francisco-jose-de-goya-y-lucientes-the-third-of-may)_. Offering another avenue for representing political events, the birth of [photojournalism](/gene/photojournalism) in the 19th century enabled subsequent artists to document historic events from their own perspectives, as with [Garry Winogrand](/artist/garry-winogrand)’s photographs of urban protests during the Vietnam War.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "517eed481386d1fb350001e5",
    "slug": "arabesque-slash-scroll",
    "name": "Arabesque/Scroll",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Describes objects or compositions characterized by a predominance of curling, scroll-shaped tendrils or winding curves, also called volutes, S-scrolls, or C-scrolls. The extent to which each of these forms is related, as well as the history of the term “arabesque,” is hotly debated among art historians. Arabesque has a specific meaning in [Islamic art](/gene/islamic-art-and-architecture), where it refers to the vegetal patterned surface decorations that flourished from the 10th to 15th centuries and adorned walls from Spain to Northern Africa, highly ornamented [calligraphy](/gene/arabic-slash-farsi-calligraphy), or intricate patterning on sculpture and other objects. Its meaning in other aesthetic traditions is less clear (some art historians argue that it should only be used to describe Islamic art). Starting in the late Renaissance in Europe, it was used nearly interchangeably with the terms “[grotesque](/gene/grotesque)” and “moresque” to describe complex, curvilinear patterning. By the [Rococo](/gene/rococo) period of the 17th century, the form had become extremely popular, and swooping S-scrolls in high relief adorned furniture, architectural elements, tableware, and other decorative objects. Arabesques and related scroll shapes appear in classical art and decoration, in Chinese art, and in contemporary art throughout the world. With their basis in mathematical principles of geometry and fluid definition, a straightforward lineage is difficult to ascertain.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5182be374b72c8f223000059",
    "slug": "arabian-peninsula",
    "name": "Arabian Peninsula",
    "family": "",
    "description": "Artists who are from or have lived in Saudi Arabia, Oman, Yemen, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar, or Bahrain.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50d103c66f0775b45b000819",
    "slug": "pre-columbian-art",
    "name": "Pre-Columbian Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "Including the creations of the Maya, the Aztecs, the Inca, and Native North Americans, Pre-Columbian Art is a broad category that encompasses the art of indigenous people of North, Central, and South America and the Caribbean prior to the arrival of the Spanish at the beginning of the 16th century. Figural sculptures in stone such as the [Colossal Heads](/artwork/olmec-culture-san-lorenzo-mexico-colossal-head) (900–400 BC), made by the Olmec, one of the earliest Mesoamerican civilizations, were used to honor rulers and for communication and devotion. The [Maya](/gene/mayan-art-and-architecture) left behind pyramids, stone sculpture, and hieroglyphic writing in cities in the [Yucatan](/artwork/itza-northern-maya-yucatan-mexico-pyramid-el-castillo-chichen-itza) such as [Palenque](/artwork/maya-culture-palenque-mexico-palace-and-temple-of-the-inscriptions-tomb-pyramid-of-lord-pakal), but these were largely wiped out by the [Aztec](/gene/aztec-art) Empire in the 12th century. The Aztecs also created immense religious and royal structures at their capital, Tenochtitlán, built in the middle of a lake in central Mexico. Empires in the Andes constructed large complexes as well, such as the massive desert drawings the [Nazca](/artwork/nazca-culture-earth-drawing-geoglyph-of-a-hummingbird-nazca-plain) created in southern Peru and the mountaintop citadel [Machu Picchu](/tag/images-of-machu-picchu), built by the Inca. These civilizations were overtaken by European conquistadors at the beginning of the 16th century, but elements of Pre-Columbian language and culture survive throughout the Americas up to the present day. Due to what has been seen as a Eurocentric bias to the terms “pre-Columbian” and its synonym “pre-Hispanic,” the terms Ancient American, pre-contact, pre-conquest, and precolumbian (with Columbus de-emphasized) are commonly used.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50ac185ae8adaa264f000809",
    "slug": "engineering-slash-construction-and-design",
    "name": "Engineering/Construction and Design",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "Design objects whose makers have conceived of (often revolutionary) new materials or methods in order to solve engineering or construction challenges.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50ac0b463d0504c042000608",
    "slug": "extruded-design",
    "name": "Extruded Design",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Design objects composed of or containing a fixed, cross-sectional profile that appears to have been created through forcing a material through a die.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5119125226add8207500000b",
    "slug": "cardboard",
    "name": "Cardboard",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Artworks that are, in whole or in part, created out of cardboard. Technically, cardboard is a type of board thicker than paper. The term “cardboard” often refers to corrugated cardboard, which consists of two flat sheets of cardboard and one “fluted” board in the middle. Corrugated cardboard is commonly used around the world to make shipping boxes.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "513f820517df3f7880000291",
    "slug": "bengal-school-of-art",
    "name": "Bengal School of Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Emerging in early 20th-century India during the British Raj (the period of British rule over the Indian subcontinent that ended in 1947), the Bengal School of Art sought to establish a distinctly Indian art that celebrated an indigenous cultural heritage rather than Western art and culture. Ernest Binfield Havell, a teacher at the Calcutta Art School, was instrumental in the movement’s formation. Rejecting the academic tradition typically promoted in British art schools, he encouraged students’ discovery of [Mughal art](/gene/mughal-art)—art produced under the Mughal empire in Southern Asia between 1526 and 1857—a curriculum that was vehemently protested by the faculty, students, and press. With the young painter Abanindranath Tagore, Havell went on to spearhead a nationalist and modern art movement that celebrated historical, spiritual, and artistic Indian traditions. Comprising a diverse group of artists that included [Gaganendranath Tagore](/artist/gaganendranath-tagore), [Abdur Rahman Chugtai](/artist/abdur-rahman-chughtai), and [Ganesh Pyne](/artist/ganesh-pyne), the Bengal School of Art also incorporated elements from Far Eastern art, such as the Japanese [wash technique](/gene/east-asian-ink-and-wash-painting).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "514cd3a06b486cc65400022c",
    "slug": "western-africa",
    "name": "Western Africa",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in the geographic region of Western Africa, which includes the countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51b6616c275b245661000048",
    "slug": "21st-century",
    "name": "21st Century",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "Over the past decade, art has taken an incredible variety of forms. One particular tendency of the present moment involves co-opting the public sphere (both analogue and digital) as a venue for artistic interventions, which has blurred the distinctions between artist, curator, and activist. Ambitious public projects such as [Olafur Eliasson](/artist/olafur-eliasson)’s _Waterfalls_ coexist with increasing interest in [street art](/gene/street-art) and [DIY practice](/gene/contemporary-diy). [Christian Marclay](/artist/christian-marclay)’s _[The Clock](/artwork/christian-marclay-the-clock)_ combines rigorous archival research with an interest in the history of popular media, while socially-engaged practice has garnered both popular participation and official sanction, ranging from [Carsten Höller](/artist/carsten-holler)’s spectacular installations to Pussy Riot’s political actions. Amidst the diversity of contemporary art though it is easy to forget the long-standing traditions of painting and sculpture remain central to artistic production.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50f077f59bc2537c1500008a",
    "slug": "bible-story",
    "name": "Bible Story",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Refers to depictions of Old and New Testament narratives, or those from other canonical Jewish or Christian texts. The secluded house church and synagogue excavated at Dura Europos, Syria, contain perhaps the earliest visual representations of Christ and stories from the Bible. After A.D. 313, when Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, biblical iconography became publicly widespread, particularly in mosaics and paintings in churches. These images made important stories immediately recognizable to worshippers in the Middle Ages, and would remain ubiquitous throughout the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance), with iconic examples painted by [Fra Angelico](/artist/fra-angelico) and [Jan van Eyck](/artist/jan-van-eyck). While the development of secular culture and private patronage in Europe allowed for the proliferation of many other types of images, Bible stories continue to capture the attention of artists; [Francis Bacon](/artist/francis-bacon)’s _Crucifixion Triptych_ and [Doris Salcedo](/artist/doris-salcedo)’s _Shibboleth_ serve as more abstract examples. Importantly, this category includes only representations of stories, and leaves out non-narrative depictions of Jesus or the [Madonna and Child](/gene/madonna-and-child).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50f07aad70cda174c2000099",
    "slug": "oil-on-copper",
    "name": "Oil on Copper",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "For a brief period of time in the 16th and 17th centuries, copper (as opposed to wood panels or canvas) was used as the ground for small oil paintings. Traditionally, the metal is most commonly used in sculptures or as plates for [intaglio](/gene/intaglio) prints.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51379ca43585bae73c000057",
    "slug": "dark-colors",
    "name": "Dark Colors",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Works determined to be dark in color, not necessarily in mood or outlook.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51a7a6c5275b24a8f700037c",
    "slug": "italian-furniture-and-design",
    "name": "Italian Furniture and Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "Made in Italy\" calls to mind high-quality, customized design in which material, form, and function are seamlessly integrated. In the second half of the 20th century, Italian design attained worldwide recognition and became the international standard for luxury goods manufacturing throughout the 1960s and '70s. Spanning interior, fashion, industrial, and architectural design, Italian design is characterized by a tradition of artisanship, formal innovation, and a certain humorous irreverence. Sourced from established Italian fashion houses and niche production factories like Alessi and Cassina that specialize in areas like flatware, lighting, or seating, Italy's modern design industry has been centralized in Milan and Northern Italy. Notable examples of Italian design include The Moka Pot, designed by Alfonso Bialetti in 1933, The Libro Chair by Gruppo Dam (1970), and Cesare Casati and C. Emmanuele Ponzio's Pillola Lamps (1968).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50ac0a89057118c56a000450",
    "slug": "stool",
    "name": "Stool",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "A seat without the back support or arms that a traditional [chair](/gene/chair) has. The most common type of modern stool is wooden, with a circular top and 3-4 legs, similar to that used in [Marcel Duchamp's _Bicycle Wheel_ readymade of 1913](/artwork/marcel-duchamp-bicycle-wheel).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50ac180d986f93da5a0007c4",
    "slug": "handcrafted-furniture-and-design",
    "name": "Handcrafted Furniture and Design",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "Handcrafted furniture and design draw upon traditional craft materials and methods, such as woodworking, ceramics, textiles, and metalwork. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the [Arts and Crafts Movement](/gene/arts-and-crafts-movement) in England and the [American Studio Craft Movement](/gene/american-studio-craft-movement) in the United States resisted the industrialization of design, promoting one-of-a-kind products that could only be made by hand. Today, [Cody Hoyt](/artist/cody-hoyt) and the [Haas Brothers](/artist/the-haas-brothers) continue to place an emphasis on craft, whether through the hand-marbelization of clay or the custom beading of [zoomorphic](/gene/zoomorphism) sculptures. In their vessels and sculptures, Japanese ceramicists [Sueharu Fukami](/artist/sueharu-fukami), [Koike Shôko](/artist/koike-shoko), as well as “Living National Treasure” [Ito Sekisui V](/artist/ito-sekisui-v) draw upon traditional techniques to create work that is strikingly contemporary.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50b7e5ff19bd3ee9e4000151",
    "slug": "pre-world-war-ii-school-of-paris",
    "name": "Pre-World War II School of Paris",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_\"What was done in Paris demonstrated clearly and for all time that such a thing as international culture could exist. Moreover, that this culture had a definite style: the Modern.\" —Harold Rosenberg_\n\nParis before World War II—\"the laboratory of the twentieth century,\" as Rosenberg called it—was home to some of the world's leading artists of the day. It witnessed the rapid succession of movements and formal innovations that have come to define modern art, from [Cubism](/gene/cubism) and [Dada](/gene/dada) to [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism) and the return to Classicism. The term \"École de Paris\" (School of Paris) was originally associated with the foreign-born artists, mainly of Jewish heritage, living in Paris between the two world wars—foremost among them [Amedeo Modigliani](/artist/amedeo-modigliani), [Marc Chagall](/artist/marc-chagall), and [Chaim Soutine](/artist/chaim-soutine), also referred to as \"Poetic Expressionists\"—but later came to encompass nearly all progressive art produced in Paris, particularly by [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) and [Henri Matisse](/artist/henri-matisse); it has also been used to describe the Post-WW II scene in Paris. A robust gallery landscape, avid arts criticism, and the vibrant social life centered around Montmartre and Montparnasse cemented the city's status as an international center of innovation.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50c73f471738c723c6000d76",
    "slug": "black-mountain-college",
    "name": "Black Mountain College",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Black Mountain College was a progressive and experimental liberal arts school founded in 1933 in Black Mountain, North Carolina. Though it did not adhere to a specific ideology nor encourage a cohesive artistic style, at the core of the school was a belief in the total integration of art and life, learning through experience and experimentation, democratic self rule among students and faculty, and interdisciplinary collaboration. While faculty members [Robert Motherwell](/artist/robert-motherwell), [Willem de Kooning](/artist/willem-de-kooning), and [Franz Kline](/artist/franz-kline) made the college a center for [Abstract Expressionist](/gene/abstract-expressionism) painting during the ’40s and early ’50s, the school was the site of many watershed moments for individual artist’s careers. It was at Black Mountain that the sound artist and composer [John Cage](/artist/john-cage) composed his seminal work _4:33_; [Robert Rauschenberg](/artist/robert-rauschenberg) painted his monochromatic “White Paintings”; choreographer Merce Cunningham founded his dance company; and Buckminster Fuller designed the geodesic dome. As such, the school remains one of the most significant 20th-century experiments in arts education, art practice, and design.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50f07a99b768a08bfd0000a2",
    "slug": "oil-on-panel",
    "name": "Oil on Panel",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Oil paintings made on wooden panels. In Western art, paintings were generally made this way until the 15th century, when canvas was adopted as the preferred support across much of Europe. (Other common supports for painting have been copper and slate.) Depending on where the artist worked, different woods were favored: Italian artists generally painted on poplar, while their Northern counterparts used oak. Canvas was seen as a preferable support due to wood's tendency to split and warp over time, and while it has its own drawbacks (including a more intensive priming process) has proved a more stable ground for paintings.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "513f9068a73cddfa9c00002c",
    "slug": "progressive-artists-movement",
    "name": "Progressive Artists' Movement",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The Progressive Artists’ Group formed within the fraught political and cultural climate that followed India’s independence from British rule in 1947. As the nation grappled with its new borders and newly established democracy, this modern group of artists sought to distance themselves from the nationalist [Bengal School of Art](/gene/bengal-school-of-art) by embracing a more international perspective. Approaching their art from considerably different backgrounds and styles, they shared a concern for formal qualities, similar to those found in European Modernism, and advocated for free expression of content and technique. [Francis Newton Souza](/artist/francis-newton-souza), credited with founding the group, looked to [Expressionism](/gene/german-expressionism) and [Art Brut](/gene/art-brut) for his explorations of sexuality and the human form, while [Maqbool Fida Husain](/artist/maqbool-fida-husain), another of the six founders, evoked the aesthetics of [Cubism](/gene/cubism) in his paintings of flattened, disjointed scenes of Indian history and mythology. [Syed Haider Raza](/artist/syed-haider-raza) turned to geometric abstraction for his colorful paintings that responded to nature and often converged at a “Bindu,” or point, symbolizing the seed of life.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "514cd74fa110cb766200004b",
    "slug": "middle-africa",
    "name": "Middle Africa",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or who have lived in the geographical region of Middle Africa, which includes the countries of Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Namibia and São Tomé and Príncipe.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "516ed046f8f8bcd370000120",
    "slug": "mail-art",
    "name": "Mail Art",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Primarily associated with the work of [Ray Johnson](/artist/ray-johnson)—though it probably originated with the larger [Fluxus](/gene/fluxus) or Nouveau Réalism movements—Mail Art uses mailing and shipment services as channels through which to distribute art, as well as to explore systems of circulation more broadly. Johnson mailed works of art to his collaborative network, known as the New York Correspondence School. More recently, [Walead Beshty](/artist/walead-beshty) has investigated the way global shipping conglomerations affect an artwork’s context with his series of glass boxes shipped via FedEx®. Beshty considers the company logo and the wear and tear accrued during transport to be part of the work.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5181405e323f577923000001",
    "slug": "himalayan-art",
    "name": "Himalayan Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5182c63db5772edd57000057",
    "slug": "eastern-mediterranean",
    "name": "Eastern Mediterranean",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or have lived in Greece, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Slovenia, and Turkey.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51a7a5ea8b3b8149fb0002eb",
    "slug": "20th-century-furniture-and-design",
    "name": "20th Century Furniture and Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "The 20th century was defined by industrial advancements and technological leaps: the invention of the automobile, the airplane, modern means of warfare, and the Internet led to radically new ways of living and moving, all of which 20th-century designers responded to. The “machine age” of the 1920s brought about a new culture of industrially influenced design fueled by the invention of mass-produced materials, while the aftermath of WWII ushered in a humanist countercurrent that embraced natural materials and the handmade object. Setting the stage for today’s “[golden age of design](http://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/22/t-magazine/design-golden-age.html?_r=1),” the final decades of the 20th century witnessed experiments in form (e.g., Postmodernism), the “CAD (computer aided design) revolution,” and the first all-optic fiber cable.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51aca202700006a03a000027",
    "slug": "seating",
    "name": "Seating",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "A category for things that are created to be sat on. Among the types of seating are [chairs](/gene/chair), [armchairs](/gene/armchair), folding chairs, recliners, seats, saddles, [stools](/gene/stool), wheelchairs, swings, couches, [sofas](/gene/sofa), settees, loveseats, and [benches](/gene/bench). Throughout human history, an almost infinite variety of approaches have been taken to design and fashion the appearance of seating. While complexly designed chairs date to as early as ancient Egyptian and Greek cultures, formal seating (for example, a chair as opposed to a bench or stool) was rarely used by ordinary people in Western Europe until the 16th century. Importantly, not all cultures prioritize chairs or any type of constructed seating. For example, prior to the 20th century, Japan had a long history of sitting on the floor.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51b662438b3b81ec2700027d",
    "slug": "1900-1917",
    "name": "1900–1917",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "The turn of the twentieth century brought a spirit of experimentation to Europe, as artists looked for new ways to break with artistic conventions. Through movements like [Fauvism](/gene/fauvism), [Expressionism](/gene/expressionism), [Futurism](/gene/futurism), and [Cubism](/gene/cubism), artists such as [Henri Matisse](/artist/henri-matisse), [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso), [Filippo Tommaso Marinetti](/artist/filippo-tommaso-marinetti), [Sonia Delaunay](/artist/sonia-delaunay), and [Wassily Kandinsky](/artist/wassily-kandinsky) pushed their art to the point of abstraction, searching for a style to match a world full of new technologies and ideas. In a similar way, [Adolf Loos](/artist/adolf-loos), [Peter Behrens](/artist/peter-behrens), and [Le Corbusier](/artist/le-corbusier) began to strip design and architecture down to its bare essentials. It is this period that is often viewed as the height of [modernism](/gene/modern-1) in the West. World War I brought an end to this age, ushering in a series of anti-art movements that included [Dada](/gene/dada) and [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51b662a48b3b816b5c00034f",
    "slug": "15th-century",
    "name": "15th Century",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "The 15th century marks a turning point in art history. In Florence, the advent of the [Renaissance](/gene/renaisssance) rekindled interest in Greco-Roman culture. [Donatello](/artist/donatello)’s [David](/artwork/donatello-david) was the first freestanding nude statue since antiquity, and the architects [Filippo Brunelleschi](/artist/filippo-brunelleschi) and [Leon Battista Alberti](/artist/leon-battista-alberti) took inspiration from the Roman writer Vitruvius, designing buildings based on mathematical proportion and basic geometric shapes. Painters like [Masaccio](/artist/masaccio) and [Paolo Uccello](/artist/paolo-uccello) developed the system of [linear perspective](/gene/emphasis-on-linear-perspective) to convincingly depict three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional support. In [Northern Europe](/gene/northern-renaissance), [Jan van Eyck](/artist/jan-van-eyck) pioneered the use of oil paint, while artists like [Petrus Christus](/artist/petrus-christus) and [Hans Memling](/artist/hans-memling) rendered textures, individual faces, and the local urban environment with a high degree of naturalism. The Americas saw the completion of monumental masonry projects like Macchu Picchu, an Inca complex in the Andean highlands. In China, the [Ming Dynasty](/gene/ming-dynasty) (1368-1644), witnessed the rise of the Southern School of literati painting including artist and theorist [Dong Qichang](/artist/dong-qichang), as well as the development of an iconic blue and white porcelain style.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50b990a10a77d54691000122",
    "slug": "figures-in-nature",
    "name": "Figures in Nature",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "One of the most important relationships throughout history may well be humans' relationship to nature, i.e. our place within the natural order of things as well as our experience of the great outdoors. At various periods in time, artists have developed conventions for depicting this relationship; an early example in Western art being Giorgione’s [_The Tempest_](/artwork/giorgione-the-tempest) of 1506. In the characteristically playful compositions of the 17th-century [Rococo](/gene/rococo) style, nature often seems to come to life, at once seductive and mysterious, as evident in many of [Fragonard](/artist/jean-honore-fragonard)’s flirtatious paintings. Perhaps the most iconic example of man's negotiation with the power of nature, [Caspar David Friedrich](/artist/caspar-david-friedrich)’s _Monk by the Sea_, embodied the spirit of the 19th-century [Romantics](/gene/romanticism), who valued the individual’s subjective contemplation of nature as part of a personal, poetic experience. From [Song Dynasty](/gene/song-dynasty) landscapes, in which human figures are dwarfed by enigmatic and wild natural settings, to the [Impressionists](/gene/impressionism)' penchant for depicting outdoor leisure activities like boating or picnicking, what humans have defined as the boundary between \"civilization\" and \"nature\" has continually shifted, often in response to physical encroachments into the natural world, as in the case of the railroad and industrial expansion.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50b9910bca57c575580000c8",
    "slug": "hugs-and-kisses",
    "name": "Hugs and Kisses",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Includes artworks that contain an embrace or a kiss between figures. These physical expressions represent affection between people ranging from the platonic to the romantic. In their most intimate iterations in art, hugs and kisses are often seen in bedrooms and bathrooms and among people at home. The cross-cultural motif of the embrace between the mother and her child occurs from [Ancient Egypt](/gene/ancient-egypt) to the Christian tradition of depicting the [Madonna and Child](/gene/madonna-and-child). In other contexts hugs and kisses are among the most highly visible public expressions at parties and celebrations.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50c8ad5eea1617053e000212",
    "slug": "miniature-and-small-scale-paintings",
    "name": "Miniature and Small-Scale Paintings",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A general category for very small paintings. In Persia, miniature paintings on paper, which were part of books or small albums, were an important genre between the 15th and 16th centuries. In Europe, the term “miniature” has applied to both the decorative elements of illuminated manuscripts and small paintings, which were popular between the 16th and 19th centuries.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50f078255c4d5614ff000081",
    "slug": "equestrian",
    "name": "Equestrian",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Works in the tradition of the equestrian portrait, in which the sitter is depicted on horseback. The mounted figure has been used to convey a sense of authority and monumentality since antiquity, the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome a prime example. Surviving through the Middle Ages, the convention was popularly taken up by artists like [Donatello](/artist/donatello) as part of the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) revival of classical forms. The equestrian portrait was a regular court commission during the [Baroque](/gene/baroque) and [Neoclassical](/gene/neoclassicism) periods, as seen in paintings by [Diego Velázquez](/artist/diego-velazquez) and [Jacques-Louis David](/artist/jacques-louis-david). In a similar vein, horses also figure centrally in scenes of war (as in those painted by [Paolo Uccello](/artist/paolo-uccello)), and they have remained a motif in modern and contemporary art, though increasingly portrayed in a manner that critiques or parodies monumentality.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50f07a82e7f14e3528000094",
    "slug": "tondo",
    "name": "Tondo",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Circular paintings and relief sculptures. Most recently popularized by [Damien Hirst](/artist/damien-hirst), the tondo was used as early as Greek antiquity to depict mythological scenes on pottery. The form became prevalent in Renaissance Italy through works by artists like [Raphael](/artist/raphael-raffaello-sanzio-da-urbino) and [Michelangelo](/artist/michelangelo-buonarroti). Inspired by the painted trays traditionally presented to pregnant women, these tondi often depicted [Bible stories](/gene/bible-story) and images of the [Madonna and Child](/gene/madonna-and-child). The round panel or canvas put forth an alternate set of compositional concerns from those established by [Leon Battista Alberti](/artist/leon-battista-alberti), who wrote that rectangular painting is essential for pictorial perspective. Abstract and figurative painters in various movements since have used the tondo to complement their work on rectangular canvases, from [Caravaggio](/artist/michelangelo-merisi-da-caravaggio) to [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso), [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock), and [Sol LeWitt](/artist/sol-lewitt).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50f07abeb768a08bfd0000a4",
    "slug": "tempera",
    "name": "Tempera",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Though the term literally means any mixture of pigment and medium (the two basic parts of any paint), tempera primarily refers to egg tempera, a kind of paint used since antiquity in which egg is the binding medium for the pigment. Egg tempera was used to paint Greek and Roman Orthodox icons as well as many of 15th-century Italy's masterpieces. Painter Cennino Cennini's 14th-century treatise, _Il libro dell' Arte_, is the most important reference for tempera techniques, still used today. By the 16th century, oil paint was almost always the medium of choice, because it allowed for much richer (and subtler variations of) color and a more forgiving working technique, as tempera dries very quickly. The 19th century witnessed a renewal of interest in painting with tempera, particularly in Britain, due to the rediscovery of Cennini's work, and there remain various contemporary painters who choose to work in the medium for its unique qualities, constraints, and historical resonance.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "512b65ee5a2a7775d80000d4",
    "slug": "carving",
    "name": "Carving",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Perhaps the earliest technique for creating three-dimensional forms or decoration, carving is the act of shaping, marking, or decorating wood, stone, or other materials by cutting or incising—as opposed to sculpting by building up a material like clay. Michelangelo once characterized carving as the process of revealing the shape inherent within a solid mass, penetrating the material to find the image within. Examples of carving can be found in ancient objects the world over, from paleolithic objects decorated with animal forms found in France to Shang dynasty oracle bones incised with ancient writing from China, and classical Greek Caryatid figures still standing today on the Acropolis. Even thousands of years ago, artists like the anonymous sculptor of a voluptuous 10th-century Yogini from India experimented with the ability of carved imagery to operate in both two and three dimensions, creating dramatic volume in contrast to flat space. To this day, carving continues to take forms both minute and monumental, from virtuosic carved sculptures to paintings incised for texture.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5182be8ab5772edd57000010",
    "slug": "egypt",
    "name": "Egypt",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or have lived in Egypt.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51b662978b3b81ec27000285",
    "slug": "16th-century",
    "name": "16th Century",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "A general category for any artwork produced between 1500 and 1599. European art of the 16th century was marked by the spread of Renaissance culture and ideas from Italy through the rest of the continent, resulting in a number of new styles. The [High Renaissance](/gene/high-renaissance)(roughly the first two decades of the 16th century) and [Mannerism](/gene/mannerism) are the movements most often associated with this period. Generally, it is the artists that created work during the early 1500s—[Leonardo da Vinci](/artist/leonardo-da-vinci), [Michelangelo](/artist/michelangelo-buonarroti), [Raphael](/artist/raphael), [Albrecht Durer](/artist/albrecht-durer), [El Greco](/artist/el-greco-domenikos-theotokopoulos), and (Titian)[/artist/titian]—who dominate the discussion of 16th century art.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50ac17902bd73983a000065a",
    "slug": "woven-slash-perforated",
    "name": "Woven/Perforated",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks and design objects that include some parts comprised of interlacing strands of various types of material and/or portions that are perforated.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50c7c92d729f21db57000922",
    "slug": "berlin-artists",
    "name": "Berlin Artists",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists historically based in or currently living and working in Berlin, Germany.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "50f0762cf9e1af661b00007b",
    "slug": "madonna-and-child",
    "name": "Madonna and Child",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that depict baby Jesus held by his mother, Mary, characteristically as the primary focus of the artwork. The image of Madonna and child is one of the most common in [Christian art](/gene/christian-art); iconic depictions have been created by [Duccio](/artist/duccio), [Leonardo da Vinci](/artist/leonardo-da-vinci), and [Caravaggio](/artist/michelangelo-merisi-da-caravaggio), among countless others. \"Madonna\" is a Medieval Italian word for a noblewoman, literally translating to \"my lady.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50f07a28e9a3fe93ee00008f",
    "slug": "caravaggesque",
    "name": "Caravaggesque",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Painted in the style of [Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio](/artist/michelangelo-merisi-da-caravaggio). Specifically, this means a highly realistic portrayal of figures, the focus on dramatic situations and subjects, and a high contrast of light and dark ([chiaroscuro](/gene/chiaroscuro)).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50f07b135c4d5614ff00008e",
    "slug": "altarpiece",
    "name": "Altarpiece",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Altarpieces originate in the Christian tradition of placing a decorated panel on or next to an altar, the table-shaped structure that historically serves as the central focus of a house of worship. Likely emerging between the 9th and 11th centuries to identify the saint or figure associated with the altar, the earliest examples were simple paintings on rectangular wooden panels, usually depicting Jesus or the Virgin Mary. Over time, altarpieces became larger and more elaborate; in the 1200s, [Cimabue](/artist/cimabue) adopted a large-scale, gabled format with [gold ground](/gene/gold-ground). By the 1500s the format flourished, resulting in some of the most iconic works of Western Christian art, from the monumental scale and complex iconography of the [Ghent Altarpiece](/artwork/jan-van-eyck-the-ghent-altarpiece-also-called-the-adoration-of-the-mystic-lamb) to Matthias Grünewald’s winged [Isenheim Altarpiece](/artwork/matthias-grunewald-isenheim-altarpiece). Italian Renaissance sculptors like [Donatello](/artist/donatello) and [Michelangelo](/artist/michelangelo-buonarroti) introduced free-standing sculpture of dramatic proportions alongside the altar (like the latter’s [_Pietà_](/artwork/michelangelo-buonarroti-the-pieta), 1497-1500), and the use of stone in the construction of ornate sculpture and relief continued through the [Baroque](/gene/baroque).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "50f07b325c4d5614ff000090",
    "slug": "terracotta",
    "name": "Terracotta",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51a7e7358b3b8127b8000001",
    "slug": "childrens-furniture-and-design",
    "name": "Children's Furniture and Design",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "From building blocks to blackboards to illustrated books, many design objects and artworks are made expressly for children. A depiction of a squirming baby seated in a highchair on a Greek vase from 400 B.C.E. provides ancient evidence of the long history of children’s furniture. Leveraging the power of mass-production, twentieth century masters such as [Alvar Aalto](/artist/alvar-aalto), [Charles and Ray Eames](/artist/charles-and-ray-eames), [Isamu Noguchi](/artist/isamu-noguchi), and [Jean Louis Avril](/artist/jean-louis-avril) created child-sized versions of their iconic furniture designs, as well as introduced rockers, play tables, and miniature desks into their repertoires. In recent years, museums and galleries have also taken a particular interest in children’s furniture and design, as showcased in the the exhibition “Century of the Child: 1900-2000\" (2012) at [The Museum of Modern Art](/museum-of-modern-art) in New York, “Design for the Modern Child” (2013) at the [Philadelphia Museum of Art](/philadelphia-museum-of-art), as well as the founding of the [kinder MODERN](/kinder-modern) gallery in New York in 2013.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51b661a0275b24d15b000044",
    "slug": "1970s",
    "name": "1970s",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "A general category for any artwork, design object, or architectural work created during the 1970s. In the United States, the recession of that decade had a significant effect on the art world. The period did not see the development of major new movements, and the tendencies of the 1960s—such as [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism) and [Postminimalism](/gene/postminimalism)—continued to be the most influential throughout the following decade. At the same time [feminist](/gene/feminist-art) artists became increasingly recognized and, as of 1975, [Pattern and Decoration](/gene/pattern-and-decoration) and “new image painting” announced the return of painting as a serious medium practiced by avant-garde artists. Painting would only continue to expand its influence in the 1980s via [Neo-Expressionism](/gene/neo-expressionism).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51b661be275b243b16000026",
    "slug": "1940s-1950s",
    "name": "1940s–1950s",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "This period witnessed nothing less than the creation of a new world order. Perhaps most tellingly, this 20-year period is bookended by a “day which would live in infamy”—the United States’ entry into World War II in 1941—and the Explorer 6 satellite’s transmission of the first picture of Earth from orbit in 1959. The global conflict of WWII was marked by unprecedented crimes against humanity and left behind unprecedented destruction when it ended in 1945. In the fall-out, the world was divided into adversarial spheres of influence (the Cold War), while towards the end of the 1950s former European colonies fought for independence. Artistically, this period has typically been viewed as an incubating period between the pre-war avant-garde movements and such breakthrough movements as [Abstract Expressionism](/gene/abstract-expressionism) in the U.S. In fact, the massive migration of artists forced into exile or emigration by these global events offered fertile ground for artistic exchange, despite sometimes-dire conditions. Some of the many movements to emerge during this period are the [Gutai Art Group](/gene/gutai) in Japan, [Art Informel](/gene/art-informel) in Europe, [Group Zero](/gene/group-zero) in Germany, and a new aesthetic in Mid-Century Modern design. With the reality of the Cold War, by the end of the 1950s art was largely developing along different trajectories in the East and West, with communist countries mandating the practice of [Socialist Realism](/gene/socialist-realism) with varying degrees of enforcement.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51b662d08b3b81ec27000289",
    "slug": "500-1000-ce",
    "name": "500–1000 CE",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "A general category for any artwork created between 500 and 1000 CE. This span of 500 years witnessed the [Roman](/gene/roman-art-and-architecture) and [Byzantine](https://artsy.net/gene/byzantine-art) empires, the classic period of [Mayan art](/gene/mayan-art-and-architecture), the Umayyad and Abassid caliphates in the [Middle East](/gene/middle-east), the [Tang Dynasty](/gene/tang-dynasty) in [China](/gene/china), and the Nara and Heian periods in [Japan](/gene/japan), among others.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51f1a353275b24e6ce0007ab",
    "slug": "imitated-material",
    "name": "Imitated Material",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Three-dimensional works in which the artist treats a material in such a way as to obscure its inherent properties—transforming metal to look like lace, for example, or porcelain to resemble soft ribbon.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5238ca87139b217cd0000ace",
    "slug": "intricately-sculpted",
    "name": "Intricately Sculpted",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Works that foreground intricate detailing, such as fine metalwork or miniature ivory carving. From the complex filigree technique in Aegean metalwork of the 2nd millennium B.C. to the miniscule detail achievable today through 3D printing technologies, artists and artisans have often pursued both technological solutions and virtuoso handcraft techniques to achieve the utmost levels of sculptural complexity. In the 16th and 17th century, such objects were desirable additions to cabinets of curiosities, as the techniques involved to create such miniscule detail often defied understanding and beguiled collectors. August the Strong of Dresden, for example, was renowned for his prime example of micro-carving: a cherry stone with 185 carved faces.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "521e0422139b21c452000616",
    "slug": "times-of-day",
    "name": "Times of Day",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks in which a certain time of day plays an important role. Throughout the history of art, the various times in a day have captivated artists and implied particular ideas and meanings, such as morning evoking rebirth, and nighttime conveying death and horror. Artists have also spent countless hours trying to represent and understand the endless subtleties and variations in certain times of day. This category can include anything from artworks that depict the characteristics of certain times of day—such as a sunrise or the moon in a night sky—to images identified by precise times on a clock, a technique often used in [diaristic](/gene/diaristic) photography or [conceptual art]((/gene/conceptual-art).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51f1a2fc275b24e6ce0007a7",
    "slug": "non-functional-design",
    "name": "Non-Functional Design",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "Design works whose functions have been subverted, as well as artworks that incorporate functional objects but don't allow them to be used.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51f1a373275b24e6ce0007b5",
    "slug": "folded-planes",
    "name": "Folded Planes",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Objects created through the simple folding or bending of planar elements, from the monumental open-form sculptures of [Charles Ginnever](/artist/charles-ginnever) to Maarten Van Severen’s [LC95 Chair](/artwork/maarten-van-severen-lc95-chair)—a singular plane of aluminum that has been folded over to create a reclining chair.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5238cc81c9dc24be750002ee",
    "slug": "highly-ornamented",
    "name": "Highly Ornamented",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Works characterized by a high level of ornamentation. Ornamental elements are generally those that embellish some aspect of a work of art and so may be considered decorative. In architecture, ornament consists of non-structural elements such as floral carvings or decorative surface patterns; in medieval manuscripts painted decorations surrounding the text are examples of ornamentation. Though central to art throughout the ages and very present in the art of the last decade, in modern Western art, ornamentation has been often been dismissed as outdated or in poor taste. In a highly influential essay, “Ornament and Crime,” published in 1908, [Adolf Loos](/artist/adolf-loos) even aimed to purge ornament entirely from design and architecture, seeing is as a sign of cultural primitivism that stood in the way of modern utopia.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f3878b3b813f5a0002ea",
    "slug": "fertility-slash-pregnancy-slash-birth",
    "name": "Fertility/Pregnancy/Birth",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that take as their subject fertility, pregnancy, and birth—some of the oldest subjects in art. In Paleolithic art, for example, figurines with stylized exaggerations of human anatomy conveyed allegories of fertility. Many cultures throughout the ages have believed in the primal power of fertility deities; ancient Egyptians invoked Menetes during childbirth, while in Greek mythology, Gaia, or Mother Earth, is associated with female fertility. Akuba figures—striking female figures with enlarged, disk-shaped heads made by the Akuba people of Ghana—were carried by women who hoped to conceive a child. In Western art, divinity and spirituality have tended to be disassociated from scenes of childbirth and pregnancy. Recently, feminists have interrogated the social taboos around this imagery by openly portraying uncensored birth and fertility scenes in various mediums and from a woman's perspective.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "521b9a718b3b8141a60003d6",
    "slug": "mourning-and-commemoration",
    "name": "Mourning and Commemoration",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks or objects that relate to mourning or commemorating the deceased. Every culture has its own customs for grieving the loss of individuals, and objects used in mourning or burial practices are some of the oldest artifacts in the world. Many of the artifacts that survive from [Ancient Egypt](/gene/ancient-egypt) were used in elaborate burial customs. Perhaps the earliest known portrait in China, from approximately 160 B.C.E., is a [funeral banner](/artwork/painted-banner-tomb-of-the-marquess-of-dai-mawangdui-changsha-hunan-han-dynasty) for the noblewoman Lady Dai. In [Christian Art](/gene/christian-art-and-architecture), the iconography of the [Lamentation](/tag/lamentation)—a group of figures grieving the death of Christ—was popular from the 11th through the 19th century, and the [Pietà](/tag/pieta) (the Virgin Mary mourning a dead Christ) was a common motif from the 13th through the 17th century. Modern, largely secular works about mourning often present sites for social memorializing of public figures or groups. These often take the form of figurative sculptures of specific individuals, such as Auguste Rodin’s _[Monument to Balzac](/artwork/auguste-rodin-monument-to-honore-de-balzac)_ (1891–7), though others explore mourning through abstraction, such as [Maya Lin](/artist/maya-lin)’s Vietnam Veterans Memorial Wall in Washington, D.C., which offers an immersive environment for visitors to pay tribute to the American soldiers who lost their lives in the Vietnam War.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266c1ba8b3b81d1cf000191",
    "slug": "neo-impressionism",
    "name": "Neo-Impressionism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_“Some say they see poetry in my paintings; I see only science.” —Georges Seurat_\n\nAt the final Impressionist exhibition in Paris in 1886, art critic Félix Fénéon coined the term “Neo-Impressionism” to describe the painting techniques employed by artists [Georges Seurat](/artist/georges-seurat), [Paul Signac](/artist/paul-signac), and [Camille Pissarro](/artist/camille-pissarro). Dissatisfied with the spontaneous, gestural quality of [Impressionism](/gene/impressionism), the Neo-Impressionists created meticulously composed paintings grounded in the study of optics and [color theory](/gene/color-theory) in an effort to harness the physiological effects of vision. Instead of mixing paints on a palette, these artists directly applied dots of color to canvas that would “optically mix” when the viewer stepped back from the painting. This style of image making, defined by the application of small units of pigment, came to be known as [divisionism](/gene/divisionist), while the dotted technique fathered by Seurat is now called [Pointillism](/gene/pointillism).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f3299c18db878600002d",
    "slug": "intersectionality",
    "name": "Intersectionality",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "The term “intersectionality” was first coined by legal scholar Kimberle Crenshaw in relation to anti-discrimination law as a way of understanding feminism through the lens of race. In the 1980s, its application to cultural production was advanced in fields of critical race theory and ethnic and feminist studies by scholars Evelyn Nakano Glenn and Patricia Hill Collins. Artists who take intersectionality as their focus are interested in the way that different types of discrimination—such as racism, classism, xenophobia, misogyny, or ageism—can converge and impact individuals and groups, and their work explores these complex interactions. In her photographic portraits of LGBT youth, South African photographer [Zanele Muholi](/artist/zanele-muholi) creates positive images of black queer identity. Exploring the intersection of non-Western subjects and [gender](/gene/gender), [Yasumasa Morimura](/artist/yasumasa-morimura), a Japanese conceptual photographer, inserts himself into re-creations of iconic works from the history of Western art, often impersonating female figures like Johannes Vermeer’s [_Girl with a Pearl Earring_](/artwork/johannes-vermeer-girl-with-a-pearl-earring-1) to comment on Asian masculinity and [globalization](/gene/globalization) in art history. For contemporary portraiture artists like [Kehinde Wiley](/artist/kehinde-wiley) and [Mickalene Thomas](/artist/mickalene-thomas), the socially charged junction of blackness and masculinity or blackness and femininity, respectively, becomes a site of intervention into historical subjects and codes of representation.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f57c7622ddcb59000289",
    "slug": "erased-and-obscured",
    "name": "Erased and Obscured",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Two-dimensional artworks that include areas of erasure, or where the artist has obscured or covered over parts of the composition to create the image. One of the most famous examples of erasure in modern and contemporary art history is [Robert Rauschenberg’s _Erased de Kooning Drawing_](/artwork/robert-rauschenberg-erased-de-kooning-drawing-1) (1953). To make the work, Rauschenberg asked [Willem de Kooning](/artist/willem-de-kooning)—an artist he greatly respected—for a drawing, which he then proceeded to erase and then frame, mat, and title with the help of his friend [Jasper Johns](/artist/jasper-johns). Such a work was a humorous, ambitious act by the young artist, and it questioned the identity and authorship of the art object, as well as testifying to the pervasive influence of [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f798275b241c89000272",
    "slug": "childhood",
    "name": "Childhood",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "The theme of childhood has been used in art history to evoke a wide array of themes, from family life to personal histories and humanitarian concerns. Perhaps the most canonical representation of childhood in Western art is that of the Christ child with the Madonna, which appeared widely, beginning in the early [Renaissance](https://artsy.net/gene/renaissance) period. [Diego Velázquez](https://artsy.net/artist/diego-velazquez) often included children in his portraits of the Spanish royal family, and beginning with [Impressionism](https://artsy.net/gene/impressionism), childhood became a central theme in more intimate depictions of everyday life, ranging from [Edgar Degas](https://artsy.net/artist/edgar-degas)' dancers and [Berthe Morisot](https://artsy.net/artist/berthe-morisot)'s portraits to [Mary Cassat](https://artsy.net/artist/mary-cassatt)'s mother-and-child scenes. [Jacob A. Riis](https://artsy.net/artist/jacob-a-riis) often depicted children in his photographs of life in New York City tenements, in order to stir public empathy around their living conditions. In contemporary art, portraits of children figure in [Taryn Simon](https://artsy.net/artist/taryn-simon)'s broad genealogical projects and [Sally Mann](https://artsy.net/artist/sally-mann)'s controversial photographs of her own offspring, while artists such as [Mike Kelley](https://artsy.net/artist/mike-kelley) and [Paul McCarthy](https://artsy.net/artist/paul-mccarthy) have probed the darker elements of childhood.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266fb898b3b81244d0002b4",
    "slug": "panorama",
    "name": "Panorama",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "The term “panorama” is understood today as an extended view of a location depicted in two dimensions, though it originated in the [18th century](/gene/18th-century) and meant something quite different. It referred to a particular type of [landscape](/gene/landscape) painting rendered inside large cylinders, which could be entered by viewers to become an encompassing viewing experience. Irish-born artist Robert Parker, who worked in Edinburgh, is credited with inventing (and patenting) this form, which became widely popular in the [19th century](/gene/19th-century).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f753275b24bb5c0002e7",
    "slug": "sexual-identity",
    "name": "Sexual Identity",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that explore the experiences, sociopolitical struggles, and ideas associated with gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender identities. While homosexuality was embraced in Classical Greece, as evident in the era’s philosophy and artwork, throughout most of history it has been rejected and persecuted. Artworks that explore non-heterosexual identities have consequently often done so implicitly, such as [Marsden Hartley](/artist/marsden-hartley)'s _Portrait of a German Officer_, in which the artist depicts his lover using abstract insignia. Later, subtle references to homosexuality appeared in the works of [Jasper Johns](/artist/jasper-johns) and [Robert Rauschenberg](/artist/robert-rauschenberg)—who were lovers and collaborators—and the gay icon [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol) developed a signature camp aesthetic. With the arrival of the AIDS crisis in the 1970s and ‘80s, numerous members of the art community lost their lives, and homosexuality became an overt, politicized theme; [Nan Goldin](/artist/nan-goldin), [Felix Gonzalez-Torres](/artist/felix-gonzalez-torres), [Keith Haring](/artist/keith-haring), and [David Wojnarowicz](/artist/david-wojnarowicz) found unique means of expressing the tragedies and struggles of this period. While political activism is still a central practice among many queer artists, others have addressed these issues in terms of theory or self-identity.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5231e381c9dc243344000090",
    "slug": "deutscher-werkbund",
    "name": "Deutscher Werkbund",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The Deutscher Werkbund (1907-1934) was a state-sponsored organization of German architects, craftspeople, designers, and businessmen who sought to define industrial, craft, and aesthetic standards for the nation, as well as integrate traditional crafts and industrial mass-production techniques to put Germany on a competitive footing with England and the United States. Originally, the Werkbund began at the instigation of Herman Muthesius, and other key members included [Mies van der Rohe](/artist/mies-van-der-rohe) and [Eliel Saarninen](/artist/eliel-saarinen). Werkbund members believed that unity and beauty of form was an essential achievement of civilized culture and saw industrialization as a force that demanded a recalibration of German aesthetic standards. They believed that German designers needed to shift their focus toward designing solely objects that could be mass produced, that the form of an object should be derived from its functional logic, and that each object should be honest about its materials. The Werkbund was an important part of the development of modern architecture and industrial design and essential to the later founding of the [Bauhaus](/gene/bauhaus).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f6f5b202a329ee00023f",
    "slug": "lightbox",
    "name": "Lightbox",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Lightboxes are containers that are lit from within, most often used in doctor’s offices and artist’s studios for backlighting X-Rays and photographic negatives. Lightboxes have only recently entered the gallery space, becoming the hallmark display method of contemporary photographer [Jeff Wall](/artist/jeff-wall), who was inspired by the commercial lightbox advertisements of the 1970s. [Young British Artist](/gene/young-british-artists-ybas) [Angela Bulloch](/artist/angela-bulloch) is best known for her “pixel boxes,” which contain fluorescent tubes capable of sixteen million color permutations. Bulloch arranges these boxes in stacks and rows, programming them to change hue according to the sequence of a film or music composition. [Jason Sims](/artist/jason-sims)’s lightboxes play with the viewer’s [visual perception](/gene/visual-perception), using a one-sided mirror and LED lights to create an optical illusion that transforms a wall-hanging sculpture into an infinitely receding space.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51f83461275b249051000294",
    "slug": "traditional-arts-of-africa-oceania-and-the-americas",
    "name": "Traditional Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A standard museological category for traditional art and architectural works made by indigenous artists from the geographic regions of Africa, the pre-Columbian Americas, Australia, and the islands of the South Pacific. The term and the treatment of objects described as such have a controversial history, as many non-Western art objects have been treated as archeological, rather than art historical, artifacts, appearing in natural history museums to this day. Efforts to include this artwork in international exhibitions began in the 1980s with such exhibitions as 1984’s “Primitivism,” at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, in which traditional African objects were placed alongside the 20th-century European works they influenced, including those by [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) and [Max Ernst](/artist/max-ernst). The 1989 exhibition “Magiciens de la Terre,” at Centre Pompidou, Paris, sought to remedy the Eurocentrism surrounding modern art through a balanced presentation of artists spanning all continents but received criticism for its treatment of African and Oceanic artists. Today artists rarely identify with these blanket categories, instead opting for more accurate and specific terms like Native American, Alaska Native and First Nations, Micronesian, Polynesian, or any of the 54 countries and nationalities or hundreds of ethnic groups in the continent of Africa.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f4888b3b81ab780002cb",
    "slug": "arrivals-slash-departures",
    "name": "Arrivals/Departures",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artists have long used arrival and departure scenes as catalysts for dramatic action, from depictions of the Holy Family’s flight to Egypt to Antoine Watteau's [_The Embarkation for Cythera_](/artwork/jean-antoine-watteau-lembarquement-pour-cythere-the-embarkation-for-cythera) (1717), an ambiguous allegory depicting a festive party leaving for an island that is the birthplace of the goddess of love. This category includes both direct depictions of arrivals and departures, and more conceptual works that focus on comings and goings, greetings and farewells.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266fcc69c18dbb47e0002ea",
    "slug": "contrapposto",
    "name": "Contrapposto",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "An Italian term meaning “counterpose,” contrapposto refers to a now-canonical stance in which a figure stands with their entire body weight supported over one straight leg and lets their arms fall in opposite directions to create a natural-seeming twist in the torso. The most famous example of this pose in art is the ancient [Greek](/gene/greek-art-and-architecture) _Doryphoros_ (Spear Bearer), from approximately 450–440 BCE. Mastering the technical feat of conjuring a sense of movement in a hard material, the marble sculpture became an emblem of the ideal [Classical figure](/gene/classical-figure) for [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) artists, who frequently emulated the stance. Contemporary artists have creatively interpreted the pose to comment on its art historical legacy. In [Bruce Nauman](/artist/bruce-nauman)’s video _[Walk with Contrapposto](/artwork/bruce-nauman-walk-with-contraposto)_ (1968), the artist laboriously traverses a narrow passageway while maintaining the contrapposto stance. The difficulty of this endeavor, attempted with such physical limitations, demonstrates how a technical solution in art can, over millennia, become a constraint.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "522748c8275b241e0300020a",
    "slug": "cad-computer-aided-design",
    "name": "CAD (Computer Aided Design)",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "CAD (Computer Aided Design) is the use of computer software programs to aid in the creation, analysis, or optimization of a design. CAD output is in the form of an electronic file that can be used for the manufacture of an an object through techniques such as Lasercutting, 3D printing, thermoforming, and CNC milling. Contemporary architecture and industrial design is designed almost exclusively using CAD software; notable examples include works by [Frank Gehry](/artist/frank-gehry) and [Zaha Hadid](/artist/zaha-hadid).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "522e169febad64e88d000001",
    "slug": "graffiti-and-street-art",
    "name": "Graffiti and Street Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_\"The city's the best gallery I could imagine.\" — JR_\n\n[JR](/artist/jr), [Banksy](/artist/banksy), [Shepard Fairey](/artist/shepard-fairey)—some of today's best-known artists made their reputations on the street. Street art finds its origins in the graffiti artists (and artists heavily inspired by graffiti) who started showing in galleries and art institutions during the 1970s and '80s, like [Keith Haring](/artist/keith-haring) and [Jean-Michel Basquiat](/artist/jean-michel-basquiat). That their works existed both on city walls and in galleries and museums would significantly influence subsequent generations, specifically artists like [Banksy](/artist/banksy) and [Fairey](/artist/shepard-fairey). Given its origins in illegal activity and characteristic interest in subversion and political and social action, street art has always had a fraught relationship with the art world in general.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "523211a7275b2467e600037c",
    "slug": "political-figures",
    "name": "Political Figures",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Images of presidents and politicians, or anyone holding a position in the government via election or appointment. In the 20th and 21st centuries, some of the most well-known artist renderings of politicians have been [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol)’s Mao Tse-Tung and [Shepard Fairey](/artist/shepard-fairey)’s Barack Obama.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f69e9c18dbbe050002ca",
    "slug": "architectures-effects",
    "name": "Architecture's Effects",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "The built environment can shape political and social realities, as well as house memories, as the many artists who explore this theme attest. In the 1990s the British artist [Rachel Whiteread](/artist/rachel-whiteread) began to cast the interiors of old houses earmarked for demolition, drawing attention to issues of urban demographics and city planning. [Christo and Jeanne-Claude](/artist/christo-and-jeanne-claude) explored the intersection of architecture and politics in 1995 when they wrapped the entire German Reichstag, in Berlin, in a silvery fabric, at once obscuring and accentuating the political headquarters in a country that has shied away from overt national symbols since the Second World War. Michel Foucault, in his influential study of the Panopticon—a prison structure in which inmates existed under constant surveillance without knowing when they were being observed—proposed the idea that architecture can serve as a regulatory force, impacting human behavior the way law and social norms do.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f7739c18db61120002d3",
    "slug": "trauma-and-struggle",
    "name": "Trauma and Struggle",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Trauma stems from the ancient Greek word “trōma,” meaning a physical, rather than psychological, wound. The concept of trauma as personal struggle, however, became foundational in Greek mythology, with the trials and tribulations of a hero lying at the heart of Greek tragic drama. Medieval Christian art developed the motif known as the “Man of Sorrows”—a wounded and bloodied Christ figure, bearing a crown of thorns and a sorrowful expression—as an evocative reminder of suffering, meant to invoke devotion on the part of the viewer. In the 20th century, artists have been less concerned with the connection of pain to spiritual redemption, and more with the emotional and psychological toll exacted by violence, injury, suffering, or war. Iconic examples include [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso)’s  _Guernica_ and works by [Otto Dix](/artist/otto-dix). World War II and the Holocaust had a profound impact on art; [Christian Boltanski](/artist/christian-boltanski) and [Anselm Kiefer](/artist/anselm-kiefer), for example, developed different modes of representation to respond to the traumatic nature of those events. Others have examined the collective traumas associated with slavery, apartheid, AIDS, and immigration, while artists such as [Louise Bourgeois](/artist/louise-bourgeois) and [Eva Hesse](/artist/eva-hesse) probed the psychological anguish stemming from individual experiences of childhood and personal anxiety.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f929275b24c711000284",
    "slug": "photograph-as-material",
    "name": "Photograph as Material",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Crumpled, drenched, folded, or torn: photographs, when physically manipulated, can become the raw material for three-dimensional works of art, a potential explored by many contemporary artists today. [Ryan Foerster](/artist/ryan-foerster), for example, uses photographic paper as a test bed for material reactions, including those involving water, rain, and wind, while [Matthew Brandt](/artist/matthew-brandt) bathes his developed photographs in the body of water they depict. Such processes continue the photographic experiments of early 20th century artists, such as [Laszlo Moholy-Nagy](/artist/laszlo-moholy-nagy), to expand the possibilities of photography beyond the limits of documentation.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52407dc4b202a36093000271",
    "slug": "nautical",
    "name": "Nautical",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Nautical art includes depictions of ships at sea, the coast, maritime paraphernalia, as well as docks and port scenes. The detailed renderings of triumphant vessels, dramatic scenes of storms, shipwrecks and maritime warfare (seen in [Ludolf Backhuysen](/artist/ludolf-backhuysen)’s _Ships in Distress off a Rocky Coast_) [1667]), characteristic of Dutch Golden Age painting, made this a notable genre of the age, in which it was employed to reflect the dangers and prominence of 17th-century Dutch naval ingenuity. [Romanticism](/gene/romanticism) and 19th-century American landscape painting broadened the genre to include more stylized and metaphorical depictions of man’s encounter with the natural world. Romantic artists [Albert Pinkham Ryder](/artist/albert-pinkham-ryder) and [J.M.W. Turner](/artist/joseph-mallord-william-turner) often evoked the darker symbolism of the ship at sea in their work—as the triumph of personal freedom over man-made boundaries, the possibilities of passing into the unknown, or as an allegory for the voyage of life. Nineteenth-century American painter [Winslow Homer](/artist/winslow-homer) represented the pleasure and peril of the nautical in two iconic works: _Breezing Up a Fair Wind_ (1873–76), in which Winslow captures the leisurely pleasure of a summer sailing day, and _The Life Line_ (1884), which highlights the dangers of the open sea in its dramatic depiction of a near drowning.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "525ebeeea09a67aeb5000167",
    "slug": "contemporary-canadian-art",
    "name": "Contemporary Canadian Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Contemporary Canadian Art is preceded by thousands of years of artistic creation by indigenous peoples of [First Nations](/gene/native-american-first-nations-and-alaska-native-art), Metis, or Inuit descent, as well as a [landscape](/gene/landscapes) tradition established in the early 20th century by the Group of Seven, painters who depicted the country’s expansive territory as a near-mythical wilderness. While contemporary art in Canada is as diverse as its citizens (notable Canadian artists include [Jeff Wall](/artist/jeff-wall), [Terence Koh](/artist/terence-koh), [David Altmejd](/artist/david-altmejd), as well as many artists who continue local arts and craft traditions), it often challenges the modernist myth of Canada as untouched and wild by drawing attention to the centuries of aboriginal peoples who have inhabited the land. Through performances and installations, [Rebecca Belmore](/artist/rebecca-belmore) brings indigenous voices to the fore, especially those of her own Ojibwa community, while [Edward Burtynsky](/artist/edward-burtynsky) creates large-format [landscape photographs](/gene/landscape-photography) that depict toxic orange rivers and nature overcome by industry and waste in an effort to expose the negative effects of humanity’s footprint on the land.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "51f1a3288b3b81107f0005b4",
    "slug": "focus-on-joints-slash-connections",
    "name": "Focus on Joints/Connections",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "Three-dimensional works where particular attention is given to points of convergence between elements and materials, such as the iconic Armchair Red and Blue (1918) by [Gerrit Thomas Rietveld](/artist/gerrit-thomas-rietveld), which draws attention to its joints by capping each edge of the arms and legs of the chair is a vivid yellow color.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "520baa99a09a678af00000cc",
    "slug": "figurative-art",
    "name": "Figurative Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A general category for artworks that represent recognizable material in the visible world, as opposed to abstract art. The variety of approaches to figurative art is enormous and almost as diverse as the history of art itself. In painting, figuration ranges from [Photorealism](/gene/photorealism) (like that of [Chuck Close](/artist/chuck-close)) at one end of the spectrum to nearly abstract (like Pablo Picasso’s Analytic Cubism) at the other. For much of the 20th century, figurative painting was largely ignored by the Western avant-garde, but the course changed with the 1980s emergence of figurative painters like [Anselm Kiefer](/artist/anselm-kiefer), [Jean-Michel Basquiat](/artist/jean-michel-basquiat), and [David Salle](/artist/david-salle).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51f18d0e275b24a84d00063a",
    "slug": "iconic-works-of-art-history",
    "name": "Iconic Works of Art History",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Works of art and architecture deemed to be “canonical”, typically due to their broad influence, display in prominent museum collections, and extensive scholarship. While the art-historical canon has come under harsh critique since the latter part of the the 20th century, particularly with regard to its treatment of class, race, and gender, others see it as a crucial starting point and foundation for learning about and discussing art.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51f1c32b275b24b49d000020",
    "slug": "19th-century-german-realism",
    "name": "19th Century German Realism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A term often used to describe a number of German artists from roughly 1850 to 1900 that broke with the dominant Romantic trend to work in a dispassionate, realistic style. Rejecting the emotional intensity of artists like [Caspar David Friedrich](/artist/caspar-david-friedrich), these realists gravitated towards scenes of everyday life and investigations into the nature of reality. As keen observers of social interaction, they portrayed both rural and urban scenes, as well as the fashions of the newly emerging urban bourgeoisie. German Realism was not a coherent movement: it emerged alongside other national schools of realism (most prominently [19th Century French Realism](/gene/nineteenth-century-french-realism)) and was characterized by a broad array of individual styles. Adolph Menzel’s _The Iron Rolling Mill_ (1875) depicts a crowd of iron workers toiling over a hot furnace; it combines intense chiaroscuro with impressionistic passages of smoke. The much younger [Max Liebermann](/artist/max-liebermann), in contrast, painted airy scenes of beaches and parks with looser brushwork and a focus on light effects, which elicited comparisons to French Impressionism.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51f7df77275b246a330002fc",
    "slug": "greek-and-roman-art-and-architecture",
    "name": "Greek and Roman Art and Architecture",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "The art and architecture of ancient Greece and Rome played a foundational role of the history of Western art, establishing numerous key concepts, techniques, and styles that artists in the subsequent millennia have revisited and responded to in countless ways. These include precise techniques for carving and casting free-standing sculptures and the undertaking of large-scale urban building projects, which stemmed from access to and the skilled use of materials ranging from marble to bronze to concrete. “Man is the measure of all things” was a central maxim in Greek culture, and as such, Greek artists scrutinized human forms closely to create idealized Classical figures. They also presented detailed depictions of mythological narratives, which often accentuated the human traits of the pantheon of gods. Roman artists borrowed heavily from these narratives, while contributing many of their own. These developments in art were accompanied by new forms of political life, most notably the form of democracy that emerged in Athens and reached its height during the 5th century BC (the Parthenon was built 447-432 BC). Athens and its neighbors in the eastern Mediterranean participated in a seafaring culture that resulted in a great amount of cultural and economic exchange. Under the Roman Empire (27 BC-395 AD), territories stretching from the present-day Middle East to Scotland were brought under centralized rule. Beginning in the 4th century, cultural and political power shifted to the east of the empire, with Constantinople becoming the capital in 330 and much of the western territory falling into the hands of northern European conquerors thereafter. Around this time, Christianity began to supplant pagan religion—at first persecuted by the state but in the 4th century becoming the official religion under Constantine, which led to the growth of a new body of iconography that would flourish in [Byzantine Art](/gene/byzantine-art).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "52163b6b275b247644000211",
    "slug": "timber-frame-construction",
    "name": "Timber Frame Construction",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52163aea8b3b81872b000212",
    "slug": "masonry-construction",
    "name": "Masonry Construction",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "Any building whose construction is primarily made of a combination of stones or bricks, with or without mortar. Most of the earliest-known buildings are masonry structures of some kind. The Egyptians took masonry construction to (literally) new heights. [The Great Pyramid of Giza](/artwork/great-pyramids-fourth-dynasty) was the tallest man-made structure for 3,800 years until the appearance of Gothic cathedrals. In the 18th and 19th centuries, steel beams and cast iron encouraged masonry elements to become decorative. The predominant use of glass has further solidified this.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f899cd530eb849000222",
    "slug": "migration",
    "name": "Migration",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Human migration, which encompasses diaspora, exile, immigration, and emigration, is a significant aspect of world history that has shaped the ethnic, religious, and cultural identities we know today. In recent years, large numbers of migrant workers from South and Central America and the Caribbean have traveled to the United States, while the Mediterranean Sea has seen thousands of migrants traveling from northern Africa to Europe. Many contemporary artists address the global scope of migration and its personal and political consequences: the French collective Claire Fontaine has installed a neon sign reading “Foreigners Everywhere” in various translations in numerous locations worldwide, drawing attention to the universal concern with immigration. [Alfredo Jaar](/artist/alfredo-jaar)’s One Million Finnish Passports (1995) references the total number of citizenship applications rejected by Finland, bringing attention to the impact of stringent citizenship policies in the EU. Other important examples of migration in art include [Titian](/artist/titian)’s strikingly large-scale 1514 woodblock print, [The Submersion of the Pharaoh’s Army in the Red Sea](/artwork/titian-the-submersion-of-pharaohs-army-in-the-red-sea), which represents a key scene in the escape of the Israelites from Egypt in the Old Testament. [Jacob Lawrence](/artist/jacob-lawrence)’s 60-panel narrative painting series, “The Migration of the Negro” (1940–41), documents the Great Migration, in which 6 million African Americans relocated to Northern cities from the rural South between 1910 and 1970.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52530cba8b3b81b3fe000083",
    "slug": "censorship",
    "name": "Censorship",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that take censorship—the act of prohibiting something from being read, heard, or seen—as their subject matter. Throughout history, governments, leaders, and communities have censored art and culture as a means of control, often targeting [religious icons](/gene/deities-and-holy-figures), [political](/gene/political) subject matter, or the [human form](/gene/human-figure), especially [nudity](/gene/nude). Not surprisingly, many artists directly address issues of censorship in their work. For example, [Jenny Holzer](/artist/jenny-holzer) created a series of paintings that document redacted government materials. Dissident Chinese artist [Ai Weiwei](/artist/ai-weiwei) has exposed the Chinese government’s campaign of misinformation and massive cover-up of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake with his work _[Straight](/artwork/ai-weiwei-straight)_, for which he painstakingly straightened 150 steel rods salvaged from the ruins of a school that collapsed during the national tragedy.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266fafdcd530e8bba00025c",
    "slug": "related-to-hip-hop",
    "name": "Related to Hip-Hop",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks or design objects that have some relationship to hip-hop or rap music, which began in the Bronx, in New York City, in 1973. Examples could be depictions of rappers (such as Jay-Z or Slick Rick); [fashion](/gene/related-to-fashion) identified with rap (such as gold chains, ostentatious basketball sneakers, or “pimped” cars); or other aspects of hip-hop culture, such as DJs and breakdancing.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "520bde84139b21746800044d",
    "slug": "restrained-forms",
    "name": "Restrained Forms",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "521b85ffa09a671b30000149",
    "slug": "skyscapes",
    "name": "Skyscapes",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“My greatest dream is the projection of light into the vast night sky, the probing of the universe as it meets the light, untouched, without obstacles—the world of space is the only one to offer man practically unlimited freedom.”—[Otto Piene](/artist/otto-piene)_\n\nA category for artworks that emphasize images of the sky. The environment above us and its infinite variations of colors, clouds, sunrises, and sunsets—as well as the birds, planes, satellites, and drones that occupy it—have proven endlessly fascinating to artists.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52277c7debad644d2800051f",
    "slug": "abstract-expressionism",
    "name": "Abstract Expressionism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_“It seems to me that the modern painter cannot express this age, the airplane, the atom bomb, the radio, in the old forms of the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) or of any other past culture.” —Jackson Pollock_\n\nAbstract Expressionism signaled a new age of American artistic expression in the immediate postwar period (the late 1940s and 1950s). Though never a formal movement or school, “AbEx” grouped together artists—including [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock), [Willem de Kooning](/artist/willem-de-kooning), [Mark Rothko](/artist/mark-rothko), and [Clyfford Still](/artist/clyfford-still), amongst others—with interest in spontaneity, monumental size, the individual psyche, and universal expressions of feeling. Historically, AbEx has been broken into two tendencies: Gestural Abstraction (or Action Painting), which emphasized the energy of the painter’s mark, and [Color Field Painting](/gene/color-field-painting), which focused on the creation of vast, seemingly floating areas of color. The rise of Abstract Expressionism has been attributed to the influence of European movements like [Cubism](/gene/cubism) and [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism), which reached New York in the 1930s and ’40s via museum exhibitions, academic institutions, and the stateside relocation of many major European artists due to World War II.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52277c8eebad644d28000523",
    "slug": "minimalism",
    "name": "Minimalism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "One of the most important and influential art styles of the 1960s, Minimalism identifies works of art most often comprised of geometric shapes in simple arrangements and lacking any decorative or dynamic flourishes. These geometric shapes characterized the elemental or “bare bones” forms of art, which, according to critics, represented the culmination of modern art's progression toward the most simplified form of abstract art possible. [Donald Judd](/artist/donald-judd), [Dan Flavin](/artist/dan-flavin), and [Carl Andre](/artist/carl-andre) are among the best-known artists associated with Minimalism, which is characteristically associated with sculpture rather than painting. Minimalism’s roots arguably lie in Russian [Constructivism](/gene/constructivism), the paintings of postwar American artists such as [Barnett Newman](/artist/barnett-newman), [Ad Reinhardt](/artist/ad-reinhardt), and [Frank Stella](/artist/frank-stella), and the formalist theories of Clement Greenberg. Initial labels for Minimalism—none of which became popular—were \"ABC Art\" and \"Primary Structures\" (the latter was the title of one of the first organized exhibitions of Minimalist works).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5238cb9aa09a67af5c00028c",
    "slug": "fractal-like-slash-kaleidoscopic",
    "name": "Fractal-like / Kaleidoscopic",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Artworks with an incredible level of compositional complexity, often achieved through the use of intricate, all-over patterns that disorient or cause the eye to flit about, as with the infinitely repeating patterns of fractals or kaleidoscopes. This effect is sometimes referred to as “horror vacui”, Latin for “fear of empty space”, as such detailing fills an entire surface or artwork, leaving no room for negative space or unadorned passages. Ebullient patterning and dizzying complexity is a hallmark of Islamic art and architecture, of which the [Muqarnas Dome at Alhambra](/artwork/muqarnas-dome-hall-of-the-abencerrajes-palace-of-the-lions-alhambra) in Grenada, Spain, is an iconic example.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f8c0a09a67eac500028a",
    "slug": "utopia",
    "name": "Utopia",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A utopia refers to an imagined, perfect society, a concept that exists in religions and cultures throughout the world, from the Christian heaven to the Tibetan earthly paradise, Shangri-La. The word “utopia” derives from Thomas Moore's fictional account, in 1516, of an idealized island community of the same name. Artists and architects have since attempted to employ urban planning and the arts to visualize or create livable utopias. [Le Corbusier](/artist/le-corbusier), for example, envisioned a new type of urbanism, one in which living and working took place in separate spheres, and modern highways replaced the dark, crowded slums of the old European city. “Modernity was the time of desire for utopia,” the philosopher Boris Groys has said, and indeed many consider modern architecture and urban planning of the 20th century to have failed the pressing societal issues of the day. Contemporary artists often examine past utopian ideologies critically, such as [David Maljkovic](/artist/david-maljkovic) or [Mark Titchner](/artist/mark-titchner), while others attempt to create ideal communities in the here-and-now through performance or socially engaged work.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266fc609c18dbb47e0002d8",
    "slug": "collaborations-and-collectives",
    "name": "Collaborations and Collectives",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Some of the most creative outpourings in art history have taken place through artistic collaboration. [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) and [Georges Braque](/artist/georges-braque) worked closely between 1908 and 1914 to forge the [Cubist](/gene/cubism) style, and the works staged jointly by [Marina Abramović](/artist/marina-abramovic-1) and [Ulay](/artist/ulay) revolutionized [Performance Art ](/gene/performance-art) in the 1970s. An artist collective is a defined group of creatives who work together towards a similar goal, united by political, economic, professional, or historical circumstances. More visible as a group, collectives offer a pragmatic way to create impact through large-scale projects and exhibitions. Many art collectives like Critical Art Ensemble, Gran Fury, and Tucuman Arde are grounded in political activism. The [Guerilla Girls](/artist/guerrilla-girls) and [Spiral](/gene/spiral-group), for example, are collectives that advocate for women and minorities in the arts.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f96a8b3b81ab780002e1",
    "slug": "beijing-east-village",
    "name": "Beijing East Village",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "In the early 1990s, a group of avant-garde artists formed a collective in a dilapidated village on the outskirts of Beijing, dubbing it the East Village after the New York City neighborhood. There, distanced from the rest of the Beijing art world, artists such as [Zhang Huan](/artist/zhang-huan), Li Guomin, and Ma Liuming experimented with stomach-turning feats of [performance art](/gene/performance-art). Zhang famously sat for hours, motionless and covered in honey, in a squalid, fly-infested outhouse for his work _12 Square Meters_ (1994). Beijing East Village artists collaborated on performances that probed the relationship between the human body, the natural landscape, and the urban environment. The photographer [Rong Rong](/artist/rong-rong) documented many of these works and the artists’ daily lives, and it is largely through his images that the group's ephemeral creations are known. Though the Beijing East Village officially ended with a police raid and a forced eviction in 1994, their legacy continues to resonate with many Chinese contemporary artists.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266fa38b202a329ee00024d",
    "slug": "kawaii",
    "name": "Kawaii",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_Kawaii_ is a Japanese concept best translated as “cuteness.” Epitomized by [Manga](/gene/manga) comics, Hello Kitty merchandise, and the Pokémon franchise, the _kawaii_ aesthetic is a prominent aspect of Japanese [popular culture](/gene/popular-culture). [Takashi Murakami](/artist/takashi-murakami)—often called the “Japanese [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol)”—merges _kawaii_ with fine art through his own cast of recurring characters that include a smiling [flower](/artwork/takashi-murakami-rainbow-flower-4-oclock) and a wide-eyed, anime-inspired creature called [Mr. DOB](/artwork/takashi-murakami-and-then-dot-dot-dot-blue-1). Other contemporary Japanese artists, such as [Yoshitomo Nara](/artist/yoshitomo-nara), have critiqued the cuteness of _kawaii_ with works that reflect a darker, more complex interpretation of its superficial (and exaggeratedly feminine) qualities.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52163b28275b24e7d0000212",
    "slug": "steel-slash-iron-frame-construction",
    "name": "Steel/Iron Frame Construction",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "Iron and steel frame construction allowed engineers to design structures that soared to yet unimagined heights. The Eiffel Tower, an iron latticework structure, premiered at the 1889 Paris World’s Fair and redefined structural verticality. This continues to be the most prominent structural type in large scale contemporary architecture.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266fd05139b215d95000282",
    "slug": "related-to-punk",
    "name": "Related to Punk",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Emerging in the 1970s as a subcultural phenomenon spanning music, fashion, and art, punk promulgated an ethos and a way of life that were anti-authoritarian, exuberantly deskilled, and staunchly DIY. In London and New York, vibrant, collaborative scenes emerged: Malcolm McLaren and Vivienne Westwood’s shop, Seditionaries, outfitted the Sex Pistols for their first gig in 1975. The East Village’s alternative space Colab, founded in 1977, featured punk and new wave performances and hosted artists such as [Jenny Holzer](/artist/jenny-holzer) and [Kiki Smith](/artist/kiki-smith), while street artists [Keith Haring](/artist/keith-haring) and [Jean-Michel Basquiat](/artist/jean-michel-basquiat) were involved with the scene at the Mudd Club. Punk quickly became a benchmark for authenticity and the ultimate in cool, making it a target for appropriation by precisely those forces—high culture, consumerism, authority—it sought to resist. Some have traced its attitude and focus on destruction to the [Dada](/gene/dada) movement of the early 20th century, understanding it as a type of anti-art disdaining visual and cultural norms as gatekeepers to participation. Many of punk’s founders came from working class backgrounds, and some explicitly aligned punk with this group’s political interests, an alliance that posed a particular challenge to punk’s relationship to fine art, traditionally the realm of high culture.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51f1c391275b24b49d000024",
    "slug": "danube-school",
    "name": "Danube School",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Refers to a group of German and Austrian painters active around Regensburg, Germany between the late 15th and early 16th centuries, during a period often referred to as the [Northern Renaissance](/gene/northern-renaissance). Although these artists never formed an official school—many were itinerant—their output during this period is marked by prominent stylistic traits. [Lucas Cranach](/artist/lucas-cranach-the-elder), who is credited as the father of the Danube School, produced work whose characteristic linearity, warm color palette, and lively depictions of nature would become hallmarks of painting in this region. Within European art history, the Danube School pioneered the landscape as an autonomous theme, as characterized by one of the school's most prominent practitioners [Albrecht Altdorfer](/artist/albrecht-altdorfer), and, in figurative paintings, focused on achieving glowing, ivory skin tones in supple-looking bodies. With their emphasis on the relationship of humans to nature and their recurring imagery of fairytale-like forests, the Danube School artists, along with [Albrecht Düre](/artist/albrecht-durer)r, who influenced their work, would come to serve as symbols of German identity for future generations of artists.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "51f1a278275b243b7b0007bc",
    "slug": "bentwood",
    "name": "Bentwood",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A process that involves wetting or steaming wood, bending it, and letting it dry and harden into a curved shape. This technique has used been all over the world for thousands of years; some First Nations people of the Pacific Northwest made bentwood boxes by steaming and bending a single piece of wood; traditional uses of these varied from storing food and clothing to serving burial purposes. The [Thonet Brothers](/artist/thonet-brothers) (est. 1843) developed the first industrial-scale production processes for bentwood; their [Side Chair](/artwork/thonet-brothers-side-chair-production-no-19) is an iconic example of the technique.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52163bc78b3b81da7f000229",
    "slug": "reinforced-concrete-construction",
    "name": "Reinforced Concrete Construction",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "Although concrete has been prized for millennia in architecture for its weight-bearing strength, the addition of steel reinforcing bars (“rebar”) to improve the material’s tensility was first developed during the mid-19th century in France. Since concrete can be poured and metal can be bent into any shape, many architects have taken advantage of this versatile and cost-effective material to construct complex structures. Beginning in the early 20th century, the Belgian architect Auguste Perret (with the help of his brothers, Gustave and Claude) built the world’s first reinforced concrete apartment block at 25 rue Franklin, in Paris. The unparalleled strength of reinforced concrete meant that fewer structural supports were needed, which allowed Perret to use large windows on the facade to let in more light and to create more open space on each floor. Many iconic buildings of the 20th and 21st centuries have since been built using reinforced concrete construction, including [Frank Lloyd Wright](/artist/frank-lloyd/wright)’s Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, in New York; [Le Corbusier](/artist/le-corbusier)’s Villa Savoye, in Paris; and the Burj Khalifa (currently the world’s tallest building), in Dubai.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f2b98b3b8161170001f4",
    "slug": "use-of-vintage-imagery",
    "name": "Use of Vintage Imagery",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Late 19th-century botany books, vintage pin-ups, antique maps, circus posters, and etchings of once-novel machines like the phonograph or stereoscope—these relics of past visual cultures fascinate many artists working today. This tendency has its roots in the work of American collagist [Joseph Cornell](/artist/joseph-cornell), who in the 1930s frequented used bookstores and antique shops in search of arcane printed matter and historical curios for his works. Emerging from a tendency toward [assemblage](/gene/assemblage) in 1950s San Francisco, [Bruce Conner](/artist/bruce-conner), long an enthusiast of popular art from the late 19th century, created a series of collages that brought together vintage printed sources. From the “twee,” old-timely world of filmmaker Wes Anderson to the popularity of cursive fonts and handle-bar mustaches, this antiquarian sensibility continues to resonate in contemporary culture at large.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f6c2275b2414e300025b",
    "slug": "southern-gothic",
    "name": "Southern Gothic",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Southern Gothic—a term taken from an established tradition in American Literature—is a category for artworks that feature themes and images drawn from the dark corners of the American South. From the grotesque masked figures present in [Ralph Eugene Meatyard](/artist/ralph-eugene-meatyard)’s black-and-white photographs to the antebellum ruins of photographer [Sally Mann](/artist/sally-mann)'s images, such works might evoke folklore, oral history, local communities, concepts of the abnormal, and plantation life. Work from contemporary and modern artists, predominantly photographers like [Alec Soth](/artist/alec-soth) and [Walker Evans](/artist/walker-evans), might also capture the dark landscape of the American South—its overgrown yards, decaying mansions, paint-peeled front porches and quiet corner stores that bear the traces of the region’s historical scars.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266f814b202a329ee000246",
    "slug": "orientalism",
    "name": "Orientalism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The literary theorist Edward Said conceived the term “Orientalism” in his book, _Orientalism: Western Concepts of the Orient_ (1978). Said’s critique of European discourses that generalized “the Orient”—encompassing North Africa, present-day Turkey and the Middle East—as a unified and relatively primitive racial, geographic, political, and cultural region launched the field of postcolonial studies. As an artistic style, Orientalism is seen to have emerged in the wake of Napoleon Bonaparte’s late 18th century conquests in North Africa as the visual counterpart to the invention of the oriental “other”. Popularized in 19th-century French and British Romantic, as well as Neoclassical, painting, the Orientalist style is characterized by patterns inspired by eastern textiles and architecture, studies of ethnic subjects, and exotic images of the Near East.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266fddfa09a671e0d00022a",
    "slug": "digital-as-manual",
    "name": "Digital as Manual",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Manually created artworks that employ the visual appearance or processes of digital technology. While the aesthetics of digital technology evolve as rapidly as technology itself, common characteristics include pixilation, color gradients, or manually rendered memes. James Bridle has coined the term “The New Aesthetic,” referring to what he calls an “eruption of the digital into the physical.” Works like _Flaming Bluetooth Sculpture_ by the collaborative duo AIDS-3D, or Patrick Lichty’s textile renditions of computer game graphics and “LOL” cat memes, take aspects of digital aesthetics and reproduce them in more traditional media. Perhaps the earliest example of this tendency dates back to [Thomas Bayrle](/artist/thomas-bayrle)’s “super-forms”—paintings, collages, or photographs composed of pixel-like, serial cells based on his early experiments with computer graphics in the 1970s.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "520bddb6139b219d4400045d",
    "slug": "vacant-and-vacated-spaces",
    "name": "Vacant and Vacated Spaces",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Images of interior and exterior spaces in which people are absent. Common examples include deserted towns, abandoned buildings, and parking lots.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52333b71a09a67177c000082",
    "slug": "celebrity",
    "name": "Celebrity",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“The image is one thing and the human being is another. It's very hard to live up to an image, put it that way.” —Elvis Presley_\n\nFame can transform ordinary subjects into icons or superficial facades: from Mao Zedong to Lassie, this transformation is a product of cultural fascination. In the 20th century, the elevation of celebrities and the rapid circulation of their images - a.k.a. the \"cult of celebrity\" - inspired a consideration of the powers of popular culture and a curiosity to know these figures. For example, [Andy Warhol's](/artist/andy-warhol) silkscreen process enabled a speed of image production that rivaled that of the tabloids but elevated celebrities to the status of painterly subjects. While some artists honored the glamour and heroism associated with celebrity, others exposed its darker side: a loss of individuality and a dehumanizing objectification by the media.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5256c9d97622dda72d0000a7",
    "slug": "use-of-fabric",
    "name": "Use of Fabric",
    "family": "Textiles",
    "description": "_“Throughout the history of art, the use of fabric has been a fascination for artists. Fabric, like clothing or skin, is fragile; it translates the unique quality of impermanence.”_ —[Christo and Jeanne-Claude](/artist/christo-and-jeanne-claude)\n\nFor millennia, [textile artists](/gene/textiles) and manufacturers have created fabrics for very specific purposes, such as [clothing](/gene/fashion-design-and-wearable-art), sails, or interior decoration. More recently, especially since the 1960s, artists have created sculptures and installations from found, purchased, or appropriated fabric, rejecting the weight or durability of traditional sculptural materials like stone or wood. [Claes Oldenburg](/artist/claes-oldenburg), [Robert Morris](/artist/robert-morris), [Yayoi Kusama](/artist/yayoi-kusama), and [Joseph Beuys](/artist/joseph-beuys), among others, used felt and other consumer-grade fabrics to create “[soft sculptures](/gene/soft-sculpture)”; Christo and Jean-Claude draped entire buildings and natural geological formations in millions of square feet of bright or shimmery textiles to draw attention to their impermanence. In his recreation of historic European costumes, [Yinka Shonibare](/artist/yinka-shonibare) uses the colorful patterns of Dutch wax fabric—popularly associated with Africa, but actually produced in Holland—to highlight the role textiles have played in the history of colonialism and global trade.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "52601d0acd530e7fa400014f",
    "slug": "traditional-photographic-techniques",
    "name": "Traditional Photographic Techniques",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Photographs produced using printing processes developed before 1875, or during the nascent phases of the medium. Early photography masters, such as [Gustave Le Gray](/artist/gustave-le-gray) and [Eugene Atget](/artist/eugene-atget-1), used printing processes like gum bichromate, collodion, salt print, cyanotype, and palladium prints, which employ a base (paper, film, metal, or glass), an emulsion (gelatin, collodion, or albumen), and a light-sensitive material (most often silver). The dominance of digital photography today may account for the recent resurgence of the Polaroid camera, and the popularity of Instagram. However, some contemporary photographers, such as [Sally Mann](/artist/sally-mann) and [Joni Sternbach](/artist/joni-sternbach), have continued to engage in labor-intensive printing processes, often to exploit the special tonal effects and surface qualities created when silver reacts with light.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5266a38f9c18dba083000099",
    "slug": "dreams-slash-altered-states-of-consciousness",
    "name": "Dreams / Altered States of Consciousness",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Throughout history, many cultures have been fascinated by altered states of consciousness, whether in the form of dreams, hypnosis, hallucinations, trances, or visions. Such states may occur naturally, or may be induced by ritualistic activities or mind-altering substances. It has been hypothesized that some of the earliest art ever created by humans—such as the cave paintings in Lascaux—relate to visions induced by ritualistic dancing. In the 20th century, Sigmund Freud’s foundational text for psychoanalysis, _The Interpretation of Dreams_ (1900), sought to systematize the mysteries of dream symbolism, proving hugely influential to artists interested in the subconscious, such as the [Surrealists](/gene/surrealism). More recently, in an iconic early performance titled _Rhythm 2_ (1974), [Marina Abramović](/artist/marina-abramovic-1) ingested a mind-altering prescription drug in front of an audience as an attempt to explore the relationship between the mind and the body.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "520bde2c9c18db4d35000524",
    "slug": "earth-tones",
    "name": "Earth Tones",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Includes artworks that employ colors which occur in nature including unsaturated greens, browns and clay pigments like umber, ochre, and sienna.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266a7c47622ddcb590000bf",
    "slug": "body-casts-slash-body-prints",
    "name": "Body Casts/Body Prints",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "_“If you can manipulate clay and end up with art, you can manipulate yourself in it as well. It has to do with using the body as a tool, an object to manipulate.”_ —[Bruce Nauman](/artist/bruce-nauman)\n \nIn body prints or casts, artists use the human figure like a stamp, creating an impression or mold of the body that becomes a work of art. The practice of body casting is centuries-old, beginning as a manner of producing death masks that commemorate and honor the deceased. In the 1960s, this practice became popular among artists like [Bruce Nauman](/artist/bruce-nauman) and [Alina Szapocznikow](/artist/alina-szapocznikow) who were interested in how the body could function as an artistic medium. During this time, [Yves Klein](/artist/yves-klein) held his first “Anthropometry” performance in Paris. Nude models covered themselves in blue paint—the artist referred to them as “human paintbrushes”—and imprinted their bodies on giant pieces of paper in front of an audience. At the height of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement, [David Hammons](/artwork/david-hammons-the-door-admissions-office) began producing powerful works that utilized his face and body as a printing surface to reflect the [politics of race and gender](/gene/identity-politics-1) in America.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "528f898a7622dd48e00000c4",
    "slug": "new-york-artists",
    "name": "New York Artists",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists historically based in or currently living and working in New York.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "528646d2139b214bd9000687",
    "slug": "allegory",
    "name": "Allegory",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Allegorical artworks are composed of symbols and/or personifications that convey complex ideas or narratives. Gustave Courbet's [_The Artist’s Studio, A Real Allegory Summing Up Seven Years of My Artistic and Moral Life_](/artwork/gustave-courbet-the-studio) (1854–5), for example, literally depicts the artist and associates in his studio, but also functions as an allegory, with the picture's elements alluding to the artist's experiences. With roots in classical philosophy—Plato’s allegory of the cave is the most famous example—this artistic tradition is almost exclusively western, drawing on, but distinct from, [symbolism](/gene/symbolic-composition). Allegories must characteristically be deciphered by viewers and are often intelligible only to those familiar with the cultural context of the work. Though artistic allegories fell out of favor in the 19th century, when it was believed they would hinder direct communication, some contemporary artists, such as [Walton Ford](/artist/walton-ford) and [Kara Walker](/artist/kara-walker), have revived the device, addressing the ambiguities that can arise when viewers interpret visual meanings.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "526700b98b3b81ab780002eb",
    "slug": "action-painting",
    "name": "Action Painting",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A term coined by the American critic Harold Rosenberg in 1952 to define a specific set of Abstract Expressionist artists who saw the canvas as an “arena in which to act.” Artists like [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock), [Willem de Kooning](/artist/willem-de-kooning), and [Franz Kline](/artist/franz-kline) were associated with this term due to their more spontaneous and/or physical act of painting. Such an idea of painting—emphasizing its physical process—would be highly influential on later artists; Pollock, for example, was a major impetus behind the appearance of [Happenings](/gene/happenings) in the United States in the 1960s. Various critics have tied the appearance of action painting to the ideas of Jung and Freud as well as [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism). Action was a way to evoke the primeval and an archetypal expression, and automatic painting and drawing techniques had previously been practiced by [Joan Miró](/artist/joan-miro) and [André Masson](/artist/andre-masson).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "530bc76d8b3b81a098000032",
    "slug": "cheyenne-art",
    "name": "Cheyenne Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "52f0078ec9dc2482d2000627",
    "slug": "san-francisco-artists",
    "name": "San Francisco Artists",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists historically based in or currently living and working in San Francisco, California.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "52f003c67622ddf61e00011e",
    "slug": "tokyo-artists",
    "name": "Tokyo Artists",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists historically based in or currently living and working in Tokyo, Japan.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5278120b275b2439e3000393",
    "slug": "glass-and-ceramics",
    "name": "Glass and Ceramics",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "53077eb8275b24dda6000136",
    "slug": "recycled",
    "name": "Recycled",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A category that encompasses the use of garbage, discarded materials, and thrown-away objects in art. As the saying goes, one person’s trash is another’s treasure; waste matter can be recycled as raw material for creating new forms, as in [Vik Muniz’s](/artist/vik-muniz) photographs of intricate recreations of iconic paintings made from trash, and in [John Chamberlain’s](artist/john-chamberlain) sculptures composed of crumpled car parts. Garbage can also find new life when imported as found objects in sculptural compositions, as in the assemblage works of [Lonnie Holley](/artist/lonnie-holley).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52f009949c18dbd66100063b",
    "slug": "london-artists",
    "name": "London Artists",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists historically based in or currently living and working in London, England.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "53062194b202a3baff000034",
    "slug": "mimicking-ruined-materials",
    "name": "Mimicking Ruined Materials",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Works in this category mimic ruins in appearance or bear surface qualities that imitate decayed matter (as opposed to artworks that depict [ruins](/tag/ruins)). Ruins have long been a source of fascination in Western art, where they are often used to convey historical authenticity or to preserve an image of the past. Artificial ruins were among the more popular follies (ornamental buildings or architectural elements) of lavish 16th- and 17th-century European estates; a ruin in the vein of antiquity signified taste, as in [Gian Lorenzo Bernini](/artist/gian-lorenzo-bernini)’s bridge ruin (ca. 1630) at the Palazzo Barberini, in Rome. Examples from contemporary art include [Anselm Kiefer](/artist/anselm-kiefer), who uses charred and deconstructed materials to evoke the dark, mythic qualities of German culture in large-format history paintings. Artist [Daniel Arsham](/artist/daniel-arsham), inspired by his childhood memories of the destruction of Hurricane Andrew in 1991, casts obsolete electronics out of geological materials, while [Sterling Ruby](/artist/sterling-ruby)’s rough-hewn monumental sculptures made of ceramics and bronze resemble exhumed objects.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "530f580fa09a674af30000cb",
    "slug": "calarts",
    "name": "CalArts",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Artists who attended the California Institute of the Arts, in Valencia, California. Since its founding in 1961, CalArts has become one of the most influential art schools in the United States. Since the early 1970s, CalArts’ School of Art has educated more than 15,000 alumni around the globe and has produced an exceptional number of internationally renowned artists, including [John Baldessari](/artist/john-baldessari), [Ross Bleckner](/artist/ross-bleckner), [Mark Bradford](/artist/mark-bradford), [Eric Fischl](/artist/eric-fischl), [Elad Lassry](/artist/elad-lassry), [Catherine Opie](/artist/catherine-opie), and [David Salle](/artist/david-salle).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "531df3b3cb4c276b2f000017",
    "slug": "engaged-with-traditional-japanese-art",
    "name": "Engaged with Traditional Japanese Art",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Contemporary or historical artworks that engage with the traditions of Japanese painting, calligraphy, ceramics, or textiles, whether through specific imagery, mediums, or techniques.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52950b319c18db2eec000083",
    "slug": "mysticism-shamanism-and-the-occult",
    "name": "Mysticism, Shamanism, and the Occult",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Alternate realities or belief systems that fall outside of traditional religious spirituality, including but not limited to the paranormal, witchcraft, magic, alchemy, extra-sensory perception, and astrology.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52780b35275b24061c000342",
    "slug": "french-furniture-and-design",
    "name": "French Furniture and Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "_“There is nothing that indicates more clearly the magnificence of great princes than their superb palaces and their precious furniture.” —Louis XIV_\n  \nMarked by distinctive stylistic periods, French design is often associated with a sense of luxury. Popular under the reign of Louis XIV, the French [Baroque](https://www.artsy.net/gene/baroque) style favored flamboyance over practicality, producing rigid structures embellished with elaborate wood carvings and gilded paneling. The [Rococo](https://www.artsy.net/artist/rococo) era of Louis XV—often considered France’s finest in terms of furniture design—was the first to prioritize comfort and usability, all while maintaining a sense of elegance through curving shapes and floral decorations. Influenced by the discovery of the ruins of Pompeii, French design entered its [Neoclassical](https://www.artsy.net/gene/neoclassicism) period under Louis XVI, characterized by a more restrained, geometric aesthetic. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the sinuous curves of [Art Nouveau](https://www.artsy.net/gene/art-nouveau) redefined France’s Metro stations, poster designs, and furniture pieces, though this style was soon replaced by [Art Deco](https://www.artsy.net/gene/art-deco) in the 1920s and 1930s. Later in the 20th century, Modernists [Charlotte Perriand](https://www.artsy.net/artist/charlotte-perriand) and [Jean Prouvé](https://www.artsy.net/artist/jean-prouve) favored a more streamlined aesthetic, while the contemporary Paris-based designer [Maria Pergay](https://www.artsy.net/artist/maria-pergay) maintained elements of French opulence by featuring ribbons, tassels, and belts in her stainless steel furniture.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "528645b27622ddc937000044",
    "slug": "virtue-and-vice",
    "name": "Virtue and Vice",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that explore issues of morality or include depictions of good and evil, benevolence and sin. Art history is filled with such themes, characteristically informed by religious or cultural beliefs. Some examples include a masterpiece of Japanese Buddhist art, the Hell Scrolls, which dates to the 12th century and depicts sinners subjected to brutal punishments; engravings by [William Hogarth](/artist/william-hogarth) that provided social commentary on the virtues and vices of 18th-century British society; and [Hieronymus Bosch](/artist/hieronymus-bosch)’s imaginative and fantastical paintings, such as _Garden of Earthly Delights_ (ca. 1505–15), which was inspired by the Christian principles of good and evil.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5296ab0acd530e36210000a3",
    "slug": "allover-composition",
    "name": "Allover Composition",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "“…all hierarchical distinctions have been, literally, exhausted and invalidated.”—Clement Greenberg\n \nThe term “all-over picture” was first used by art critic Greenberg in his 1948 essay “The Crisis of the Easel Picture” to describe the emergence of “decentralized” compositions like [Jackson Pollock’s](t/artist/jackson-pollock) tangled layers of dripped paint or [Mark Tobey’s](/artist/mark-tobey) dense [calligraphies](/gene/personal-writing-systems) that extend to the edge of a canvas. Works in this category lack a dominant focal point due to the uniform treatment of the entire surface. Contemporary artists like [Mark Bradford](/artist/mark-bradford) and [Dan Colen](/artist/dan-colen) have modernized this technique by covering every inch of traditional support mediums with unorthodox materials like discarded ephemera or chewing gum.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "529cbf227622dd06300000a1",
    "slug": "columns-and-totems",
    "name": "Columns and Totems",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Tall, upright, and vertical sculptures and monuments. Historical examples include the many obelisks found in Egypt and triumphal columns scattered throughout the Roman empire, as well as the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C. Examples from modern and contemporary sculpture can be found in the works of [Constantin Brancusi](/artist/constantin-brancusi), [Louise Bourgeois](/artist/louise-bourgeois), and [John McCracken](/artist/john-mccracken).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52d33fb4275b2428be000df7",
    "slug": "transavanguardia",
    "name": "Transavanguardia",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "“The trans-avant-garde rejects the idea of an artistic process aimed entirely at conceptual abstraction. It introduces the possibility of not considering the linear course of earlier art as final…”\n—Achille Bonito Oliva\n\n\nAlongside [Arte Povera](/gene/arte-povera), the trans-avant-garde (Italian: transavanguardia) was one of Italy’s most important postwar artistic movements. Its name derives from Italian critic Achille Bonito Oliva’s 1981 essay entitled “The International Trans-Avant-Garde.” In this essay, Oliva named a small group of painters who, in the 1970s, departed from the dominant conceptual tendencies of the previous decade, exploring the expressive potential of painting with often universal or archaic motifs. This practice mirrored similar trends in expressive figurative painting across Europe and the United States, leading to the group’s frequent inclusion in discussions of 1980s [Neo-Expressionism](/gene/neo-expressionism). For Oliva, the trans-avant-garde rejected the original avant-garde’s “hysteria for the new” by returning to styles of the past. Indeed these artists quoted avidly not only from art history and classical mythology, but also popular culture and national symbolism.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52d9a3c41a1e868f320000f5",
    "slug": "fashion-design-and-wearable-art",
    "name": "Fashion Design and Wearable Art",
    "family": "Artistic Disciplines",
    "description": "_“Fashion is not something that exists in dresses only. Fashion is in the sky, in the street, fashion has to do with ideas, the way we live, what is happening.”_ —Coco Chanel\n\nHumans have produced clothing for as far back as archeologists can trace, but the modern fashion industry, with its labels, magazines, and the imperative of style, emerged in the late 18th century, primarily as haute couture (“high fashion”). In the 20th century, enabled by the rise of consumer culture and technologies of mass production like the sewing machine, factory-made prêt-à-porter (“ready to wear”) brought fashion into everyday life. Due to the reliance of fashion on commerce and its predominant association with women, its status as an art form worthy of serious scholarly attention has long been debated by art historians. Clothing designers have used fashion to creatively push the boundaries of issues from beauty to gender roles—in the avant-garde designs of [Alexander McQueen](/artist/alexander-mcqueen), or the provocative garments of [Jean Paul Gaultier](/artist/jean-paul-gaultier), for example. Many visual artists create wearable art, often to engage audiences in novel ways: see [Nick Cave’s soundsuits](/artwork/nick-cave-soundsuit-2), Atsuko _Tanaka’s Electric Dress_ (1956), or Zhang Huan’s performance _My New York_ (2002), in which the artist navigated Manhattan dressed in a suit of meat.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53077c867622dd5878000070",
    "slug": "deep-time",
    "name": "Deep Time",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Deep time refers to the concept of an expansive time that stretches far beyond human history to include the approximately 4.5 billion-year geological history of Earth and the estimated 13.8 billion-year history of the universe. In art, deep time could be explored in works that deal with the long-term processes of geological formation and the cosmos. Such concerns are important, for example, to [Hiroshi Sugimoto](/artist/hiroshi-sugimoto)’s waterscapes and [Darren Almond](/artist/darren-almond)’s landscapes, both of which use long-exposure photography to capture a sense of expanded time.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "530e1c537622dd8390000029",
    "slug": "hong-kong",
    "name": "Hong Kong",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "52f007c19c18db79100005cd",
    "slug": "beijing-artists",
    "name": "Beijing Artists",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists historically based in or currently living and working in Beijing, China.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "53077e3a9c18dbbebe000161",
    "slug": "sculptural-use-of-paint",
    "name": "Sculptural Use of Paint",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "531df80e1a1e86dbaa00000b",
    "slug": "album-folio-and-fan-formats",
    "name": "Album, Folio and Fan Formats",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Originally in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean art, these smaller-format works on paper or silk were created in series and intended to be viewed laying flat. In the case of fan format, rounded compositions were sometimes mounted onto hand-held fan frames, or simply mounted as a picture.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52950b167622ddb07a000061",
    "slug": "personal-writing-systems",
    "name": "Personal Writing Systems",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Writing systems have existed for thousands of years, but it was not until the early 20th century that linguists—and artists—began to systematically probe the relationship between writing and communication. In 1916 the linguist Ferdinand Saussure proposed that the form a language takes is arbitrary and unrelated to its meaning. A decade later, the French writer Henri Michaux explored these ideas in asemic writing—writing that resembles natural language but conveys no meaning. Since then, artists have developed personal systems of pictograms and glyphs with varying degrees of legibility and idiosyncrasy, often to explore a wide range of concepts. In the 1960s, for example, [A.R. Penck](/artist/ar-penck) drew inspiration from cybernetics, the study of systems, to derive a hieroglyphic-like system of signs, which he used to represent societal and metaphysical relationships. In the 1980s, [Gu Wenda](/artist/wenda-gu) developed a system of meaningless ideograms that resemble traditional [Chinese calligraphy](/gene/east-asian-calligraphy). Given how fundamental writing is to cultures throughout the world, it is no surprise that many personal writing systems may verge on the purely calligraphic, as in the gestural paintings of [Cy Twombly](/artist/cy-twombly).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5284282cebad64e6ee0005d3",
    "slug": "adolescence-1",
    "name": "Adolescence",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that feature young adults—their physical appearances, emotions, and habits—have been a regular and evolving theme in the history of art. In ancient Greece and Rome, an idealized image of youthful beauty emerged in the form of nude sculptures, which reappeared as a focus centuries later in iconic works by [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) artists such as [Donatello](/artist/donatello), [Michelangelo](/artist/michelangelo-buonarroti), [Bernini](/artist/gian-lorenzo-bernini), and [Canova](/artist/antonio-canova). These were associated with various narratives of physical strength, love, and desire. While many artists have continued to work with notions of physical beauty in the 20th century, a parallel tendency has been the exploration of countercultural identities, and young men and women engaged in sexual acts. Photographers in particular, including [Larry Clark](/artist/larry-clark), [Nan Goldin](/artist/nan-goldin), [Robert Mapplethorpe](/artist/robert-mapplethorpe), and [Ryan McGinley](/artist/ryan-mcginley), have explored taboo subjects such as drug use and sexuality in youth culture, often through the documentation of their own friends and experiences. Other explorations of adolescence in art have been less direct; in China, artists of the [Post-’70s Ego Generation](/gene/post-70s-ego-generation) explore their lives and identities in the wake of the country's one-child policy.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5286468db202a37bb00005bc",
    "slug": "personification",
    "name": "Personification",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A personification is a human figure, often depicted with symbolic attributes, that represents an abstract idea. Personified figures are often named after the concept that they represent. In Classical Greek and Roman art, personified figures represented a range of intangible ideas and phenomena,  from the seasons to abstract concepts like Fortune and Victory. Retaining their prominence in art of medieval Europe, personifications also appeared extensively in allegorical works of the European [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) and [Baroque](/gene/baroque) period. The allegories of these periods are often composed of personified figures and symbols that visually reference antiquity to invoke classical ideals and, therefore, universal principles. However, personifications aren’t necessarily classicizing in terms of style, as seen in [Artemesia Gentilleschi](/artist/artemisia-gentileschi)’s _Self Portrait as the Allegory of Painting_. While personification is now well past its heyday as a favored mode of symbolism, some contemporary artists continue to employ personified figures to reference classical ideals or roots in the [Old Masters](/gene/old-masters), in a manner by turns lofty and tongue-in-cheek.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "528d13f19c18db716a0005c0",
    "slug": "poured",
    "name": "Poured",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A technique in which paint, or another liquid medium, is poured to create a flowing, (most often) abstract composition. While the origins of this technique lie in the experiments of [David Alfaro Siqueiros](https://artsy.net/artist/david-alfaro-siqueiros), it was popularized in the works of [Abstract Expressionists](https://artsy.net/gene/abstract-expressionism) such as [Jackson Pollock](https://artsy.net/artist/jackson-pollock), [Morris Louis](https://artsy.net/artist/morris-louis), and [Helen Frankenthaler](https://artsy.net/artist/helen-frankenthaler). Poured compositions often depend on experimentation with materials and colors, and it is a technique used for other mediums, too—[Lynda Benglis](/artist/lynda-benglis) has poured materials to make three-dimensional sculptures.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53062217c9dc24f6420001c2",
    "slug": "documentary-travel-photography",
    "name": "Documentary Travel Photography",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Since the invention of photography in the 1830s, artists have used their cameras to record their experiences abroad, often documenting unfamiliar places and cultures to share with their audiences back home. In the 19th century, [Timothy O’Sullivan](/artist/timothy-h-osullivan) took photos of the Western Frontier and Native Americans, [Maxime Du Camp](/artist/maxime-du-camp) photographed Egyptian monuments, and [John Thomson](/artist/john-thomson) traveled to China to capture the diversity of its inhabitants. Over the past century, as cameras have become more portable and travel more affordable, contemporary photographers like [Sebastião Salgado](/artist/sebastiao-salgado), [Alex Webb](/artist/alex-webb), and [Carolyn Drake](/artist/carolyn-drake) have continued to document their explorations of the world, using their art to record the social and cultural conditions they encounter.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "531df265b202a3437f000008",
    "slug": "engaged-with-traditional-chinese-art",
    "name": "Engaged with Traditional Chinese Art",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Contemporary or historical artworks that engage in some fashion with the tradition of Chinese painting, calligraphy, ceramics, or other art forms, whether through specific imagery, mediums, or techniques.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266fe22275b24584d0002c4",
    "slug": "endurance-art",
    "name": "Endurance Art",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Refers to artworks generally performed over a long period of time that may test the physical or emotional stamina of the artist or audience. This approach to art making arguably derives from [Body Art](/gene/body-art) of the 1970s, when artists like [Vito Acconci](/artist/vito-acconci) or [Chris Burden](/artist/chris-burden) took their body as both their artworks’ subject matter and primary medium. Perhaps most closely associated with this practice is [Marina Abramović](/artist/marina-abramovic-1), who, since the 1970s, has created provocative, long-durational performances that have pushed the artist to her physical breaking point, often to the point of imperilment. For _The Artist Is Present_, her 2010 retrospective at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, she sat silently at a table facing an empty chair that visitors were invited to occupy for the nearly three-month-long duration of the exhibition.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52f00293c9dc246c970005a3",
    "slug": "los-angeles-artists",
    "name": "Los Angeles Artists",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists historically based in or currently living and working in Los Angeles, California.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "530bc786139b21931600003f",
    "slug": "yupik-art",
    "name": "Yup'ik Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "530bc7aa8b3b81d37000005a",
    "slug": "native-american-first-nations-and-alaska-native-art",
    "name": "Native American, First Nations, and Alaska Native Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "Refers to art, architecture, and functional objects made by the indigenous peoples of the regions known today as the United States and Canada, as well as the work of contemporary artists whose practice draws on their Native American or First Nations heritage. This category encompasses the visual culture of hundreds of diverse groups, from the [pottery](/artwork/ancestral-pueblo-new-mexico-water-jar), basket-weaving, and textile work that flourished in the American Southwest to the masterful woodcarvings, bowls, and amulets of the Northwest coast. The arrival of Europeans took a heavy toll on native peoples, with disease, warfare, and forced displacement decimating these indigenous populations. With the rise in Native American activism in the 20th century, many Native American artists merged traditional art forms with avant-garde techniques to explore issues of cultural identity and political rights. For example, [Preston Singletary](/artist/preston-singletary)’s glasswork combines his study of Scandinavian design with figural motifs drawn from his Tlingit heritage, while Canadian First Nations artist [Rebecca Belmore](/artist/rebecca-belmore)’s performances invoke questions of identity and colonial history.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5293bbf1275b242ec90000af",
    "slug": "implied-narrative",
    "name": "Implied Narrative",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "An implied narrative arises from visual cues that create the barest impression of a story in the minds of viewers. It is the act of withholding the whole story, rather than the attempt to visually illustrate the story, that defines these images. [Cindy Sherman](/artist/cindy-sherman)’s “Untitled Film Stills” are an iconic example of implied narrative: her seminal series of photographs capitalizes on feminine character stereotypes and re-stages cinematic tropes in order to trigger the viewer’s imagination. Implied narrative is a mode employed primarily, but not exclusively, in contemporary photography.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52950123139b21b580000053",
    "slug": "paper-cut-outs",
    "name": "Paper Cut-Outs",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Since the invention of paper in China in the 1st century BCE, paper cut-outs have been utilized by a long line of craftsmen, folk artists, and fine artists. In Mexico, since the 19th century artisans have cut tissue paper into intricate figures and lacy designs for special occasions, called “papel picado.” The [Fauvist](/gene/fauvism) [Henri Matisse](/artist/henri-matisse) famously produced paper cut-outs during the last fourteen years of his life, describing the medium as “painting with scissors.” Contemporary artist [Kara Walker](/artist/kara-walker) also uses paper cut-outs for her massive wall installations evocative of 19th century “shadow portraits,” in which she explores African American racial stereotypes and identity.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "531df66f275b24e993000009",
    "slug": "hanging-scroll",
    "name": "Hanging Scroll",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "These works of painting and calligraphy on paper or silk are traditionally mounted for hanging upright with dowels at top and bottom. In Chinese, Japanese, and Korean art, they are traditionally, but not always, vertically oriented compositions.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "531df92acb4c2718cb000037",
    "slug": "screen-format",
    "name": "Screen Format",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Refers to historical and contemporary works that use traditional East Asian screen formats. This category encompasses folding screens, Chinese-style standing screens, and artworks mounted in interiors, such as Japanese painted sliding screens (fusuma-e). Though some may have later been mounted as freestanding pictures, these works were originally composed with their architectural context in mind—as functional dividers of space, providing privacy and adorning interiors, or intended to be portable in outdoor environments.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5266ff9d139b2174f10001ce",
    "slug": "the-mundane",
    "name": "The Mundane",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Banal, ordinary subject matter, particularly the [representation of objects](/gene/representation-of-everyday-objects) or [places](/gene/vacant-and-vacated-spaces) that are usually ignored or considered to be unremarkable.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52702377a09a6793d500021a",
    "slug": "conceptual-art-and-contemporary-conceptualism",
    "name": "Conceptual Art and Contemporary Conceptualism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "528645e38b3b818368000622",
    "slug": "symbolic-composition",
    "name": "Symbolic Composition",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks containing objects and figures that, when viewed together, imply symbolic meaning, such as in Albrecht Dürer's iconic [_Melencolia I_](/artwork/albrecht-durer-melencolia-i-b-74-m-dot-holl-75-s-dot-m-s-71) (1514), which includes a group of objects—a sleeping dog, a sphere, and a bell, among others—the meanings of which historians have endlessly debated. The incorporation of symbols with ambiguous meanings was a primary feature of [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism); these fluid signs were thought to tap into a well of intuitive meaning stemming from dreams and the unconscious.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "530621088b3b8165f60001e6",
    "slug": "contemporary-impressionist",
    "name": "Contemporary Impressionist",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A term used to describe works created by contemporary artists that share similar aesthetic qualities with those by the [French Impressionists](/gene/impressionism). Whether depicting urban environments or the natural world, all of the images that can be considered Contemporary Impressionist are rendered with loose, expressive brushwork and focus on the effects of light. Like many of the Impressionists, [Nancy Friese](/artist/nancy-friese) painted her watercolor _[Walk to the Sea](/artwork/nancy-friese-walk-to-the-sea)_ (2012) outdoors, or _[en plein air](/gene/en-plein-air)_, in order to better capture the effects of changing light and weather on the landscape. With its emphasis on the effects of fading daylight and the illumination from the stores and streetlights, the downtown Boston marketplace in [John Terelak](/artist/john-terelak)’s painting, _[Faneuil Hall](/artwork/john-terelak-faneuil-hall)_, could easily be mistaken for 1880s Paris.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "53077d9e7622ddfd650000ba",
    "slug": "knitted-and-crocheted",
    "name": "Knitted and Crocheted",
    "family": "Textiles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "529500f7cd530e8af5000044",
    "slug": "research-as-art",
    "name": "Research as Art",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Works that foreground extensive research into individual, social, cultural, or scientific objects of inquiry. While there are many historic precedents for this type of presenting research in art—such as [Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier](/artist/jean-louis-ernest-meissonier)’s rigorous study of the movement of horses—(in some respects, all great art is the product of extensive research), since the 1990s, art has often approximated academic or journalistic inquiry in its attempts to contribute to knowledge, engage the public, and bring awareness to causes or subjects. The photographs of [Taryn Simon](/artist/taryn-simon), for example, are typically the culmination of years of research; in _A Living Man Declared Dead and Other Chapters_ (2011), the artist traveled around the world, tracing, and then documenting, bloodlines. This notion of research as art differs from traditional scholarship in that it is not characteristically beholden to disciplinary conventions and parameters, and may present “findings” in visually aesthetic formats or those otherwise atypical of academic or journalistic publications.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "530ce93c1a1e86a2420000c6",
    "slug": "east-germany",
    "name": "East Germany",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists who are from or lived in the German Democratic Republic (East Germany, or the GDR). The GDR existed from its founding in the wake of World War II in 1949 through the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and reunification with West Germany in 1990.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "52f0055a275b2452c50005d8",
    "slug": "paris-artists",
    "name": "Paris Artists",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists historically based in or currently living and working in Paris, France.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "52670b05ebad6442cd000025",
    "slug": "raw-versus-finished",
    "name": "Raw versus Finished",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Works that combine opposing treatment of materials, with one highly finished and one left raw. Often the unfinished “raw” section reveals the materials’ inherent properties and the processes it undergoes, while the “finished” part shows the results of treatment. [George Nakashima](/artist/george-nakashima)’s famous “free edge” furniture, such as the “[conoid coffee table](/artwork/george-nakashima-conoid-coffee-table)”, are iconic examples; the edges of the table reveal the rough edges of American black walnut while the smooth, planar surfaces show just how the material can be transformed by cutting and polishing wood to highlight the grain.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "531df540a09a67fdf100000b",
    "slug": "handscroll",
    "name": "Handscroll",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "In East Asian art, handscrolls are long, narrow, horizontal works of painting and calligraphy rendered on paper or silk that often integrate both text and images. These works are meant to be viewed by holding the scroll flat and unfurling it, but more recently, contemporary artists have played with the form by creating versions on a monumental scale.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "526848c5139b2152ba000013",
    "slug": "contemporary-turkish-art",
    "name": "Contemporary Turkish Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Since the 1980s, Turkey has been establishing itself as a center of contemporary art, with galleries and institutions proliferating and local biennials giving artists increased international visibility. Mixing the globalized art world and local histories bridging [Greek](/gene/greek-art-and-architecture), [Roman](/gene/roman-art-and-architecture), [Byzantine](/gene/byzantine-art), and [Islamic](/gene/islamic-art-and-architecture) traditions, contemporary Turkish art is decidedly diverse and often provocative. Acting as a fictional design collective, [Extramucadele](/artist/extramucadele-1) (Extrastruggle, in English) produces symbolic and satirical sculpture, painting, calligraphy, and film to examine contemporary Turkish society’s conflicting religious and political ideologies. [Kezban Arca Batibeki](/artist/kezban-arca-batibeki)’s mysterious depictions of women, sometimes faceless or masked, explore female empowerment. In his hyper-realistic paintings, [Taner Ceylan](/artist/taner-ceylan) portrays homoerotic sexuality as he reimagines the narratives of [Orientalist](/gene/orientalism) paintings to assert the Turkish histories that the earlier genre either romanticized or ignored.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "52d9a44ba6ca6d9f450000b0",
    "slug": "graphic-design",
    "name": "Graphic Design",
    "family": "Artistic Disciplines",
    "description": "Graphic design is the use of text and images to convey a concept or a message. The term “graphic designer” was coined by William Addison Dwiggins in 1922, a time when posters and advertising were evolving from being primarily informative to serving more graphic and aesthetic purposes. Notable highlights of this transition include the late 19th-century movement [Art Nouveau](/gene/art-nouveau), including [posters](/gene/poster) by [Alphonse Mucha](/artist/alphonse-mucha) and [Jules Chéret](/artist/jules-cheret) that aimed to create a new aesthetic for the Industrial Age filled with sinuous forms and ornate typography. While graphic design today is more commonly considered a commercial activity, in the early 20th century it was closely aligned with fine art, especially in the journals of avant-garde artists (for example, [Filippo Tommaso Marinetti](/artist/filippo-tommaso-marinetti)’s Futurist publications, Tristan Tzara’s Dada, [Theo Van Doesburg](/artist/theo-van-doesburg-1)’s Stijl, and [Kurt Schwitters](/artist/kurt-schwitters)’s Merz). These experiments helped pave the way for the clarity, legibility, and dominant planes of bright colors typical of the International Typographic Style (or Swiss Style), developed in the 1950s. This aesthetic permeates advertising and logo design today, from Adidas’s striking three-bar logo to IBM’s three simple letters. The accessibility of ever-evolving digital tools has dramatically democratized the field of graphic design and opened a new platform for the discipline: designing for the web.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53276118c9dc24904900077f",
    "slug": "the-american-west",
    "name": "The American West",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "The Western frontier of the United States looms large in American history. The 19th century saw the Louisiana Purchase (1803) and the First Transcontinental Railroad (1869) greatly extend the reach of American settlement, access to natural resources, and lines of commerce. Far beyond its economic implications, however, the American West was a national mythology—a site of wilderness, exploration, and lawless freedom that for many represented the path to the American dream and a belief in Manifest Destiny. While this collective history brings national pride for many, westward expansion also saw its most brutal forms in the massive displacement and killing of Native Americans. Since the early 19th century artists have documented the exploration of frontier lands, as in [Carleton Emmons Watkins](/artist/carleton-emmons-watkins)’ iconic views of Yosemite National Park or [William Henry Jackson](/artist/william-henry-jackson)’s framing of the transcontinental railroad tunneling through mountains. Others, like [Frederic Remington](/artist/frederic-remington), romanticized its inhabitants through loose renderings of horsemen, cavalrymen, Native Americans, or [cowboys](/tag/cowboy)—from Andy Warhol’s depiction of [John Wayne](/artwork/andy-warhol-john-wayne) to [Richard Prince](/artist/richard-prince)’s appropriation of the iconic cowboy from Marlboro cigarette advertisements.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5320d5508b3b8168e90000ad",
    "slug": "engaged-with-traditional-korean-art",
    "name": "Engaged with Traditional Korean Art",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Contemporary or historical artworks that engage with the traditions of Korean painting, calligraphy, ceramics, textiles, or other art forms, whether through specific imagery, mediums, or techniques.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "531dfa9fc9dc2491a9000030",
    "slug": "blown-off-roof-perspective",
    "name": "Blown-Off-Roof Perspective",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Derived from the Japanese name _fukinuki yatai_, literally, “roof blown off,” a type of perspective that shows a bird's eye view into a dramatically sloping picture plane. Often, the roofs of buildings are actually removed, allowing the viewer to glimpse figures and action inside the walls.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "531e1339cd530ee3c4000057",
    "slug": "kano-school",
    "name": "Kanō School",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Refers to a school of Japanese painting that evolved in Kyoto in the 15th century. The style is characterized by a fusion of Chinese and Japanese styles and a robust apprenticeship system.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "531e130c275b24ad6800006b",
    "slug": "rinpa-school",
    "name": "Rinpa School",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Named after its originator, Ogata Kōrin, the Rinpa school spanned the 17th to 20th centuries in Japan. This style is characterized by a decorative quality that draws on older, traditional Japanese styles.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5367eaf9275b2431b0000008",
    "slug": "ukiyo-e",
    "name": "Ukiyo-e",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Literally meaning “Pictures of the Floating World,\" Ukiyo-e refers to a style of Japanese woodblock print and painting from the [Edo period](/gene/edo-art) depicting famous theater actors, beautiful courtesans, city life, travel in romantic landscapes, and erotic scenes. The Floating World, as the pleasure districts of Edo (modern day Tokyo) were called, describes the sensory pleasures of urban life, but also offers a bittersweet reminder of the fleeting nature of all worldly delights. It’s commonly said that in Edo Japan, anyone could own a masterpiece Ukiyo-e print for about the price of a bowl of noodles. While this claim oversimplifies, it is true that by the 17th century, Ukiyo-e printmakers innovated centuries-old woodblock text printing techniques to create colorful picture prints that were distributed widely for popular consumption. Some of the greatest Japanese artists of their time—[Ando Hiroshige](/artist/utagawa-hiroshige-ando-hiroshige), [Katsushika Hokusai](/artist/katsushika-hokusai), [Utagawa Toyokuni III](/artist/utagawa-toyokuni-iii-utagawa-kunisada), and [Keisai Eisen](/artist/keisai-eisen) among them—became known primarily as woodblock print designers in the Ukiyo-e style. In the 19th century, Ukiyo-e printmakers also began to focus on landscape, creating series such as Hokusai’s famed _Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji_. Ukiyo-e also had a profound impact on European artists around this time—its flattened perspective and innovative compositions inspired artists such as [Mary Cassatt](/artist/mary-cassatt), [Vincent Van Gogh](/artist/vincent-van-gogh), and [Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec](/artist/henri-de-toulouse-lautrec), as well as the [Japonisme](/gene/japonisme) movement in art and design.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5376326d9c18db0f2d0009a6",
    "slug": "masculinity",
    "name": "Masculinity",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "What expectations lurk behind the phrase “Be a man!”? What does an ideal male body look like? In recent years, many artists have used their work to ask these questions, exposing the ways in which society and mass media construct concepts of masculinity. [Cady Noland](/artist/cady-noland)’s sculptures and installations often incorporate common symbols of male culture—stacked beer cans, cowboys, and American flags—pointing toward the masculine foundations of the American Dream. The ideal male form has long been a subject of interest in Western art, from ancient [Greek and Roman](/gene/greek-and-roman-art-and-architecture) statues, to [Robert Mapplethorpe](/artist/robert-mapplethorpe)’s black-and-white portraits, to [Hank Willis Thomas](/artist/hank-willis-thomas)’s depictions of black male athletes that link the exploitation of their bodies in sports and advertising to the history of slavery.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "536d22a7cb4c2759560001cc",
    "slug": "afrofuturism",
    "name": "Afrofuturism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "In his 1993 essay “Black to the Future,” cultural critic Mark Dery coined the term Afrofuturism to describe the cross-cultural philosophy of artists, musicians, and writers who drew on the techno-utopian thinking of the space age to reimagine Black life in the United States. Equally indebted to mythologies of the [African Diaspora](/gene/african-diaspora), Afrofuturism is not an artistic style but an approach to the intersections of race and technology that aims to visualize the future. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, musicians (Sun Ra, Grace Jones, and Parliament Funkadelic), authors (Octavia Butler), and visual artists ([Renee Cox](/artist/renee-cox)) drew upon the futuristic energy of science fiction, seeing outer space as an escape from the oppressive social and political climate of the Vietnam war and post–Civil Rights era. Afrofuturism’s engagement with the African Diaspora is wide-ranging: photojournalist Cristina de Middel took the failed 1964 Zambian space program as the subject of her 2012 series [_Afronaut_](/artwork/cristina-de-middel-bambuit-from-the-series-the-afronauts). Other artists have employed cyborgs, robots, and aliens as alter-egos to access alternative identities, such as Kenyan-American artist [Wangechi Mutu](/artist/wangechi-mutu); others have addressed the habitable space of the cosmos, as in [Kerry James Marshall](/artist/kerry-james-marshall)’s _Keeping the Culture_ or [Sanford Biggers](/artist/sanford-biggers)’s psychedelic quilts referencing cosmological maps.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53613bb59c18db45be00022b",
    "slug": "leather-slash-hide",
    "name": "Leather/Hide",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "542090b77261690c6d7f0000",
    "slug": "artists-frame",
    "name": "Artist's Frame",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Ever since the elaborate, customized mountings of [Gothic altarpieces](/artwork/gentile-da-fabriano-coronation-of-the-virgin-and-saints), frames have played a transformative role in the creation and presentation of artworks. Though traditionally frames are chosen by curators and collectors, artist’s frames are often designed by the artists themselves and are integrated with the artwork from its inception. No longer a quiet border between artwork and wall, these frames serve as extensions of the artwork and can be closely linked to a work’s subject matter. Contemporary artists like [Fabrice Samyn](/artist/fabrice-samyn) and [Dianna Molzan](/artist/dianna-molzan) have challenged the historical role of the frame, presenting empty frames as artworks in their own right.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "531e1eb5139b21786300000e",
    "slug": "engaged-with-communist-visual-culture",
    "name": "Engaged with Communist Visual Culture",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "536ba17ccb4c27792500010d",
    "slug": "modern-and-contemporary-design",
    "name": "Modern and Contemporary Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "545ab9c572616921de5b0000",
    "slug": "wrapped",
    "name": "Wrapped",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Wrapping an object inherently hides its features to produce a sense of mystery while simultaneously highlighting its surface and form, aesthetic effects that many artists have harnessed over the years. In the late 1950s, as artists began incorporating [everyday objects](/gene/found-objects) into their art, Bulgarian artist [Christo](/artist/christo) began wrapping furniture and household items with plastic, fabric, and rope. With his partner, [Jeanne Claude](/artist/christo-and-jeanne-claude), he expanded this practice in later decades, covering entire bridges, fields, buildings, and even islands with fabrics—inviting viewers to reconsider places they encountered daily but often overlooked. Operating with a similar intent, artists such as Magda Sayeg, Bill Davenport, and [Olek](/artist/olek) adopted a practice of “yarn bombing” in the 2000s. Intervening in and reclaiming public space, they wrapped common urban fixtures with brightly colored textiles, embracing an irreverence and spontaneity akin to that of [graffiti](/gene/graffiti-slash-street-art) and other forms of unsanctioned art.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "536173c48b3b819e55000377",
    "slug": "spiral-group",
    "name": "Spiral Group",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The Spiral Group was a New York–based African American artists’ collective active from 1963 to 1965. It was founded by [Charles Alston](/artist/charles-alston), [Romare Bearden](/artist/romare-bearden), [Norman Lewis](/artist/norman-wilfred-lewis), and [Hale Woodruff](/artist/hale-aspacio-woodruff) to explore the relationship of art and activism, particularly how black artists should relate to American society in a time of segregation. The group also included artists [Emma Amos](/artist/emma-amos), [Calvin Douglass](/artist/calvin-douglass), [Perry Ferguson](/artist/perry-ferguson), [Reginald Gammon](/artist/reginald-gammon), [Felrath Hines](/artist/felrath-hines), [Alvin Hollingsworth](/artist/alvin-hollingsworth), [William Majors](/artist/william-majors), [Richard Mayhew](/artist/richard-mayhew), [Earl Miller](/artist/earl-miller), [Merton D. Simpson](/artist/merton-d-simpson), and [James Yeargans](/artist/james-yeargans). While it espoused no common style, the group is characterized by its experimental and eclectic approaches, including forms of modernist [abstraction](/gene/abstract-art) that were neither common nor expected among African American artists at the time. A major point of contention among the group was whether artists should illustrate the black experience in [figurative terms](/gene/figurative-art), or if black abstraction itself was a politically radical form of artistic practice. While short-lived, the Spiral Group ignited important debates about philosophy, creative integrity, and artistic freedoms among black artists—and for the cultural community’s role in social change more broadly—during a time when few art critics were asking the same questions.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53eaa0b772616910d0180000",
    "slug": "asian-art",
    "name": "Asian Art",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "A general category for art made in Asia, which includes Central, East, and Southeast Asia.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5473a50a72616956777c0100",
    "slug": "mediated-view",
    "name": "Mediated View",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Scenes, objects, or imagery seen through a frame, screen, or other visible layer. This technique can often serve to frame, alter, or obscure one’s view, adding a sense of mystery or depth to a work of art. One of the most frequent ways artists achieve this effect is by depicting scenes seen through a window or from behind a screen. In the history of art, paintings of windows have often been used to symbolically demarcate inside and outside, public and private, background and foreground. Northern Renaissance, Impressionist, and Fauvist artists, such as [Henri Matisse](https://www.artsy.net/artist/henri-matisse), frequently depicted scenes through windows to mediate and direct the viewer’s attention or to play with the idea of a painting as a “window onto the world,” a convention that has existed since the invention of one-point perspective. Perhaps the most famous example from art history is [Marcel Duchamp](https://www.artsy.net/artist/marcel-duchamp)’s Étant donnés (1946–66), an unsettling diorama of a female nude sprawled over a landscape. The sculpture itself is situated behind what appears to be a wooden door in a wall of the Philadelphia Museum of Art; the only way to see the scene is to look through a tiny slit in the door.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53d980d4726169083cc00300",
    "slug": "polychrome-sculpture",
    "name": "Polychrome Sculpture",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "The word “polychrome” derives from the Greek “polu-” (meaning many) and “khrōma” (color). Polychrome sculpture, fittingly, is originally associated with Ancient Greece and Rome, and describes all manners of pigmented decoration, gilding, and the application of varied color to a three-dimensional surface. The mostly unadorned, white marble sculptures that were unearthed from archaeological sites in the 16th century—and which later shaped the aesthetic of [neoclassicism](/gene/neoclassicism)—belied the fact that these works were once decorated with a wide variety of colors. Thanks to scientific advances in the study of pigments and other aspects of conservation, art historians have been able to authenticate the former coloration of countless historic objects, a process that has radically changed our assumptions about the history of taste. Common examples of polychromy include decorated [Christian altarpieces](/gene/altarpiece) or the convincing realism of Renaissance-era German limewood sculptures. Polychrome sculpture was later revived in the neoclassical period of the 18th century, and applies to modern and contemporary works like the multicolored mobiles of [Alexander Calder](/artwork/alexander-calder-yellow-disc) or the contemporary, wood-carved figures of [Stephan Balkenhol](/artist/stephan-balkenhol).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "54c7d0367261692b4c4d1500",
    "slug": "stained-glass",
    "name": "Stained Glass",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Almost two millennia ago in ancient Rome, artisans started using stained glass to activate religious and secular spaces with the power of colored light. During the [Middle Ages](/gene/medieval-art), the stained glass window became the driving force for architectural advancement, with [pointed arches](/tag/gothic-arch/artworks?for_sale=false), rib vaults, and [flying buttresses](/tag/flying-buttress/artworks?for_sale=false) being invented in order to increase the size and number of a cathedral’s stained glass windows. These windows depicted [scenes from the [Bible](/gene/bible-story) with a clarity of design that was legible from afar and illuminated from behind, bathing otherwise dark church interiors with a warm, almost heavenly light. For most of its history, stained glass was created by heating a mixture of sand and potash to 3000°F, while adding metallic oxide powders to provide the color. In the late 19th century, [Louis Comfort Tiffany](/artist/louis-comfort-tiffany), of [Tiffany Studios](/artist/tiffany-studios), developed a new method of glassmaking that resulted in opalescent glass, helping to popularize the technique for secular design and home furnishing. Today, artists like [Kehinde Wiley](/artist/kehinde-wiley) and [Dorian Gaudin](/artist/dorian-gaudin) have leveraged the religious associations of stained glass in their works, underscoring their depictions of everyday people and objects with the grandeur of this storied and historic medium.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53a19bbb7261692f69a10500",
    "slug": "murals-and-wall-drawings",
    "name": "Murals and Wall Drawings",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Works created by applying an artistic medium directly to the wall. Petroglyphs and paintings applied to cave walls, like those at the [Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc Cave](/artwork/wall-painting-with-horses-rhinoceroses-and-aurochs-chauvet-cave) in France, are among the oldest artworks in the world. Wall paintings occur in the ancient world from Egypt to Pompeii. Variations on the fresco technique, in which pigment is applied to a wet wall surface, produced some of the most recognizable images in the Western world, including Leonardo DaVinci’s _[The Last Supper](/artwork/leonardo-da-vinci-the-last-supper)_ and Michelangelo’s [ceiling frescoes in the Sistine Chapel](/artwork/michelangelo-buonarroti-sistine-chapel-ceiling-frescoes). In the 20th century, diverse iterations of this technique have appeared: [Mexican muralism](/gene/mexican-muralism) brought wall painting to the fore as a large-scale political medium, [graffiti](/gene/graffiti-slash-street-art) became a familiar part of the urban landscape, and the rule-based geometric wall works of [Sol LeWitt](/artist/sol-lewitt) are considered icons of conceptualism. Two-dimensional works that are adhesively applied to walls, such as vinyls and non-domestic wallpapers, are also included.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53d031a8726169448dc30000",
    "slug": "downloadable-images",
    "name": "Downloadable Images",
    "family": "",
    "description": "These images are downloadable for free and may be used independently for teaching, study, and other purposes. Please see [here](https://artsy.net/post/christine-downloading-images-on-artsy) for more detailed information about Artsy's downloadable images.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "544568727261691bc67f0100",
    "slug": "japanese-photography",
    "name": "Japanese Photography",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The advent of photography, or _shashin_ (“sha,” meaning “to reproduce,” and “shin,” which means “truth”), in Japan in the mid-19th century coincided with the invention of the daguerreotype in France and the end of Japan’s national isolation. Led by photographers [Kansuke Yamamoto](/artist/kansuke-yamamoto) and Hiroshi Hamaya, Japanese photography of the 1920s and 1930s was largely shaped by the emergence of documentary photography in the United States and by established strains of Western [Pictorialism](/gene/pictorialism) and [Surrealism](/gene/surrealism). Post–World War II Japanese photography was dominated by street photographers [Daido Moriyama](/artist/daido-moriyama), Osamu Kanemura, and Yakuma Nakahir, who used handheld cameras to capture the frenzied claustrophobia of daily life in urban Japan. Such photographers pursued a new photographic form, termed _sunappu shotto_ (“[snapshot](/gene/snapshot-aesthetic”), which was characterized by the aesthetics of rough, blurred, and out of focus images. As photography galleries arrived relatively late to Japan, photography magazines like _Camera Mainichi_, _Asahi Camera_, and most famously _PROVOKE_, as well the medium of the photobook, were integral to the medium’s development and popularity. Other significant figures in post-war and contemporary Japanese photography include [Hiroshi Sugimoto](/artist/hiroshi-sugimoto), [Nobuyoshi Araki](/artist/nobuyoshi-araki), and [Hiroshi Masaki](/artist/hiroshi-masaki).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5323635a9c18dbceca000568",
    "slug": "contemporary-archaeological",
    "name": "Contemporary Archaeological",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Contemporary works that seem—because of what they are or how they're made—to be engaged with prehistoric culture. Artists might recreate fossils, stone-age tools, or other artifacts from a real or fictional prehistoric civilization. Such works often function as commentaries on modernity, progress, and technological development, or the Western interest in collecting such objects for scientific or anthropological study. Sometimes notions of the past, present, and future are blurred, as in the sculptures and installations of [Adrian Villár Rojas](/artist/adrian-villar-rojas), which are often futuristic in content but ancient in appearance.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "538646fa1a1e868453000373",
    "slug": "latin-american-art",
    "name": "Latin American Art",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Latin American Art generally refers to art created after European contact with the so-called “New World” in the 1500s, though the term is fraught on historical, geographical, and linguistic bases. During the colonial era (ca. 1500–1800), Latin American Art was often religious and resembled the style of painting practiced in Europe’s academies of fine art. In the 1800s, however, in response to independence movements, artists like José Gil de Castro, in Peru, and Francisco Oller, in Puerto Rico, helped contribute to the development of original Latin American regional styles. The tension between indigenous peoples and European influence continued into the 20th century, reflected by movements like [Mexican Muralism](/gene/mexican-muralism) and the Anthropophagic movement of [Tarsila do Amaral](/artist/tarsila-do-amaral) in 1920s Brazil. Antropófago (its Portuguese name) proposed that Brazil’s greatest strength was its “cannibalization” of other cultures, embracing it as a method of asserting dominance and independence. Other prominent movements in Latin American Art include [Joaquín Torres-García](/artist/joaquin-torres-garcia)’s Universal Constructivism in 1930s and 1940s Uruguay, [Concrete Art](/gene/concrete-art) in 1940s Argentina, and [Neo-Concrete Art](/gene/neo-concrete-art) in 1950s Brazil.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5445684072616909c9420100",
    "slug": "femininity",
    "name": "Femininity",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "As one of many aspects of [gender](/gene/gender), femininity has had a long and complex history in art. Dependent on its context in culture, time, and place, femininity is a social construct, enmeshed in a system of gender and power hierarchies. Artists’ depictions of the feminine reflect women’s roles in society: in ancient art, femininity was often expressed symbolically in terms of [fertility](/gene/fertility-slash-pregnancy-slash-birth) and motherhood, such as in the [Venus of Willendorf](/artwork/paleolithic-period-present-day-austria-venus-of-willendorf). Through the nineteenth century, women were depicted in binary roles as chaste or domestic, or a threatening femme fatale. Since the feminist movement in the sixties, many female artists, including [Frida Kahlo](/artist/frida-kahlo), [Nan Goldin](/artist/nan-goldin), and [Barbara Kruger](/artist/barbara-kruger) have critiqued, reclaimed, and redefined the stereotypical roles of the feminine.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "544ecdd072616939702e1300",
    "slug": "anatomy",
    "name": "Anatomy",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Human anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of the human organism. Most visual representations of this science take the form of illustrations and diagrams that often blur distinctions between science and art. This can be seen in the rich tradition of Persian medical illustration or in the medical diagrams of historic Chinese texts. Renaissance artists, most famously Leonardo da Vinci, also demonstrated a scientific interest in the human body; Da Vinci created anatomical sketches from autopsies he performed himself. One of the most influential books on anatomy, Vesalius’s De Humani Corporis Fabrica, published in Basel in 1543, contains lavish woodcut illustrations attributed to the workshop of Titian, highlighting art’s primary role in communicating truth and scientific knowledge during the Renaissance; it was at this time that the study of anatomy became foundational in artistic apprenticeship. Contemporary artists have used anatomy and anatomical drawing to interrogate scientific knowledge or to comment on the powerful relationship between humans and nature. While most medical anatomies in world history have centered on the male body as the universal human form, the anatomy of the female genitalia has been used to represent femininity and female power, from abstracted prehistoric figurines depicting goddesses of fertility to the provocative use of vaginal imagery by feminist artist [Judy Chicago](https://www.artsy.net/artist/judy-chicago) in such works as Rejection Breakthrough Drawing (1974).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "548773357261692d69600000",
    "slug": "science-fiction",
    "name": "Science Fiction",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Science fiction emerged as a genre in the 19th century with works of gothic and horror literature like Mary Shelley’s _Frankenstein_. It was followed by books by H.G. Wells and Jules Verne, and in the 20th century, expanded from literature into myriad creative forms, from illustration to film and animation. Early 20th-century illustrations for science fiction magazines, such as _Amazing Stories_, depicted visions of [utopian](/gene/utopia) technological advances, while artists during the 1960s and 1970s employed science fictional tropes to respond to both the promises and anxieties of accelerating technological and scientific advancements like [space exploration](/gene/outer-space), [surveillance](/gene/surveillance), and nuclear power. Works characterized as science fiction often explore alternative and future scenarios based on developments in [science](/gene/science), [technology](/gene/art-and-technology), society, and [nature](/gene/nature), creatively visualizing the most extreme long-term consequences of present-day reality. For example, [Robert Smithson](/artist/robert-smithson), along with artists associated with the [Land Art](/gene/land-art) movement, created performances and sculptures that combined notions of time travel and the primordial world. Feminist artists and artists of the [Afrofuturism](/gene/afrofuturism) movement have also incorporated techniques of science fiction to create speculative futures that hold a mirror to contemporary injustices.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53c939947261690a8e4a0400",
    "slug": "engaged-with-traditional-islamic-art",
    "name": "Engaged with Traditional Islamic Art",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that engage with the tradition of [Islamic art and architecture](/gene/islamic-art-and-architecture), whether through specific styles, mediums (like [painting](/gene/painting) and [textiles](/gene/textile-arts)), or techniques, such as [calligraphy](/gene/arabic-slash-farsi-calligraphy). Scholars, artists, and curators disagree on the use of the term “Islamic”: while many accept its convenience, they acknowledge that this title does not encompass vast regional differences. The numerous ways in which contemporary artists have incorporated elements of traditional Islamic art reflect this diversity. [Hassan Massoudy](/artist/hassan-massoudy)’s exuberant, saturated strokes of Arabic calligraphy dance on the page, while [Nasser Al Salem](/artist/nasser-al-salem)’s calligraphic works translate classical [religious](/gene/related-to-religion) texts into unconventional media including [sculpture](/gene/sculpture), [neon](/gene/neon-and-fluorescent-light), and [silkscreen](/gene/silkscreen-1). [Shirin Neshat](/artist/shirin-neshat)’s provocative [portraits](/gene/portrait) of veiled Middle Eastern women, often with lines of calligraphy overlaid on their skin, speak to the experience of women in Islamic society. Trained in the arts of Indian and Persian [miniature painting](/gene/miniature-and-small-scale-paintings), [Shahzia Sikander](/artist/shahzia-sikander) infuses her modernized interpretations with multifaceted imagery pulled from a mixture of [historical](/gene/collective-history) and [personal](/gene/personal-histories) references and hybridized Hindu and Muslim iconography.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53d9817c7261690840cc0300",
    "slug": "documentary-film",
    "name": "Documentary Film",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53d982167261695920210400",
    "slug": "manga",
    "name": "Manga",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“Comics are an international language, they can cross boundaries and generations. Comics are a bridge between all cultures.” ―Osamu Tezuka_\n\nManga, which translates to “whimsical or impromptu pictures,” are Japanese comics. Popular in Japan as well as internationally, manga spans genres—from romance to mystery to comedy—and reaches audiences young and old, male and female. Osamu Tezuka, known as the godfather of manga, founded the comic’s signature style in the 1950s with works like Astro Boy, whose illustrations feature strong black outlines and characters with large almond eyes. In 2005, [Hiro Ando](/artist/hiro-ando) and [Saori Nakamishi](/artist/saori-nakamishi) created Crazy Noodles Studio, an artist network for [contemporary Pop](/gene/contemporary-pop) artists whose work engages with the influence of Manga comics in Japanese culture. Many artists in the collective, such as [Yoshihiro Fujita](/artist/yoshihiro-fujita), [Kaho Nakamura](/artist/kaho-nakamura), and [Aya Toshikawa](/artist/aya-toshikawa) (also known as Lady Kawaii), create large-scale oil paintings that depict the young and suggestive figures that characterize the genre—what some criticize as Manga’s “Lolita complex.”",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "542092707261691d93710000",
    "slug": "landscape-photography",
    "name": "Landscape Photography",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The natural landscape is perhaps one of the most widely photographed subjects, from fine art to journalism, and some of its leading practitioners, such as the American photographer [Ansel Adams](/artist/ansel-adams), have become cultural icons. Historically, landscape photography’s rise coincides with the period of [American westward](/gene/the-american-west) expansion during the late 19th century, when photographers joined government survey teams and railroad companies to document the vast expanse of nature before them. In contrast to today’s conditions, these intrepid documentarians carried heavy equipment and transportable darkrooms to process photographs on site. Notable examples include [Carleton E. Watkins](/artist/carleton-emmons-watkins), whose mammoth-plate photographs of Yosemite Valley were influential in the government’s decision to initiate the National Park System, and Ansel Adams, whose breathtaking [black-and-white photographs](/gene/black-and-white-photography) took part in a tradition of [environmental](/gene/the-environment) advocacy. In the 1970s, the [New Topographics](/gene/new-topographics) movement challenged Adams’s immaculate view of nature by turning an eye toward encroaching [industrialization](/gene/industry) and [tourism](/gene/travel-slash-tourism), a critical approach that many artists—from the [Düsseldorf School photographers](/gene/dusseldorf-school-of-photography) to [Trevor Paglen](/artist/trevor-paglen)—continue today.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "54297a327261692d33aa0600",
    "slug": "contemporary-glass",
    "name": "Contemporary Glass",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A broad category for glassmakers working roughly from the 1990s to present. Although humans have been making [glass](/gene/glass) by hand for millennia, by the mid-20th century most glassware was created industrially, especially in the United States. The Studio Glass Movement, founded by Harvey Littleton in 1962, changed all this by emphasizing the artistic possibilities of the medium. Through mastery of technical knowledge and innovative techniques, glassmakers were to take on the role of the artist, developing novel forms and creative applications. Contemporary glassmakers working today are indebted to this legacy, and some of them, like [Josiah McElheny](/artist/josiah-mcelheny) or [Dale Chihuly](/artist/dale-chihuly), continue to blur the line between art and design.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "547ddf657261692e2bb30a00",
    "slug": "delegated-art",
    "name": "Delegated Art",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“The idea becomes a machine that makes the art.” —[Sol Lewitt](/artist/sol-lewitt)_\n \nIn his famous “Paragraphs on Conceptual Art,” Sol Lewitt claims that the idea, not the object, is the most significant aspect of a work of art and so, “the execution is a perfunctory affair.” Taking this one step further, in delegated art, outsourcing the production of an artwork is an integral part of the work itself. After the devastating 2008 Sichuan earthquake, for example, Chinese artist [Ai Weiwei](/artist/ai-weiwei) hired locals to pound bent rebar from the rubble of their villages straight by hand, creating monumental piles of steel later exhibited at the 2013 Venice Biennale. Many contemporary conceptual and performance artists, such as [Tino Sehgal](/artist/tino-sehgal), [Santiago Sierra](/artist/santiago-sierra), and [Vanessa Beecroft](/artist/vanessa-beecroft), call for the participation of a third party—whether it’s the viewer, a collector, or hired actors. In a recent trend that recalls the history of [Medieval](/gene/medieval-art) guilds and [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) art workshops, contemporary artists such as [Takashi Murakami](/artist/takashi-murakami), [Jeff Koons](/artist/jeff-koons), and [Damien Hirst](/artist/damien-hirst) maintain large studios and delegate the production of their work to employees and fabricators.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53d9812d7261692fb9180400",
    "slug": "the-elements",
    "name": "The Elements",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Numerous cultures have attempted to understand the natural world as being composed of eternal or indivisible elements. Such schema include the four elements of the Western tradition (earth, fire, wind, water) and the Chinese Taoist concept of “Wŭ Xíng,” which explains both natural and aesthetic phenomena as being based on the elements of wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. Modern science has defined the chemical properties of elements as a pure chemical substance consisting of a single type of atom, such as gold, iron, hydrogen, or mercury. Artworks in this category may take a single element or entire systems as their subject matter and may explore various natural or synthetic processes related to them, such as the pseudoscience of alchemy or chemical reactions like oxidation, combustion, or precipitation. For example, [Hans Haacke](/artist/hans-haacke)’s _Condensation Cube_ (1965), a hermetically sealed Plexiglas cube filled with water that evaporates and eventually condenses as it is heated by light, uses [Minimalist](/gene/minimalism) forms to explore both biological and chemical processes.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53d9818e7261690833f90300",
    "slug": "found-footage-and-found-video",
    "name": "Found Footage and Found Video",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53d984107261695920270400",
    "slug": "household-objects",
    "name": "Household Objects",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "538606d11a1e86889b000122",
    "slug": "contemporary-figurative-drawing",
    "name": "Contemporary Figurative Drawing",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Since the Renaissance, [figure drawing](/gene/figure-studies) has served as the foundation of artistic training, a crucial preliminary step in the process of producing a painting or sculpture. Figurative drawing today reaches far beyond the historical practice of drawing from life, with many artists creating drawings that engage with other artistic media, such as photography and video. [William Kentridge](/artist/william-kentridge) creates his narrative animations by photographing the changes that result from his gradually making charcoal marks and erasures to a single drawing. Put together, the photographs create an animation, while the final drawing remains a palimpsest of expressive marks. Focusing on political issues, [Andrea Bowers](/artist/andrea-bowers) depicts activists whom she sources from photographs of rallies and protests, isolating them from the collective and rendering them on sparse sheets of white paper. Contemporary figurative drawing is also no longer limited to the materials of paper, pencil, and ink, as the definition of drawing has expanded to include media and techniques such as [collage](/gene/collage), [paper cutouts](/gene/paper-cut-outs), and [installation](/gene/installation).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "53d981017261690837c10300",
    "slug": "silhouettes",
    "name": "Silhouettes",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "The outline of a figure or object as a solid shape of a single color, usually black. It was in the 18th century that the silhouette profile portrait became a cheap and popular way to capture one’s likeness. Coined in the 19th century, the term derives from the name of a French finance minister, Étienne de Silhouette, whose severe economic policies inspired the phrase “à la silhouette” as a stand-in for anything cheap or spendthrift, which in turn became associated with the relatively affordable shadow portraits popular at the time. The term was eventually used to describe backlit images, such as figures or objects in front of a sunset or in a window or a doorway. Despite its etymological origins in the 19th century, the silhouette can be used to describe the black-and-red figure technique in some ancient Greek vase painting. More recently, American artist [Kara Walker](/artist/kara-walker) has used silhouettes in her work to create provocative, often violent scenes about American slavery.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "54c7cfaa7261692b6e200600",
    "slug": "industrial-and-product-design",
    "name": "Industrial and Product Design",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "Industrial design/product design, which describes mass-produced, often machine-made objects and interfaces designed for human needs, has been a fruitful area of collaboration between art and commerce and designers, artists, engineers, and architects since well before the term was coined in the 1920s. The industrial revolution, beginning in the late 18th century, introduced increasingly complex machinery that fundamentally altered the production, circulation, and consumption of goods. Throughout the mid-20th century, material innovations, the inventive repurposing of World War II manufacturing processes, and an ethos of collaboration among artists and designers yielded a high point in design history. For example, the bent plywood technique used in Charles and Ray Eames’s [iconic chair](/artwork/charles-and-ray-eames-lounge-chair-and-ottoman-2) originated in a leg splint they designed for the Navy. Designers used methods of ethnography, anthropology, anthropometry, ergonomics, and the study of the body and movement to bring human-centered design to the masses (Henry Dreyfuss’s 1937 [Model 203 Telephone](/artwork/henry-dreyfuss-model-302-telephone) was the first to enable hands-free calling; [Dieter Rams](/artist/dieter-rams)’s 1987 Braun calculator influenced the look of the iPhone’s calculator). After World War II, increased purchasing power in the United States and Europe contributed to the flourishing of designing for human needs, while the development of computing technology in the later 20th century has led to innovations in product design, particularly responsive user interfaces.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53d9829e7261692fbf6f0300",
    "slug": "contour-line",
    "name": "Contour Line",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "A contour line defines the outline of a form, as well as interior structure, without the use of shading. A fundamental basis of drawing, contour lines are usually the first technique children adopt to draw people, houses, and trees. A simple contour line can create a form with minimal embellishment while allowing for a range of line quality. A reliance on contour line shaped the style of [Ancient Greek](https://www.artsy.net/gene/greek-art-and-architecture) red figure vases, while figure studies from the [Renaissance](https://www.artsy.net/gene/renaissance), such as those of [Michelangelo Buonarroti](https://www.artsy.net/artist/michelangelo-buonarroti) and [Leonardo da Vinci](https://www.artsy.net/artist/leonardo-da-vinci), reveal clearly defined lines and naturalistic depictions of the human figure. Japanese [Ukiyo-e](https://www.artsy.net/gene/ukiyo-e) prints, with their strong emphasis on flat planes of color delineated by dark lines, such as those by [Kitagawa Utamaro](https://www.artsy.net/artist/kitagawa-utamaro), influenced the drawings and prints of European artists in the 18th and 19th centuries; these artists played with contour lines to create expressionistic visions of the human body, reflecting their interest in motion, mood, and subjective forms. In works by [Edgar Degas](https://www.artsy.net/artist/edgar-degas), [Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec](https://www.artsy.net/artist/henri-de-toulouse-lautrec) and [Egon Schiele](https://www.artsy.net/artist/egon-schiele), the contour line shows its mutability, becoming sinuous, angular, heavy, faint—sometimes all within the same work. Today, [comics, cartoons](https://www.artsy.net/gene/comic-slash-cartoon), manga, and anime, which now incorporate both hand-drawn and computer-generated lines, carry on the tradition of emphasizing contour lines.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53ffb8e27261697c63c50300",
    "slug": "traditional-african-art",
    "name": "Traditional African Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "A broad museological category for the traditional art of sub-Saharan Africa, this category brings together the diverse material culture (including everything from sculpture to textiles to everyday items) of hundreds of disparate groups across [Africa](/gene/africa). After centuries of being relegated to ethnological displays and curio cabinets, traditional African art entered into the European consciousness (and museums) as “art” at the turn of the 20th century, in part through its association with the European avant-garde. European modernists admired the aesthetics of what they called “Primitive Art,” a designation that conflated African art with [traditional Oceanic](/gene/traditional-oceanic-art) and [pre-Columbian art](/gene/pre-columbian-art), reflecting the racial and cultural bias against non-White, non-Western cultures at the time. In the 1960s and 1970s, when the study of African art in Europe and America took a scientific and anthropological turn, the term “Tribal Art” was considered preferable to the derogatory connotations of “primitive.” While “Tribal Art” is still used by some experts and collectors today, others reject it for failing to treat African art distinctly. The term “Traditional African Art,” though still problematic for its reductive grouping of diverse cultures under one geographic umbrella, is generally favored today.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "54ee5d207261695358310200",
    "slug": "abstract-illusionism",
    "name": "Abstract Illusionism",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "In the mid-1970s, art critic Barbara Rose identified a trend in painting in which abstract works were rendered with a sense of perspective, depth, and shadow. Rose named this development Abstract Illusionism, calling attention to the fact that painting, albeit still abstract, was returning to its long history of depicting space. This was a notable shift following the prominence of [post-painterly abstraction](/gene/post-painterly-abstraction) in the 1960s, famously championed by art critic Clement Greenberg, which emphasized the flatness of the painting support. Rose’s term has been linked to [Frank Stella](/artist/frank-stella), [Jules Olitski](/artist/jules-olitski), [Walter Darby Bannard](/artist/walter-darby-bannard), [Ronald Davis](/artist/ronald-davis), and [James Havard](/artist/james-havard), who combine elements of [Abstract Expressionism](/gene/abstract-expressionism) and [hard-edge abstraction](/gene/hard-edged-1) with [trompe-l’oeil](/gene/trompe-loeil) effects. Many artists since have incorporated tropes of Abstract Illusionism, producing works with an array of abstract marks and shapes that appear to exist within three-dimensional space, as in the paintings of contemporary artists [Trudy Benson](/artist/trudy-benson) and [Josh Reames](/artist/josh-reames).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "547ddeaf7261692c6bfc0900",
    "slug": "contemporary-op-art",
    "name": "Contemporary Op Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Artists in the 1960s drew on recent advances in the science of [visual perception](/gene/visual-perception) to create optical illusions in their art, contributing to a movement called [Op Art](/gene/op-art). Artists today expand on these earlier investigations, employing novel processes to create mesmerizing [patterns](/gene/patterns) and [colors](/gene/color-theory) that attract and intrigue the eye. [Tauba Auerbach](/artist/tauba-auerbach)’s two-dimensional “Mesh/Moire” prints create the effect of an undulating surface with surprising depth, akin to the appearance of rippling water. Op Art artists have frequently operated at the forefront of technology; such technical proficiency can be seen in works like [Travess Smalley](/artist/travess-smalley)’s “Vector Weaves, ” a series created by continually passing an image between digital and analog formats to produce a [glitchy](/gene/glitch-aesthetic/artworks?for_sale=false&include_medium_filter_in_aggregation=true) effect that is at once a photograph, a print, and a painting.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53456f42ebad64f3890003a9",
    "slug": "long-distance-and-deep-distance",
    "name": "Long Distance and Deep Distance",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "In Chinese painting, “deep distance” describes a composition with a high horizon line and a cascading division of space into fore-, middle- and background. Prime examples include the work of Song Dynasty painter Guo Xi, who first employed the term, and [Xu Daoning](/artist/xu-daoning)’s nearly thousand-year-old _Fishing in a Mountain Stream_, which elevates the viewer, placing the fisherman in the context of a macro worldview. One strong parallel in Western art is the use of “cavalier perspective” in [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) painting, a method of using a vanishing point to show sweeping views from above, as in [Giorgione](/artist/giorgione)’s _Adoration of the Shepherds_. Modern photographers such as [Andre Kertesz](/artist/andre-kertesz) and [Bill Brandt](/artist/bill-brandt) took pictures at extreme angles to capture long distance, such as in Kertesz’s _Clock of the Academie Francaise_. Today, artists use large-scale and aerial photography to capture macro-level views, suspending the viewer in the midst of overawing space.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5345cb837622ddb6cf000045",
    "slug": "identity-politics-1",
    "name": "Identity Politics",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The legacy of major identity-based political movements in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s led many artists, such as [Adrian Piper](/artist/adrian-piper), [David Hammons](/artist/david-hammons), [Eleanor Antin](/artist/eleanor-antin), [Robert Mapplethorpe](/artist/robert-mapplethorpe), [Jimmie Durham](/artist/jimmie-durham), and [Coco Fusco](/artist/coco-fusco), to use their art to critique the systematic oppression of people based on [race](/gene/racial-and-ethnic-identity), [gender](/gene/gender), and [sexuality](/gene/sexual-identity). These artists often interrogated the relationship between identity (real or imagined) and its visual representation, engaged with political theory related to social injustice, or confronted ideologies and institutions of identity-based discrimination. Key exhibitions associated with identity politics are the 1993 Whitney Biennial; _Black Male: Representations of Masculinity in American Art_ (1994), at the Whitney Museum of American Art; _The Decade Show: Frameworks of Identity in the 1980s_ (1990) at the New Museum; _Chicano Art: Resistance and Affirmation, 1965–1985_ (1993), at the Wight Art Gallery; and _Asia/America: Identities in Contemporary Asian American Art_ (1996), at the Asia Society Galleries.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53c801277261695ed8c70100",
    "slug": "expressionism",
    "name": "Expressionism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Expressionism is a label for an international tendency—as opposed to a coherent movement—in art, literature, music, theater, and architecture that lasted from approximately 1905 to 1920, predominantly in Europe. Expressionist art was often characterized by spontaneous brushwork or mark-making, distorted figures, a progression towards abstraction, and a concentration on forms and ideas borrowed from myths and so-called “primitive art.” In reaction to the shock of urbanization and the machine age, many of these artists attempted to convey psychological states of isolation and alienation, or sought refuge in the idea of a spiritual art. In Vienna, [Egon Schiele](/artist/egon-schiele) created unsettling, sinuous portraits that evoked the anxiety of the age; in Germany, the formal experiments of [Wassily Kandinsky](/artist/wassily-kandinsky) combined new forms and color combinations with a focus on mysticism and expression; and in the field of architecture, Bruno Taut translated the utopian ideals of the tendency into fantastic buildings.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5425c30f7261695c2c530200",
    "slug": "glass-objects",
    "name": "Glass Objects",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "A category for objects composed of [glass](/gene/glass), also referred to as “glass art” or “studio glass,” as distinct from the mass-produced, functional glass used in buildings, furniture, and even some sculpture. Objects in this category are typically hand-made by expert craftsmen, using techniques such as glass-blowing, casting, bead-making, or stained glass. Glassmaking has a long history in human civilization, dating back to the 2nd millenium B.C.E. Renowned Murano glass—so-named for the small Italian island where it is produced—is made using techniques that date back to the 8th century. In the late 19th century, the [Art Nouveau movement](/gene/art-nouveau) brought renewed emphasis to the artistic possibilities of the decorative arts, and glassmakers like [René Lalique](/artist/rene-lalique) in France and [Louis Comfort Tiffany](/artist/louis-comfort-tiffany) in the United States revolutionized the field, bringing ornamental glass design to a broader public with their successful foundries. Notable practitioners today include [Dale Chihuly](/artist/dale-chihuly)—founder of the glass program at the [Rhode Island School of Design (RISD)](/risdmuseum)—who continues to explore novel forms and techniques in large-scale, public installations.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "55004f7b72616967ac451d00",
    "slug": "container",
    "name": "Container",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "532857c6a09a6737bd001067",
    "slug": "chicano-art",
    "name": "Chicano Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Traditionally defined as artwork created by Americans of Mexican descent, Chicano art is heavily influenced by the Chicano Movement in the United States (also known as El Movimiento, part of the countercultural revolution of the late 1960s and early 1970s). Artists working under this moniker sought to establish a collective identity—one that was affirmative and self-determined and resisted racial stereotypes. Many of these artists also drew inspiration from [Mexican muralism](/gene/mexican-muralism) and [pre-Columbian art](/gene/pre-columbian-art). In 1990, an important traveling exhibition of Chicano artists, “Chicano Art: Resistance and Affirmation,” opened at Wight Gallery at the University of California, Los Angeles. As stated by the exhibition’s advisory committee: “Chicano art is the modern, ongoing expression of the long-term cultural, economic, and political struggle of the Mexicano people within the United States. It is an affirmation of the complex identity and vitality of the Chicano People. Chicano art arises from and is shaped by our experiences in the Americas.” Central to the movement is the concept of “rasquachismo” (from _rasquache_, Spanish for poor), which refers to an attitude of resourcefulness and “making do,” which may refer to using [commonly available materials](/gene/use-of-common-materials), drawing on communities, or even sampling from other art movements or postmodern theories.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53d981457261695920140400",
    "slug": "soft-sculpture",
    "name": "Soft Sculpture",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Sculptures composed of soft materials, such as rubber, latex, or cloth. Such works undermine traditional ideas about [sculpture](/gene/sculpture), namely that it be durable and made from “noble” materials like [marble](/gene/marble) or [bronze](/gene/bronze). Although artists in the early 20th century, such as [Meret Oppenheim](/artist/meret-oppenheim), experimented with nontraditional materials (Oppenheim’s 1936 _Object_ consists of a fur-covered teacup), [Claes Oldenburg](/artist/claes-oldenburg) is commonly credited as the originator of the form. Beginning in the late 1950s, he started experimenting with materials like women’s stockings, latex, rubber, and burlap to create everything from toilets and oversized B.L.T. sandwiches to cars and donuts. In the 1970s, many [post-minimalist](/gene/post-minimalism) artists, such as [Eva Hesse](/artist/eva-hesse), made sculptures and installations using [common materials](/gene/common-materials) that were flexible or ephemeral. This was a direct reaction to the assertive, inviolable forms of [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5378c7d0ebad648603000098",
    "slug": "ancient-art",
    "name": "Ancient Art",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "Between approximately 5000 BC and 300 AD, “advanced” civilizations (generally, those with written language) thrived in Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Sumeria, Akkadia, Mexico, Rome, Japan, China, and India. Art played an important role in these growing societies by providing a means to enforce religious and political order. For example, one of the most famous artworks from ancient [Mesopotamia](/gene/mesopotamian-art), often called the “cradle of civilization,” is the _[Code of Hammurabi](/artwork/code-de-hammurabi-roi-de-babylone-code-of-hammurabi-king-of-babylon)_, a set of laws carved in stone and adorned by an image of King Hammurabi and the Mesopotamian god Shabash. Similarly, the [art of ancient Egypt](/gene/ancient-egypt) includes symbolic imagery alongside text (hieroglyphs) that tells stories and exalts rulers, gods, and goddesses. Although [prehistoric humans made art](/gene/prehistoric-art) as far back as 40,000 years ago, ancient art is considered by some to be the foundation of all of art history, with its techniques, forms, and subject matter continuing to inform the art of today.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53e5129572616926a6c70300",
    "slug": "contemporary-scandinavian-art",
    "name": "Contemporary Scandinavian Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "If anything unites the contemporary art of the geographically and culturally diverse region of Scandinavia (comprising Denmark, Greenland, Finland, Iceland, Sweden, Norway, and the Åland and Faroe Islands), it is an artistic tradition marked by a mystical relationship to [light](/gene/light-as-subject) and [land](/gene/landscapes). This is exemplified in the paintings of 19th-century Norwegian artist [Johan Christian Dahl](/artist/johan-christian-dahl), Danish artist [Vilhelm Hammershøi](/artist/vilhelm-hammershoi), and even [Edvard Munch](/artist/edvard-munch), whose iconic painting [_The Scream_](/artwork/edvard-munch-the-scream) (1893) depicts a figure merged with his tormented environment. Significant projects by contemporary Nordic artists include [Olafur Eliasson](/artist/olafur-eliasson)’s Weather Project (installed in 2003 in Tate Modern’s Turbine Hall), which used technology to re-create natural phenomena indoors, and the work of artist duo [Elmgreen & Dragset](/artist/elmgreen-and-dragset), who fabricated two domestic interiors filled with fictional art collections and [Scandinavian design](/gene/scandinavian-design) at the 2009 Venice Biennale as a means of exploring the psychology of collecting and the current trend for the sleek lines of Nordic design.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "540e104772616910f5370200",
    "slug": "works-progress-administration-wpa",
    "name": "Works Progress Administration (WPA)",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "The New Deal was a program instituted by the US government under President Franklin Roosevelt from the mid-1930s to the early 1940s to revitalize the American economy in the midst of the Great Depression. Its goal was to introduce art and culture to a general public and foster a new awareness and appreciation for the arts among them. Part of the program put artists unemployed in the fine arts, theater, and music back to work creating for the public (this was the Public Works of Art Project [PWAP], succeeded by the Work Progress Administration [WPA]). Marking the first major patronage of the visual arts by the US government, these programs helped foster the early careers of artists like [Mark Rothko](/artist/mark-rothko), [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock), [Willem de Kooning](/artist/willem-de-kooning), [Lee Krasner](/artist/lee-krasner), [Arshile Gorky](/artist/arshile-gorky), [Philip Guston](/artist/philip-guston), [Thomas Hart Benton](/artist/thomas-hart-benton), [Charles White](/artist/charles-white), and [Stuart Davis](/artist/stuart-davis) by commissioning them to produce accessible art, often [posters](/gene/poster) or murals depicting scenes of American life, for government buildings across the country.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53593a86b202a3ef5a000087",
    "slug": "emerging-design",
    "name": "Emerging Design",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "_“Design is an art of situations. Designers respond to a need, a problem, a circumstance, that arises in the world. The best work is produced in relation to interesting situations – an open-minded client, a good cause, or great content.”—Ellen Lupton_\n\nEmerging designers—those who are up-and-coming and have been changing the face of design since the year 2000—work in a variety of media and methodologies. With a practice spanning ceramics, furniture, and lighting, the [Haas Brothers](/artist/the-haas-brothers) create biomorphic forms while manipulating diverse materials to meet their imagination. [Studio Swine](/artist/studio-swine) travels the globe, developing designs responding to questions of environmental and social sustainability and capturing their process on film. Their work continues to propel the design field forward, sometimes by harnessing the power of new technologies, such as [computer-aided manufacturing](/computer-aided-manufacturing), or by modernizing [studio craft techniques](/gene/craftsmanship-and-design) to bolster new experiments in material or process.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "53a19bce726169720f8a0500",
    "slug": "wall-sculpture-and-installation",
    "name": "Wall Sculpture and Installation",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Walls have served as the foundation for paintings, reliefs, and mosaics since the earliest artistic expressions in prehistoric caves. Particularly since the 1960s, artists have made wall sculptures and installations to blur the line between traditional mediums (e.g., painting and sculpture), often incorporating unexpected materials. With its simple metal rod protruding from an empty canvas stretcher, [Eva Hesse](/artist/eva-hesse)’s 1966 sculpture Hang Up conspicuously embraces the extension from painting to wall sculpture. Recalling [tapestries](/gene/tapestry-and-wall-hanging), [Sheila Hicks](/artist/sheila-hicks)’s handmade weavings and [Robert Morris](/artist/robert-morris)’s draped felt sculptures rely on the wall for support, challenging standard notions of sculpture’s solidity. [Senga Nengudi](/artist/senga-nengudi)’s elastic mesh and sand sculptures are activated in performances as they stretch and twist around bodies. Wall sculptures often disorient the viewer, upending a sense of gravity: how would one eat from [Daniel Spoerri](/artist/daniel-spoerri)’s upright dinner tables or sleep in [Robert Rauschenberg](/artist/robert-rauschenberg)’s [suspended bed](/artwork/robert-rauschenberg-bed)?",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53d980f072616974d3f70300",
    "slug": "the-sublime",
    "name": "The Sublime",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A term drawn from philosophy and closely associated with the wonders of [nature](/gene/nature), the sublime is meant to describe that which inspires feelings of awe, grandeur, or even anxiety and helplessness in the face of power that surpasses human scale or comprehension. In the 19th century, the German [Romantic](/gene/romanticism) artist [Caspar David Friedrich](/artist/caspar-david-friedrich) famously painted [landscape](/gene/landscapes) scenes as a way to contemplate and depict the sublime, representing tiny [figures](/gene/figures-in-nature) dwarfed by the surrounding scenery. Artists have also evoked the sublime through [abstraction](/gene/abstract-art), such as Abstract Expressionists [Barnett Newman](/artist/barnett-newman) and [Mark Rothko](/artist/mark-rothko), who used large fields of color to envelop and overwhelm the viewer. In [contemporary art](/gene/contemporary-art), photographer [Andreas Gursky](/artist/andreas-gursky) includes more detail than the human eye can perceive in order to represent the digital sublime of the information age. The Internet, global warming, and [globalization](/gene/globalization) have become the exemplars of the modern-day sublime—ideas so vast they are impossible for any individual to grasp.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53d985dd7261692fbf820300",
    "slug": "analogue-filmmaking",
    "name": "Analogue Filmmaking",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "534db7be7622ddcc1d0001c5",
    "slug": "the-stars-art-group-xing-xing",
    "name": "The Stars Art Group (Xing Xing)",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Founded by Ma Desheng and [Huang Rui](/artist/huang-rui), the Stars Art Group (_xing xing_ 星星画会) was a foundational movement of the contemporary Chinese avant-garde active in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Mostly self-trained, the Stars championed individualism and freedom of expression both in their work and public activities. Taking personal experience and social issues as their subject matter, they pointedly diverged from state-sanctioned [Socialist Realism](/gene/socialist-realism). The group’s members made history in 1979 when they defied government regulation and mounted an unofficial exhibition in a park adjacent to the National Art Museum in Beijing. When officials closed the exhibition, the group staged a historic protest that became a rallying point for cultural openness in the early years of China’s post–Cultural Revolution political thaw; significantly, they succeeded in reopening the exhibition. The group went on to stage a second public exhibition, though their activities tapered off in the early 1980s, when many members emigrated abroad. The group’s legacy can be seen today in the work of member artists [Ai Weiwei](/artist/ai-weiwei), [Wang Keping](/artist/wang-keping), [Li Shuang](/artist/li-shuang), [Huang Rui](/artist/huang-rui), and affiliates [Zhang Hongtu](/artist/zhang-hongtu) and [Zhang Wei](/artist/zhang-wei-zhang-wei-b-1952).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53d982317261690aa2e50300",
    "slug": "the-senses",
    "name": "The Senses",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "54889e9272616903774d0100",
    "slug": "han-dynasty",
    "name": "Han Dynasty",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5489e02a72616955e3260000",
    "slug": "divisionist",
    "name": "Divisionist",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Divisionism, traditionally speaking, refers to the style developed by [Neo-Impressionist painters](/gene/neo-impressionism) in an effort to compose images through the use of small units of pigment (dots, dashes, etc.), with an emphasis on the optical effect that complementary colors placed near each other on the canvas would have on the eye. As a general technique of composing an image of semi-regularized “units,” divisionism has had a rich, varied afterlife, from [Giacomo Balla](/artist/giacomo-balla)’s carets of vivid color and [Roy Lichtenstein](/artist/roy-lichtenstein)’s replication of the newspaper printing technique of benday dots, to [Chuck Close](/artist/chuck-close)’s gridded portraits and the near-sculptural application of [Suh Jeong Min](/artist/suh-jeong/min).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "54c7cf717261692b5ec50500",
    "slug": "contemporary-fauvist",
    "name": "Contemporary Fauvist",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_“My choice of colors does not rest on any scientific theory. It is based on observation, on feeling, on the very nature of each experience.” —[Henri Matisse](/artist/henri-matisse)_ \n\nMeaning “wild beasts” in French, the [Fauves](/gene/fauvism) (Matisse was their most famous member) alarmed art patrons in the early 20th century by painting landscapes, still lifes, and portraits in shockingly bright colors. Their approach was considered radical for the way it divorced color from its appearance in nature—a [woman’s black hat](/artwork/henri-matisse-femme-au-chapeau-woman-with-a-hat) might be rendered in blue and green, the [sky](/artwork/andre-derain-charing-cross-bridge-london) painted as yellow. Subsequent artists have continued the Fauves’ experiment—most notably [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol), whose iconic portrait series of [Marilyn Monroe](/tag/marilyn-monroe) portrayed the American icon in a rainbow of colors, her hair ranging from bright orange to turquoise and her face washed in pink and purple. As Matisse suggested, color can take on its own meaning, and more than a century later, artists continue to picture everyday life through a colorful lens of their own making.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "532857af9c18db37fe000ed3",
    "slug": "african-diaspora",
    "name": "African Diaspora",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Throughout the 20th century, artists (mostly of African descent) have critically addressed the historical and contemporary migration of culture, products, and bodies from the African continent. “Diaspora” typically refers to populations scattered involuntarily or forced to leave their homeland, and the African Diaspora includes Africans and Blacks forcefully displaced by the slave trade. As this brutal chapter in world history has had long-reaching social consequences, artists who take the African Diaspora as their subject matter may also deal with the development of post-colonial African nations, or, more broadly, the transnational quality of Black culture at large in the modern world. Often informed by Pan-Africanism, or the solidarity of African peoples worldwide, aesthetic approaches to the African Diaspora may critique the economies of the transatlantic slave trade, histories of colonialism and its legacies, as well as celebrate the cultural and artistic accomplishments of people of African descent (directly countering the alignment of African art with Primitivism, a trend amongst European modern artists like [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) and the German Expressionist group [Die Brücke](/gene/die-brucke)). Today, the Kenyan artist [Wangechi Mutu](/artist/wangechi-mutu) explores themes related to African women and diaspora, while the British artist [Chris Ofili](/artist/chris-ofili), born to Nigerian parents, incorporates European and Nigerian aesthetics into his interrogation of race.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5432fbb37261692d42af0200",
    "slug": "alter-egos-and-avatars",
    "name": "Alter Egos and Avatars",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "545ab9b17261691cf0be0000",
    "slug": "abstraction-creation",
    "name": "Abstraction-Création",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "54ee5b9472616976490e0200",
    "slug": "washington-color-school",
    "name": "Washington Color School",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A group of abstract painters working in Washington, D.C. during the mid-1950s through the ’60s. As indicated by the name—which derives from a 1965 exhibition at the Washington Gallery of Modern Art featuring works by [Morris Louis](/artist/morris-louis), [Kenneth Noland](/artist/kenneth-noland), [Paul Reed](/artist/paul-reed), [Howard Mehring](/artist/howard-mehring), [Thomas Downing](/artist/thomas-downing), and [Gene Davis](/artist/gene-davis)—color was of central importance to this group, and many of them explored its optical effects or transcendent properties in their paintings. These artists rose to prominence during a decade dominated by the gestural abstraction of the so-called [New York School](/gene/new-york-school), represented most prominently by [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock). What distinguished the Washington Color painters was their rejection of gesture in favor of flat planes of color (“[Color Field Painting](/gene/color-field-painting)”) and their use of novel techniques, such as [staining canvases](/gene/stains-slash-washes) with heavily diluted paint (a technique first developed by [Helen Frankenthaler](/artist/helen-frankenthaler), one of the earliest and most influential members of the group) and [pouring paint](/gene/poured) across canvases, as in the work of Louis. They were among the earliest adopters of acrylic paint, which they often applied directly onto raw, unprimed canvas.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53763281cd530e163300008f",
    "slug": "improbable-physics",
    "name": "Improbable Physics",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that show figures or objects in states that seem to defy the laws of physics, such as levitation, topsy-turvy orientations, or precarious balance. Religious artworks often depict figures in physically fantastic states of levitation to convey the otherworldly power of the spiritual, as in [Correggio](/artist/correggio)’s [Assumption of the Virgin](/artwork/correggio-assumption-of-the-virgin-fresco-in-main-dome) (1526–30), or the Ascension of the Buddha. Surrealist artists often created fantastical pictures that stretch the physical laws of matter, as in [René Magritte](/artist/rene-magritte)’s [The Castle of the Pyrenees](/artwork/rene-magritte-the-castle-of-the-pyrenees) (1959), which depicts a castle on a large rock that floats above a choppy sea, or [Philippe Halsman](/artist/philippe-halsman)’s portrait of [Salvador Dalí and his cats](/artwork/philippe-halsman-dali-atomicus). Chinese artist [Cai Guo-Qiang](/artist/cai-guo-qiang) creates sculptural installations that literally defy gravity, as in [Head On](/artwork/cai-guo-qiang-head-on-1) (2006), in which a pack of wolves is seemingly frozen in midair.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "53863e3a1a1e86845300031a",
    "slug": "contemporary-art",
    "name": "Contemporary Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "542091837261690c67770000",
    "slug": "study",
    "name": "Study",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Works in any medium of the visual arts that explore a subject or are preliminary to a separate, more finalized work; more finished than sketches.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "545d42677261696ef6820100",
    "slug": "delicate-materials",
    "name": "Delicate Materials",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Refers to the use of materials that can easily break or tear or that appear as though they could. In design and art history, certain styles have emphasized delicacy, as with the spindly forms found in the Rococo, Art Nouveau, or Art Deco periods. An emphasis on fragile materials can also be found in folk, decorative, or craft traditions, as in the delicate lace workmanship of Burano, Italy, or the intricate wood and ivory carving of Islamic art and architecture, with Spain’s Alhambra Palace functioning as a prime example. In southeast China, the tradition of lacquer thread sculpture, a process that involves applying threads by hand to a lacquered base to create exceptionally intricate embossed designs, has been practiced since the 17th century. Contemporary examples include such artists as Jacob Hoshimoto, who creates paper kite installations that almost float, and [Dale Chihuly](/artist/dale-chihuly), whose glass sculptures include an impressive amount of detail and filigree forms. As with their predecessors, such artists use their materials to evoke a sense of impermanence and to demonstrate their mastery of fragile media.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "54e5147f726169585bfd0100",
    "slug": "archaeological-object",
    "name": "Archaeological Object",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "553001fe7261693fb55a0000",
    "slug": "deities-and-holy-figures",
    "name": "Deities and Holy Figures",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "A general category for artworks, both premodern and contemporary, that depict deities and other holy figures. Whether by creating prehistoric earth and fertility goddesses, Christian iconography, or African Yoruba deities, people from all cultures have long sought to depict the divine as a way to venerate it and communicate its origins. These representations range from iconic (the idea that the figures have symbolic meaning) to narrative (stories about the gods); they may be figurative—in Classical Greek statuary, for example, the gods took ideal human form—or abstract, as with Aztec art, in which figures are reduced to pattern. Many artists have appropriated sacred imagery for a secular context. [Chris Ofili](https://www.artsy.net/artist/chris-ofili)’s Holy Virgin Mary (1996), for example, is an image of a black Mary that incorporates elephant dung, a provocative melding of the sacred and the profane that caused an uproar when exhibited at the Brooklyn Museum in 1999. More recently, Mexican artist [Alinka Echeverria](https://www.artsy.net/artist/alinka-echeverria) used 300 photographs of the backs of pilgrims bearing diverse renderings of the Virgin of Guadalupe as a way to explore the power of religious imagery and individual relationships to those images.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "55832d157261691532000247",
    "slug": "post-internet-art",
    "name": "Post-Internet Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Post-Internet refers to a current trend in art and criticism concerned with the impact of the Internet on art and culture. Taking cues from the understanding of Postmodernism as a reaction to or rejection of Modernism, post-Internet does not imply a time “after” the Internet but rather a time “about” the Internet. While [Net Art](/gene/net-art) of the late 1990s used the Internet primarily as a medium, post-Internet practices use both online and offline formats to engage with [digital culture](/gene/digital-culture), corporate culture, and the effects of ubiquitous networking. Emerging from discussions with Maria Olson in 2008 and elaborated further by critic Gene McHugh in 2009, the term _post-Internet_ continues to evolve, and not all artists often associated with it (for example, [AIDS-3D](/artist/aids-3d-d-keller-and-n-kosmas), [Petra Cortright](/artist/petra-cortright), Lucky PDF, [Jon Rafman](/artist/jon-rafman), [Ryan Trecartin](/artist/ryan-trecartin), [Amalia Ulman](/artist/amalia-ulman), [Harm van den Dorpel](/artist/harm-van-den-dorpel), [Artie Vierkant](/artist/artie-vierkant), and [Addie Wagenknecht](/artist/addie-wagenknecht)) embrace it. Recent exhibitions such as 2014’s _Art Post-Internet_ at the Ullens Center for Contemporary Art, in Beijing, and the New Museum’s 2015 Triennial _[Surround Audience](/show/new-museum-1-2015-triennial-surround-audience)_, in New York, have arguably helped canonize the term.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "55f8798e7261697c1c0000ae",
    "slug": "sex",
    "name": "Sex",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“Anytime you try to categorize sexuality, it will spit in your face.” —[Marilyn Minter](/artist/marilyn-minter)_\n\nThe complex cultural, personal, and political aspects of sex have taken on a variety of forms in art.  Its depiction in art history has at times been one of ritual significance, such as the exaggerated sensual bodies of [fertility](/gene/fertility-slash-pregnancy-slash-birth/artworks?for_sale=false&include_medium_filter_in_aggregation=true&sort=year) [talismans](/gene/divinatory-objects-talismans-and-amulets) in [ancient art](/gene/ancient-art/artworks?for_sale=false&include_medium_filter_in_aggregation=true), or intended to arouse or even amuse in erotica such as _shunga_, [Japanese erotic prints](/gene/japanese-erotic-prints). A historically provocative topic in Western art, sex in modern and contemporary art has often shocked audiences, and also been leveraged to express love, reveal gender inequalities, violence, trauma or even address mortality. [Tracey Emin](/artist/tracey-emin) deals with the traumatic aftermath of sex in her work, while the performances of 1960s feminist artist [Carolee Schneeman](/artist/carolee-schneemann) locate female sexuality as a source of identity and power. As the AIDS epidemic led to the mainstream demonization of gay sex in the 1980s, artist groups like Gran Fury presented work that promoted safe sex education, while [Robert Mapplethorpe](/artist/robert-mapplethorpe) controversially celebrated gay sex and S&M in his art.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5637df04726169640f00013e",
    "slug": "use-of-precious-materials",
    "name": "Use of Precious Materials",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Most often used for [jewelry](/gene/jewelry) design, precious materials—such as [gold](/gene/gold), [silver](/gene/silver), [ivory](/gene/ivory), and [gemstone](/gene/gemstone)—are also employed to enrich works of art and architecture. The funerary [Portrait of Pharaoh Tutankhamun](/artwork/egyptian-new-kingdom-eighteenth-dynasty-portrait-of-pharaoh-tutankhamun-1346-1337-bc), created during the New Kingdom in [Ancient Egypt](/gene/ancient-egypt), was made of solid gold and adorned with precious stones. In addition to demonstrating the wealth and power of the pharaoh, these materials held symbolic value: gold, due its sun-like brilliance and resistance to corrosion, was associated with immortality, while blue lapis lazuli was linked to the heavens. Throughout history, many cultures have used precious materials to create [funerary objects](/gene/funerary-slash-commemorative-object), including a famously ornate [jade burial costume](/artwork/china-western-han-dynasty-burial-costume) from China’s Han Dynasty, and as luxurious raw materials in painting—throughout Asia and in Medieval Europe, rich blue and green pigments were ground from gemstones. In 2007, British artist [Damien Hirst](/artist/damien-hirst) controversially adorned a platinum-cast human skull with over 8,600 diamonds to create For the Love of God, reputed to be the most expensive work of contemporary art ever produced. While Hirst’s gallery, [White Cube](/white-cube), made clear that these diamonds were “ethically sourced,” the story of precious materials in art carries with it a long and difficult history of geopolitical conflict. Similar to Hirst, contemporary artists continue to leverage the inherent commercial value as well as aesthetic qualities of precious materials.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "550b13397261692cf6131100",
    "slug": "contemporary-minimalist",
    "name": "Contemporary Minimalist",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "A contemporary counterpoint to the [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism) of the early [1960s](/gene/1960s), works in this category are marked by rigid lines, precise [geometry](/gene/geometric), and austere palettes. The category also includes artists who, like the Post-Minimalist artists of the late 1960s, create pared-down works that focus on the inherent qualities of materials or foreground the spatial relationship between the viewer and the object. Some share their predecessors’ interest in materiality, expanding the use of prefabricated industrial materials into [painting](/gene/painting) and [sculpture](/gene/sculpture), as seen in the works of [Isaac Brest](/artist/isaac-brest) and [David E. Peterson](/artist/david-e-peterson). Others, like [Michelle Grabner](/artist/michelle-grabner) and [Katja Strunz](/artist/katja-strunz), reject the geometric austerity of Minimalism in favor of more organic forms. A number of recent museum exhibitions have drawn attention to this tendency, including the traveling exhibition “When Now is Minimal” (2014) and “Minimal Baroque” (2014) at Rønnebæksholm Art and Cultural Center.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5523030c7261692d5f093800",
    "slug": "zoomorphism",
    "name": "Zoomorphism",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "The attribution of animal traits, forms, and behaviors and patterns deriving from animal imagery to objects and humans. These include Egyptian deities in animal form, Bronze Age and ancient Greek vases in the form of an animal head or body, African ceremonial masks, or Inuit zoomorphic carvings, among others.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "552e8803776f725754290c00",
    "slug": "music",
    "name": "Music",
    "family": "Artistic Disciplines",
    "description": "Works of art that take the form of music or musical performance.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "553006f37261693f34ee0000",
    "slug": "the-city",
    "name": "The City",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "564a0827cb4c2763f100008f",
    "slug": "taxidermy",
    "name": "Taxidermy",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "In 1959, [Robert Rauschenberg](/artist/robert-rauschenberg) created [Canyon](/artwork/robert-rauschenberg-canyon), one of his most iconic combine paintings, for which he affixed a taxidermied [bald eagle](/tag/bald-eagle) to a canvas. The work was deemed unsellable, as bald eagles are barred from entering the marketplace by US law—a restriction that took center stage in 2012 in a legal dispute over the work’s valuation. Taxidermy, the act of preserving an animal’s physical remains, dates back to the Middle Ages, originating as a way for scientists to study and display specimens of natural history. Recently, artists like [Damien Hirst](/artist/damien-hirst) and [Maurizio Cattelan](/artist/maurizio-cattelan) have integrated taxidermied animals into their [sculptures](/gene/sculpture), using these lifelike objects to explore questions of [mortality](/gene/mortality). The use of taxidermy in art remains controversial, continuing a century-old tradition of challenging the boundaries of art through the use of unconventional [found objects](/gene/found-objects) that began with [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp)’s [Fountain](/artwork/marcel-duchamp-fountain).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5575e96c7261692af8000150",
    "slug": "natural-history",
    "name": "Natural History",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Now a somewhat anachronistic term in the field of [science](/gene/science), “natural history” encompasses the study of living organisms. The discipline enjoys a long relationship with art, from 16th-century cabinets of curiosities (_wunderkammer_)—precursors to the modern museum—to the beautifully illustrated, artful taxonomies produced by natural historians in the 19th century. Indeed, prominent naturalists of their time, such as Leonardo Da Vinci and photography pioneer Anna Atkins, used images to transmit scientific knowledge. Today, [Mark Dion](/artist/mark-dion) appropriates such traditions to critically address the hubris of imposing scientific order on the world. [John James Audubon](/artist/john-james-audubon)’s beautifully illustrated 19th-century taxonomy Birds of America forms the foundation of [Brandon Ballengée](/artist/brandon-ballengee)’s 2005 series about extinction, while [Taryn Simon](/artist/taryn-simon) assumes the role of the amateur ornithologist in her photographic project Birds of the West Indies (2013–14).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "552ed4217261692af7620c00",
    "slug": "passage",
    "name": "Passage",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A French term (pronounced “pahsazh”) for a painting technique characterized by small, intersecting planes of patchlike brushwork that blend together to create an image (art historians tend to retain the French so as to avoid confusion with the ambiguous English “passage”). Pioneered by the [Post-Impressionist](/gene/post-impressionism) painter [Paul Cézanne](/artist/paul-cezanne) in the late 19th century, this technique typically involves the use of parallel repeating brushwork of uniform size to create angled planes that break down the contours that seem to define two-dimensional forms. The technique appears to flatten three-dimensional space, drawing attention to painting’s two-dimensional, material nature. Cézanne’s approach fueled many modern painting styles that emerged in the twentieth century, most notably [Cubism](/gene/cubism), which expanded upon the modular quality of his compositions (both [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso) and [Henri Matisse](/artist/henri-matisse) referred to Cézanne as the “father of us all”). While Cézanne’s highly structured paintings still captured ephemeral moments in atmospheric compositions, [American Modernists](/gene/american-modernism) like [Max Weber](/artist/max-weber) and [Marsden Hartley](/artist/marsden-hartley) used passage to create their own versions of experimental, compressed three-dimensional spaces and objects.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "555a54317261697253020000",
    "slug": "contemporary-use-of-textiles-1",
    "name": "Contemporary Use of Textiles",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "556600677261695a6b7b0000",
    "slug": "engaged-with-traditional-african-art",
    "name": "Engaged with Traditional African Art",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that engage with the tradition of primarily sub-Saharan [African art](/gene/traditional-african-art), often through visual references to traditional forms or techniques like [masks](/gene/mask), traditional clothing, wooden sculpture, [textiles](/gene/textile-arts/), and [weaving](/gene/woven-slash-perforated) or [carving](/gene/carving). In recent decades, many artists from Africa or the African diaspora have used this technique to explore themes of [ethnic identity](/gene/racial-and-ethnic-identity) and history while addressing wider global issues. For instance, British-Nigerian artist [Yinka Shonibare](/artist/yinka-shonibare-mbe) highlights how batik textiles associated with Africa are actually a hybrid product of European aesthetics and traditional African pattern, thus problematizing the idea of traditional African art. [El Anatsui](/artist/el-anatsui)’s metal kente cloths utilize traditional West African textile-weaving techniques and clothing while interrogating the history of African colonialism. In her work, [Sokari Douglas Camp](/artist/sokari-douglas-camp) incorporates actual masks and ritual clothing to challenge dichotomies like East and West and male and female, while also honoring the African object and reinstating its performative and sacred dimension.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "564a0800642870459a00054a",
    "slug": "plaster",
    "name": "Plaster",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Commonly used to create sculptures, plaster is made by mixing water, lime, gypsum, sand, and other strengthening materials, such as animal hair. The resulting paste can be applied to walls, cast, or, once dried, carved. Since antiquity, plaster has been used for [frescoes](/gene/fresco) and [reliefs](/gene/relief), both in Roman and [Islamic architecture](/gene/islamic-art-and-architecture). Later, plaster allowed for the easy reproduction of [Greek and Roman](/gene/greek-and-roman-art-and-architecture) masterpieces. These cast copies served as teaching aides for artists and academics and were commonly acquired by museums in the 19th century as an economical means to expand collections. Plaster’s adaptable qualities are evident in modern and contemporary works: in the 1960s, [Louise Bourgeois](/artist/louise-bourgeois) embraced the material for its suppleness, using it to create her biomorphic sculptures, while [George Segal](/artist/george-segal) exploited its ghostly quality to craft intimate [body casts](/gene/body-casts-slash-body-prints/artworks?for_sale=false&include_medium_filter_in_aggregation=true) of friends and relatives, echoing its use in ancient Greek and [Egyptian](/gene/ancient-egypt/artworks?for_sale=false&include_medium_filter_in_aggregation=true) death masks.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "550b1357726169476bd21100",
    "slug": "costume-accessory",
    "name": "Costume Accessory",
    "family": "Jewelry and Fashion Object Types",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5601ac80726169029000008e",
    "slug": "frontal-perspective",
    "name": "Frontal Perspective",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Straight-on perspective is characterized by a shallow depth of field, the absence of a vantage point, and the presence of a centralized, forward-facing object. While its counterpart, [linear perspective](/gene/emphasis-on-linear-perspective), is used to render a sense of depth in a painting or drawing, straight-on perspective makes images appear flat; objects remain on the picture’s surface rather than recede into the background. This composition is most often employed by architectural photographers, such as pioneering documentarians [Bernd and Hilla Becher](/artist/bernd-and-hilla-becher), who captured frontal views of industrial buildings in order to convey a sense of the camera’s neutrality. Their influence can be seen in the work of their student, [Düsseldorf photographer](/gene/dusseldorf-school-of-photography) [Andreas Gursky](/artist/andreas-gursky), who digitally stitches multiple shots together to create photographs that, from afar, appear flattened and nearly abstract.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "551efe4e7261692aeb460a00",
    "slug": "neon-and-fluorescent-light",
    "name": "Neon and Fluorescent Light",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Discovered in the late 19th century, neon light results from charged, glowing particles of the element neon and other gases in glass tubes. Since the 1920s, neon has most commonly been used for advertising and signage. It first entered the realm of fine art in the 1940s, when Argentine artist [Gyula Košice](/artist/gyula-kosice) became one of the first to incorporate neon elements into his sculpture. Ever since, artists have employed neon lighting, along with its close cousin fluorescent light, for its material qualities and its associations with scientific invention, commercialism, urban culture, and modernity. One of the most notable examples is artist [Dan Flavin](/artist/dan-flavin), who brought neon and fluorescent light to the forefront of abstract art and installation in the 1960s.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "552302c77261692bb9960800",
    "slug": "copies-and-emulations",
    "name": "Copies and Emulations",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Before the invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century, to distribute the likeness of a work of art, artists resorted to copying. A common practice in multiple historical periods across nations, artists closely reproduced, sometimes verbatim, esteemed works of art or pieces deemed iconic in order to make them more portable, pay homage to their original creator, or to learn from them. Pre-modern Chinese artists, for example, reproduced paintings of earlier masters as an integral part of their learning process, to proclaim their artistic lineage, or to perpetuate older works created with ephemeral materials. Notably, [ancient Roman](/gene/roman-art-and-architecture) artists produced an unprecedented number of statues that took after [Greek sculpture](/gene/greek-art-and-architecture). The cultural and artistic agency behind these emulations often far exceeded the restrictive meaning of a “copy,” the term art historians have used to describe these works. For example, in Roman art, emulations allowed for statues to be more efficiently produced and distributed so that their meanings could become standardized.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5575e99a72616909e4000a73",
    "slug": "talismanic",
    "name": "Talismanic",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "“Talismanic” describes artworks that evoke traditional [talismans and amulets](/gene/divinatory-objects-talismans-and-amulets) but that aren’t intended for ritualistic or divinatory use. For example, [assemblage](/gene/assemblage) artist [Betye Saar](/artist/betye-saar) engaged in a ritual-like process to gather found objects—feathers, bones, and other items traditionally vested with power in African art—for her sculptures, which she often referred to as “mojos.” Recently, performance artist [Marina Abramović](/artist/marina-abramovic-1) has presented a series of shamanistic sculptures, all sharing the title _The Communicator_, that involve healing crystals emerging from wax faces and hands. These artists, and others working in this vein, encourage viewers to consider the tradition—spanning cultures and human history—of endowing objects with mystical capabilities.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5601ac66726169116c00009a",
    "slug": "modern-and-contemporary-fashion-design",
    "name": "Modern and Contemporary Fashion Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "554a6854726169061ae10600",
    "slug": "mask",
    "name": "Mask",
    "family": "Antiquities, Artifacts, and Religious Objects",
    "description": "Masks, devices for both disguise and bodily transformation, are made to be worn or displayed. In many African traditions, carved wooden masks and costumes are worn over the face or other body parts in rituals and performances, sometimes transforming the wearer into a spiritual conduit. European Modernists, such as [Pablo Picasso](https://www.artsy.net/artist/pablo-picasso), looked to African masks as touchstones for abstracted and stylized human figures; this connection is most explicit in the mask-inspired faces of Picasso’s Les Demoiselles D’avignon (1907). In the last decade many artists have used the form of the mask as a vehicle for cultural commentary, as in Liu Bolin’s re-creation of Peking Opera masks using junk-food packaging and advertisements, or Mozambican artist [Goncalo Mabunda](https://www.artsy.net/artist/goncalo-mabunda)’s mask-like sculptures, which incorporate arms recovered from his country’s recent civil war to comment on the disruptive power of violence on cultural traditions.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "550b131e7261695c92951000",
    "slug": "the-domestic-and-domesticity",
    "name": "The Domestic and Domesticity",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Numerous artistic traditions over centuries have focused on home life. For example, 17th-century [genre scene](/gene/scenes-of-everyday-life) paintings cultivated an image of the virtuous woman, quietly at work cooking and caring for children. Particularly since the 1960s, [Feminist artists](/gene/feminist-art) have challenged this societal norm, bringing their perspectives on the private space of the home into the public sphere. In her video _Semiotics of the Kitchen_, [Martha Rosler](/artist/martha-rosler) performs violent gestures while alphabetically listing kitchen utensils, expressing her frustration with the oppressive expectations assigned to the female [gender](/gene/gender). Inspired by housing anxieties of the past several decades, artists have also responded to the economics of the home—and homelessness. For example, [Andrea Zittel](/artist/andrea-zittel) personally constructed podlike “living units,” while [Krzysztof Wodiczko](/artist/krzysztof-wodiczko)’s _Homeless Vehicle Project_ put forward an alternative solution for shelter.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5577512c7261690a6500046f",
    "slug": "digital-art",
    "name": "Digital Art",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A general category for works created using digital technology, whether in the form of tangible hardware, such as computer monitors or electronics, or software, such as graphics editors, websites, and programing languages. Sometimes termed “computer art” or “new media art,” digital art challenges boundaries between mediums. From works of early computer art like Hiroshi Kawano’s algorithmic interpretations of [Piet Mondrian](/artist/piet-mondrian)’s iconic gridded paintings, to programming and [digital printing](/gene/digital-print) in the 1960s, to [Cory Arcangel](/artist/cory-arcangel)’s hacked Nintendo cartridge generating “Super Mario Clouds” (2002), digital art exists in a constant state of flux as technology continues to advance and transform.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5568b74d7261693634a20000",
    "slug": "divinatory-objects-talismans-and-amulets",
    "name": "Divinatory Objects, Talismans, and Amulets",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "551efe787261695693e93400",
    "slug": "densely-textured-or-haptic-surface",
    "name": "Densely Textured or Haptic Surface",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A general category for paintings, sculptures, and other objects with highly tactile and densely textured surface treatments. These surfaces may result from the repeated application of material or the aggregation of smaller sculptural units or objects carried over the entire surface to create [relief](/gene/relief). The artworks included in this category can vary from delicate compositions in paper, such as the petal-like accretions covering the paintings of Chinese contemporary artist [Zhuang Hong Yi](/artist/zhuang-hong-yi), to the rough surfaces seen in Brazilian artist [Marcos Coelho Benjamim](/artist/marcos-coelho-benjamim)’s reliefs made of rusted industrial metals. Intricately assembled surface textures frequently blur the line between painting and sculpture, extending two-dimensional compositions into three dimensions, and stimulate the viewer’s impulse to experience the work through touch.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5568b86c7261697f18900000",
    "slug": "reliquary",
    "name": "Reliquary",
    "family": "Antiquities, Artifacts, and Religious Objects",
    "description": "An object that contains the relics of a saint or non-religious important figure (i.e. a king). Also referred to as a shrine or a châsse. A reliquary may be used for safeguarding or exhibition of a physical remnant of the saint or icon, such as a piece of clothing, body part, or possession.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "55197a86726169790b5d1600",
    "slug": "tibet",
    "name": "Tibet",
    "family": "Geographic Regions",
    "description": "Artists, art, architecture, and artifacts from Tibet, a historically significant religious, cultural, and political center of the Himalayan region that includes parts of present-day China, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh. While many Western nations currently regard Tibet as a separate political entity, it is an autonomous region of China, which traces its control over the region through the Qing Dynasty. Many centuries of interaction, foreign rule, and sometimes conflict between Tibet and its neighbors have both greatly influenced the stylistic traits and iconography of Tibetan Buddhist art and widely spread its influence.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "558b2893776f7208f1000a98",
    "slug": "contemporary-color-fields",
    "name": "Contemporary Color Fields",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Taking its name from the 1950s and ’60s art-historical term [Color Field Painting](/gene/color-field-painting)—coined when a pioneering group of artists chose to isolate and emphasize color over almost every other aspect of traditional artmaking—Contemporary Color Fields notes contemporary abstract works that emphasize swathes, or fields, of color. Such use often highlights the interplay between two or three colors or the predominance of particular colors in a swell of many. Aiming to envelop the viewer in typically delightful—or sometimes somber—color, the effect is often one of intense emotion or ethereality.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5601ac237261695f060000b2",
    "slug": "fresco",
    "name": "Fresco",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Fresco—the medium behind [Michelangelo](/artist/michelangelo-buonarroti)’s _[Sistine Chapel](/artwork/michelangelo-buonarroti-sistine-chapel-ceiling-frescoes)_ and [Raphael](/artist/raphael)’s _[School of Athens](/artwork/raphael-school-of-athens)_—is a wall-painting technique dating to antiquity. To create a fresco, artists apply a mixture of powdered pigments and water to wet lime plaster, prompting a chemical process that fuses the pigment with the wall. Because plaster dries quickly, artists must complete their frescos in sections, which are called _giornata_, Italian for “a day’s work.” While frescos were most popular during the [Italian Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) (Italy’s hot, dry climate providing especially favorable conditions for their preservation), the medium was revived during the 20th century by [Mexican Muralists](/gene/mexican-muralism) like [Diego Rivera](/artist/diego-rivera).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5601ac377261690c950000d8",
    "slug": "embossed-paper",
    "name": "Embossed Paper",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Embossing is a process in which a mold is impressed into a surface, using a combination of heat and pressure, to create a raised or recessed design. Embossed paper is employed in everyday objects like business cards, paper napkins, and postage stamps. In fine art, printmakers have been embossing paper for centuries. Innovations have ranged from techniques such as “blind embossing” without pigment, which printers in 19th century Japan would apply to sections of [ukiyo-e](/gene/ukiyo-e) prints to enhance texture and create luxurious print editions, to the almost-sculptural shaping of paper in editions by contemporary print houses. Beyond embossing, many contemporary artists explore the [sculptural use of molded paper](/gene/sculptural-use-of-paper), pioneered by LA-based printer [Mixografia](https://www.artsy.net/mixografia).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "562e49ab7261693bbb0010c7",
    "slug": "soviet-nonconformist-art",
    "name": "Soviet Nonconformist Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "564a0811b8bad46501000071",
    "slug": "digital-painting-and-drawing",
    "name": "Digital Painting and Drawing",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "A process in which painting or drawing takes place in a digital setting. Starting with the availability of computer graphics software for personal use in the 1990s, transformations in technology have enabled painting to migrate from the canvas to the screen. Contemporary artists are now able to access a wider variety of art tools, such as customizable brushes and virtual palettes, that allow for immediate and precise painterly effects. Digital gestures can be captured through keyboard commands, graphic tablets, mouse movements, or touchscreen swipes, while advances in inkjet printing allow for computer-generated paintings to inhabit the walls of a physical gallery space. Even traditionally “analog” artists have embraced digital painting in their practices: David Hockney’s recent series “[The Arrival of Spring](/show/annely-juda-fine-art-david-hockney-the-arrival-of-spring-1)” (2013) features iPad drawings executed “[en plein air](/gene/en-plein-air),” while John Baldessari’s new edition “[Engravings with Sounds](/show/brooke-alexander-inc-brooke-alexander-inc-at-ifpda-print-fair-2015)” (2015) blurs the line between digital painting and printmaking.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "552302f57261696f54c53800",
    "slug": "restored-and-repurposed",
    "name": "Restored and Repurposed",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks or objects whose original form has been significantly altered as a result of heavy restoration or in an effort to repurpose it for a new use. While many restoration interventions are hardly discernible, some restorations—in particular those completed before the advent of modern conservation practices—can be highly invasive. Between the 16th and 19th centuries, a large number works of ancient Greek and Roman art were restored to look vastly different from their original appearance. Most characteristically, surviving pigment was scrubbed from recovered, previously [multicolored statuary](/gene/polychrome-sculpture) during the Renaissance and Neoclassical periods to satisfy the taste for white marble, creating a lasting false impression of classical sculpture as unadorned and monochromatic. In medieval art, portable objects were often refitted, at times after being dismembered, in new settings in an effort to embellish the display of a revered object or give it a new function entirely. Buildings have also often been altered to assume new functions, as with the conversion of numerous churches into mosques, most notably the Hagia Sophia, following the Ottoman occupation of Byzantine Constantinople in 1453.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "552424617261695b709f0300",
    "slug": "engaged-with-european-old-masters",
    "name": "Engaged with European Old Masters",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks in the style of the Old Masters, a designation generally referring to the most recognized European painters working between the Renaissance and 1800. Often drawing on the lessons of such movements as the [High Renaissance](/gene/high-renaissance), the [Baroque](/gene/baroque), [Dutch and Flemish](/gene/dutch-and-flemish) art, and [Neoclassicism](gene/neoclassicism), contemporary painters working in this vein display a learned interest in verisimilitude, linear and atmospheric perspective, shading and modeling, and traditional subject matter like [portraiture](/gene/portrait), [history painting](/gene/history-painting), [mythology](/gene/classical-mythology), [still-life](/gene/still-life), and [interiors](/gene/interiors). This category also includes photographers, sculptors, or other artists engaged with the subject matter and style of Old Masters.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "552e880c776f7257542b0c00",
    "slug": "written-word",
    "name": "Written Word",
    "family": "Artistic Disciplines",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "554a6cf77261697688410700",
    "slug": "painting-and-writing-tools",
    "name": "Painting and Writing Tools",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "For painting, calligraphy and writing tools such as seals (chops), ink stones, ink cakes, brushes, brush holders, arm rests, etc., that were and are still collected by connoisseurs. These objects have functional value, but in East Asia especially there is also a long history of appreciating these items for their aesthetic value.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "55b7f49d726169038500018e",
    "slug": "books-and-portfolios",
    "name": "Books and Portfolios",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "560162bc726169693f000274",
    "slug": "northern-and-southern-dynasties",
    "name": "Northern and Southern Dynasties",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "A general term for a Chinese period from 386-589 CE, itself part of the Six Dynasties period following the fall of the Eastern Han Dynasty in 220 CE until the rise of the Sui Dynasty in 581 CE. Northern and Southern Dynasties (南北朝, _nanbeichao_) included the Northern Wei, Eastern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Qi and Northern Zhou in northern China; and the Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang and Chen dynasties in today's south China.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5523031b72616922e4e33a00",
    "slug": "reduced-scale-architecture",
    "name": "Reduced-Scale Architecture",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "In addition to architects who create small-scale models of buildings in preparation for their full-size constructions, artist and artisans throughout history have produced miniaturized versions of architectural structures. [Funerary goods](/gene/funerary-slash-commemorative-object) from all around the world—from ancient China to Egypt, Greece, and Rome—include [miniature buildings](/artwork/china-eastern-han-dynasty-model-of-a-five-level-granary) that symbolize dwellings in the afterlife, while the [reliquaries](/gene/reliquary) of the European middle ages often assumed the form of a tiny chapel or baldachin. Following in this tradition, contemporary artists like [Alex Hartley](/artist/alex-hartley) and [Renato Nicolodi](/artist/renato-nicolodi) use micro-architecture to explore notions of space, seclusion, and contemplation. Thai designer Worapong Manupipatpong, for example, creates tree house–like installations in gallery spaces, drawing attention to the scale of architectural spaces and evoking a sense of childhood nostalgia.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": null,
    "slug": "picassoesque",
    "name": "Picassoesque",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Artworks, generally painting, that resemble or emulate the work of [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso), arguably one of the most influential artists of the 20th century. Incredibly prolific, Picasso adapted his aesthetic over time. His most characteristic style, however, and the one most often adopted by others, is [Cubism](/gene/cubism), a technique that depicts people or objects by breaking them into various planes. Picasso later drew on these principles while employing bright colors and curvilinear forms, flattening his figures to create striking portraits with seemingly distorted facial features. It is nearly impossible to catalogue the myriad ways that artists have created stylistically similar works: in the 1910s, artists like [Albert Gleizes](/artist/albert-gleizes) and [Jean Metzinger](/artist/jean-metzinger) adapted Picasso’s mature Cubist style. When Picasso joined the French Communist Party in 1944, many leftist artists of the time, such as [Renato Guttuso](/artist/renato-guttuso) and André Fougeron adopted his classical style of the 1920s to address the devastation of World War II or to create politicized images. Contemporary artists frequently draw on Picasso’s legacy in order to critically engage with it. [George Condo](/artist/george-condo), for example, refers to his fantastical and grotesque portraits as “psychological cubism,” while [Anton Henning](/artist/anton-henning) self-consciously adopts the modern master’s style to travesty it.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "555e53af72616923809a0100",
    "slug": "use-of-paper",
    "name": "Use of Paper",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "An artwork that incorporates paper as a sculptural or craft medium for expression, as opposed to as a canvas.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "555f91ac7261697172070400",
    "slug": "traditional-oceanic-art",
    "name": "Traditional Oceanic Art",
    "family": "Cultural and Religious Styles",
    "description": "A broad museological category for the traditional art of Oceania, a geographic grouping for regions of Southern Hemisphere islands in the Pacific Ocean. The category encompasses the diverse cultural production of thousands of different peoples; for instance, more than 800 different languages are spoken in Papua New Guinea alone. The geographic region Oceania includes Australia and New Zealand, Melanesia (Fiji, New Caledonia, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu), Micronesia (Federated States of Micronesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Northern Mariana Islands, and Palau) and Polynesia (including New Zealand, American Samoa, Cook Islands, Easter Island, French Polynesia, Niue, Pitcairn Islands, Samoa, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Wallis and Futuna Islands).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "565b39089acc8a63fb00006c",
    "slug": "digitally-manipulated",
    "name": "Digitally Manipulated",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Digital manipulation is the process of digitally editing an image. It is often referred to as “photoshopping,” in reference to Adobe’s popular eponymous photo-editing software, first released in 1990 (other notable programs include Corel Photopaint and Paint Shop Pro). Over 20 years after it first came out, the Metropolitan Museum of Art addressed the influence of the ubiquitous software on contemporary photography in its 2012 exhibition “After Photoshop: Manipulated Photography in the Digital Age,” which included work by artists [Joan Fontcuberta](/artist/joan-fontcuberta), [Kelli Connell](/artist/kelli-connell), and [Filip Dujardin](/artist/filip-dujardin), among others. Contemporary painters such as [Glenn Brown](/artist/glenn-brown) and [Albert Oehlen](/artist/albert-oehlen) bridge the digital-analog divide by using manipulation software to transform source images, translating computerized brushstrokes into oil paint, which they then apply on canvas.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5671d65b8b0c1409dd000063",
    "slug": "early-computer-art",
    "name": "Early Computer Art",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Early computer art generally refers to computer art made from the 1950s through the 1980s, before personal computers were widely available and used. Much of this art was created by engineers and scientists, as computing resources were accessible only in university and research laboratories. However, [Jean Tinguely](/artist/jean-tinguely) was one of the first established visual artists to use robotic machines as a way to generate drawings in his “Métamatics” series (1955–59). In 1968, the landmark exhibition “Cybernetic Serendipity” at the ICA London showcased innovations in both art and technology, exhibiting Tinguely’s painting machines and [Nam June Paik](/artist/nam-june-paik)’s “Robot K-456” alongside computer art produced at Bell Labs and the Boeing Corporation. First entering the mass market in 1977, personal computers offered artists greater access to digital art tools than ever before. [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol)’s digital drawings from 1985, for which the artist used a Commodore Amiga 1000, exemplify the possibilities available to artists through personal computing.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "564fa5b5864d8267380003e2",
    "slug": "old-master-influenced-fantasy",
    "name": "Old Master Influenced Fantasy",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Surreal or fantastical contemporary paintings whose imagery and style is reminiscent of the costumes, settings, and color schemes found in paintings of the [Old Masters](/gene/old-masters). For example, American artist [Ingrid Dee Magidson](/artist/ingrid-dee-magidson) uses [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance) imagery in her mixed-media paintings, adding numerous translucent layers of paint and other media to create ghost-like portraits, while the contemporary Italian artist [Nicola Verlato](/artist/nicola-verlato) combines the drama of the [Baroque](/gene/baroque) with an aesthetic drawn from video games. Works in this vein are often characterized by an emphasis on observed detail, dreamy settings rendered with precision, and nymph-like creatures, thus merging the realistic with the symbolic and the established style of historic European painting with a novel playfulness.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "56bcde4fa6ca6d73b60000a5",
    "slug": "modern-and-impressionist-prints",
    "name": "Modern and Impressionist Prints",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "56539ab4ebad6425e9000034",
    "slug": "silkscreen-1",
    "name": "Silkscreen",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Silkscreen is another name for the screenprinting technique, a printmaking process in which an ink-blocking stencil is applied to a screen, allowing ink that is wiped across the screen to selectively pass through to a printing surface. Before the development of synthetic materials, silk was used as the screen material, giving this process the name silkscreen. Originally used for commercial purposes in the early 20th century, the technique would be termed “serigraphy” in the 1940s to differentiate its use for fine art. Artists of the 1960s, notably [Andy Warhol](/artist/andy-warhol) and [Roy Lichtenstein](/artist/roy-lichtenstein), incorporated screenprinted images from mass media into their works, while in Europe, artists like [Alain Jacquet](/artist/alain-jacquet) and Gerd Winner took advantage of the unique ability of the medium to produce large-scale prints.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "568c0d38258faf57cc00002a",
    "slug": "brooches",
    "name": "Brooches",
    "family": "Jewelry and Fashion Object Types",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "568ebbb54c0af52a66000130",
    "slug": "earrings",
    "name": "Earrings",
    "family": "Jewelry and Fashion Object Types",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "56bcdcf94b848073440000b3",
    "slug": "jewelry-by-painters-and-sculptors",
    "name": "Jewelry by Painters and Sculptors",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "56cb60e5275b242ad5000038",
    "slug": "dansaekhwa",
    "name": "Dansaekhwa",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "565368259c18db7b49000512",
    "slug": "colab",
    "name": "Colab",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Founded in New York in 1977, Collaborative Projects Inc., known simply as Colab, was an artist collective that included [Kiki Smith](/artist/kiki-smith), [Tom Otterness](/artist/tom-otterness), [Christy Rupp](/artist/christy-rupp), [Jane Dickson](/artist/jane-dickson), [Walter Robinson](/artist/walter-robinson), and [Jenny Holzer](/artist/jenny-holzer), among many others. Inclusive and accessible, Colab had over 60 members at any given time who banded together to mount their own exhibitions, publicize their own work, and raise their own funds, cultivating a do-it-yourself approach amid the decade’s economic downturn. Irreverent toward the art world, Colab artists espoused a democratic, artists-first philosophy. Reacting against the stark [Minimalism](/gene/minimalism) they learned in art school, they tended to create playful or [figurative](/gene/figurative-art) work (though their styles varied widely), in addition to film, artist-run cable TV shows (like “All Color News”), artists’ stores, and publications like _Bomb_ magazine, founded in 1981. Their ethos of accessibility dovetailed with the many political and populist interactions they had with their local audiences, and indeed Colab went on to create collectives in the Bronx and the Lower East Side, including Fashion Moda (1978–84) and ABC No Rio (1980–present), that were actively involved with their communities.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "56d613068b3b8137000001d8",
    "slug": "landscape-and-nature-photography",
    "name": "Landscape and Nature Photography",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "56539ab1ebad6425e9000020",
    "slug": "lithograph-1",
    "name": "Lithograph",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Commonly regarded as the most difficult printmaking method to learn and master, lithography was invented in Germany in 1796. The technique involves drawing directly on flat stone with an oil-based implement, then coating the stone with a water-based liquid. The applied marks repel the liquid, so that when oil-based ink is applied to the stone it fills in the image, allowing it to be transferred onto a sheet. Since the [19th century](/gene/19th-century), lithography has been widely used by commercial and fine artists as a means to mass-produce images, maps, and texts. It was explored early on by [Eugène Delacroix](/artist/eugene-victor-ferdinand-delacroix-eugene-delacroix) and [Honoré Daumier](/artist/honore-daumier), but it was artists in the latter half of the 19th century who unleashed the medium with bold experimentation. [Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec](/artist/henri-de-toulouse-lautrec) and [Édouard Manet](/artist/edouard-manet) took to the stone with a marked freedom, depicting motion and fleeting effects of light, while [Pierre Bonnard](/artist/pierre-bonnard) and [Édouard Vuillard](/artist/edouard-vuillard) infused the rich, natural colors of Impressionist pastels and [oil paintings](/gene/oil-painting) into their lithograph prints. Creative collaborations between artists and master printers have yielded innovative work by artists like [Pablo Picasso](/artist/pablo-picasso), [Jasper Johns](/artist/jasper-johns), [Robert Motherwell](/artist/robert-motherwell), and [Vija Celmins](/artist/vija-celmins).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "56539404ebad647f5493ac0f",
    "slug": "1860-1969",
    "name": "1860–1969",
    "family": "Time Periods",
    "description": "All art, design, decorative art, and architecture produced from roughly 1860 to 1970.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "56b958fbaa00b571960000ca",
    "slug": "cracked",
    "name": "Cracked",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "When [Marcel Duchamp](/artist/marcel-duchamp)’s _[The Large Glass](/artwork/julian-wasser-marcel-duchamp-standing-with-the-large-glass-duchamp-retrospective-pasadena-art-museum)_ accidentally cracked while being transported from the Brooklyn Museum, he declared the work finished (perhaps the first modern work of art to be intentionally exhibited broken). Several artists purposefully incorporate cracks in their work, often to denote conflict, decay, or renewal, as with [Alberto Burri](/artist/alberto-burri)’s modern use of “craquelure,” the aged cracking of oil painting, to create landscape-like patterns. Other examples include [Marcel Broodthaers](/artist/marcel-broodthaers), who used discarded eggshells in his work to signify birth, and [Doris Salcedo](/artist/doris-salcedo/works), who cracked open the floor of the Tate Turbine Hall as a comment on racism and colonialism.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "566069979c18db2a45000137",
    "slug": "embroidery",
    "name": "Embroidery",
    "family": "Textiles",
    "description": "A form of needlework characterized by decorative stitching onto fabric, leather, or other materials, embroidery has a rich global history that dates back to Eurasia in the Upper Paleolithic period. One of the most important examples of illustrated embroidery in the Western world is the 10th-century [Bayeux Tapestry](/artwork/bayeux-france-bayeux-tapestry), which narrates the Norman conquest of England. Like all handicraft, embroidery is often relegated to the category of archaeological objects or decorative arts, thus being denied the creative significance afforded to fine art. Starting in the 1970s, Italian artist [Alighiero e Boetti](/artist/alighiero-e-boetti) challenged this long-standing hierarchy, commissioning Afghan embroiderers to create his iconic “Mappa” series of colorful world maps patched together with patterns of national flags.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "568c0dd5139b2158e500003d",
    "slug": "watches",
    "name": "Watches",
    "family": "Jewelry and Fashion Object Types",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "568c0e012a893a1bb1000044",
    "slug": "bracelets",
    "name": "Bracelets",
    "family": "Jewelry and Fashion Object Types",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "56c33803aa00b51bbe000204",
    "slug": "balance",
    "name": "Balance",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "Painters, sculptors, and architects have engaged with balance in their works to present forms that have a tenuous distribution of weight, threatening to become unstable by outside forces. Many of [Richard Serra’s](/artist/richard-serra) monumental steel sculptures present a precarious sense of balance in an effort to explore the physical and psychological effects of space. His _One–Ton Prop (House of Cards)_ (1969), for example, consists of four heavy plates leaning against each other, supported by nothing but pressure. Other artists, like [Alexander Calder](/artist/alexander-calder), use balance to achieve the floating, kinetic effects of his suspended mobiles, such as in _Triumphant Red_ (1959-1965). More figuratively, photographer [Michael O’Neill](/artist/michael-oneill) studies tension and balance by portraying bodies in movement and yoga postures.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "568c0d799c18db346800002d",
    "slug": "necklaces",
    "name": "Necklaces",
    "family": "Jewelry and Fashion Object Types",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "56d613398b0c142caf000194",
    "slug": "minimalism-and-contemporary-minimalist",
    "name": "Minimalism and Contemporary Minimalist",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "56d73d6a139b214ff60002a0",
    "slug": "contemporary-jewelry",
    "name": "Contemporary Jewelry",
    "family": "",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "56eabb37275b2437a4002910",
    "slug": "engaged-with-pre-columbian-art",
    "name": "Engaged with Pre-Columbian Art",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artists in the Americas have long found inspiration in the art of [Pre-Columbian](https://www.artsy.net/gene/pre-columbian-art) civilizations like the [Maya](https://www.artsy.net/gene/mayan-art-and-architecture), the[ Aztec](https://www.artsy.net/gene/aztec-art), and the Inca. Working with Christian missionaries in sixteenth-century Mexico, native artists combined Aztec and European visual traditions---Aztec artist Juan Gerson, for example, inserted a Nahuatl pictogram for \"water\" into a painting of Noah's Ark. Following independence, artists in Latin America looked to the Ancient American past as a source of national identity. [Diego Rivera](https://www.artsy.net/artist/diego-rivera)'s murals at the National Palace in Mexico City depict [scenes of daily life](https://www.artsy.net/gene/scenes-of-everyday-life) in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan and contain areas of [grisaille](https://www.artsy.net/tag/grisaille) meant to imitate [Aztec](https://www.artsy.net/gene/aztec-art) and [Mayan](https://www.artsy.net/gene/mayan-art-and-architecture) carved stelae. More recently, the Colombian artist [Nadin Ospina](https://www.artsy.net/artist/nadin-ospina) has explored the commodification of the pre-Columbian past by making stone sculptures that reimagine figures from [popular culture](https://www.artsy.net/gene/popular-culture) as Inca or Maya carved idols. Due to what has been seen as a Eurocentric bias to the terms \"pre-Columbian\" and its synonym \"pre-Hispanic,\" the terms Ancient American, pre-contact, pre-conquest, and precolumbian (with Columbus de-emphasized) are commonly used.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "56c611fa4b848066ee00005c",
    "slug": "19th-century-french-academy",
    "name": "19th Century French Academy",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Artwork produced in 19th-century France that reflects the teachings of the École des Beaux-Arts, the Parisian state-sponsored art academy. Prioritizing draftsmanship over painting, the school taught students to employ fine line work and soft, blended shading in their drawings. [Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres](/artist/jean-auguste-dominique-ingres)’s drawings, such as his portrait of [Mrs. Charles Badham](/artwork/jean-auguste-dominique-ingres-mrs-charles-badham), epitomize the Academic style, which is characterized by close attention to detail, near-invisible brushstrokes, and an emphasis on realistic modeling and shading. Academic painters often depicted scenes from history, literature, the Bible, or classical mythology, although this style can also be seen in pastoral scenes, such as [William-Adolphe Bouguereau](/artist/william-adolphe-bouguereau)’s _[Gardeuse de moutons (The Shepherdess)](/artwork/william-adolphe-bouguereau-gardeuse-de-moutons-the-shepherdess)_, and in [Orientalist](/gene/orientalism) imagery, such as [Jean-Léon Gérôme](/artist/jean-leon-gerome)’s painting _[The Snake Charmer](/artwork/jean-leon-gerome-the-snake-charmer)_. Many of the French [Impressionist](/gene/impressionism) painters were trained in the Academic style, though they later rejected it in favor of their trademark loose, expressive brushwork and scenes of modern life.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "56cb6139139b21330e000037",
    "slug": "shin-hanga",
    "name": "Shin Hanga",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_Shin-hanga_ (“new prints”) refers to an early 20th century Japanese artistic movement that revived the traditional _[ukiyo-e](/gene/ukiyo-e)_ style of printmaking that was dominant between the 17th and 19th centuries. The practitioners of _Shin-hanga_ retained many of the favorite subjects and traditional compositions of _ukiyo-e_, including [landscapes](/gene/landscapes), kabuki actors, and beautiful women, but also responded to [Impressionist](/gene/impressionism) painting and photography with their increased attention to light, mood, and optical perspective. Artists such as [Kawase Hasui](/artist/kawase-hasui), [Yoshida Hiroshi](/artist/yoshida-hiroshi), and [Takahashi Shotei](/artist/hiroaki-takahashi-shotei) utilized a graceful line and graphic sensibility in their landscapes that recall the artistic achievements of the preceding centuries, while their treatment of light, space, and broad color palette lends photographic clarity. The return to traditional subjects and workshop production methods—both rejected by the contemporaneous _Sōsaku-hanga_ (“creative prints”) movement—was partly an attempt to counter the rapid changes to Japanese culture that followed the opening of Japan to the West in 1868.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "56d60f689c18db080400019f",
    "slug": "pop-and-contemporary-pop",
    "name": "Pop and Contemporary Pop",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "Work by artists who were part of the 1960s Pop Art international movement, and contemporary works created in the style or ethos of Pop Art.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "56c337486428707983000236",
    "slug": "engaged-with-byzantine-and-medieval-art",
    "name": "Engaged with Byzantine and Medieval Art",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Art that engages with [Byzantine](/gene/byzantine-art) and [Medieval](/gene/medieval-art) art—Christian art produced between the 4th and 15th centuries in the Eastern Mediterranean and Europe—and finds inspiration in the religious icons, elaborate [altarpieces](/gene/altarpiece), gold-leaf mosaics, and [stained glass](/gene/stained-glass) windows produced during this era. Driven by a sense of nostalgia for the religious clarity of the Medieval era, a return to Medieval Gothic architecture, known as the Gothic Revival, began in England in the late 1740s and spread globally. A century later, the [Pre-Raphaelites](/gene/pre-raphaelites) mimicked the sharp focus of Medieval and [Early Renaissance](/gene/early-renaissance) painting, while the [Viennese Secessionist](/gene/vienna-secession) artist [Gustav Klimt](/artist/gustav-klimt) paid homage to the ornate patterns of Byzantine mosaics in his iconic painting _[The Kiss](/artwork/gustav-klimt-der-kuss-the-kiss)_.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "56a69bcf139b21066b000385",
    "slug": "large-scale-painting",
    "name": "Large-Scale Painting",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "Enveloping the viewer and dominating interior spaces, large scale paintings create an impact. Artists and their patrons have utilized size to display power and prestige to impress their audiences. In 18th century Europe, [history painting](/gene/history-painting) was considered to be the most important genre, above portraiture, still life, and landscape, and thus was executed on bigger canvases by artists like [Jacques-Louis David](/artist/jacques-louis-david) and [Benjamin West](/artist/benjamin-west). Inspired by their the large-scale public murals for the [Work Progress Administration (WPA)](/gene/new-deal-slash-wpa), [abstract expressionist](/gene/abstract-expressionism) artists like [Jackson Pollock](/artist/jackson-pollock) and [Lee Krasner](/artist/lee-krasner) painted on large scale canvases that could take up entire walls, interpreted by some to represent the freedom of American expression. Contemporary artist [Kehinde Wiley](/artist/kehinde-wiley) paints monumental portraits of young black men in scenes and poses appropriated from western art history to critique and reclaim the identity politics of the genre.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "56c337b0a09a673f87000254",
    "slug": "figure-from-the-back-ruckenfigur",
    "name": "Figure from the Back (Rückenfigur)",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "_“I have to stay alone in order to fully contemplate and feel nature. The painter should paint not only what he has in front of him, but also what he sees inside himself.” —Caspar David Friedrich_\n\nThe term “Rückenfigur” (“figure from the back”) comes from the 19th-century German [Romanticism](/gene/romanticism) movement. Popularized by artists such as [Caspar David Friedrich](/artist/caspar-david-friedrich), it describes paintings in which a figure is portrayed with his or her back toward the viewer, allowing the viewer to vicariously experience the figure’s perspective of the beholden scene and his or her emotional state. Despite concealing the face of the person portrayed, this form of portraiture is prevalent in contemporary paintings, film, photography, and even popular culture. Rückenfigur works ultimately achieve a paradoxical effect: while the subject’s pose invites the viewer into the scene, their turned back often communicates a mood of isolation or melancholy.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "568c0da25b2fba79bd000040",
    "slug": "rings",
    "name": "Rings",
    "family": "Jewelry and Fashion Object Types",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "56d610e4b202a34c4700016e",
    "slug": "feminist-art-and-contemporary-feminist",
    "name": "Feminist Art and Contemporary Feminist",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "56ddd4efcd530e65ba000932",
    "slug": "modern-design",
    "name": "Modern Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "56cf0fe3cb4c2766ee000041",
    "slug": "geometric-abstraction",
    "name": "Geometric Abstraction",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "56aa638ecb4c2766730000f8",
    "slug": "hyperrealism-and-photorealism",
    "name": "Hyperrealism and Photorealism",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "56b926b8b8bad42e68000041",
    "slug": "japanese-erotic-prints",
    "name": "Japanese Erotic Prints",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "56bcdd8daa00b5216800009f",
    "slug": "modern-jewelry",
    "name": "Modern Jewelry",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "56faca95b202a36585000943",
    "slug": "modular-design",
    "name": "Modular Design",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "Modular designs are composed of adjustable units—sometimes referred to as modules or skids—which can be physically rearranged to better suit the user’s space and needs. Modular furniture rose to popularity during the 1950s, enabling consumers to transform mass-produced designs into customizable pieces, often at a better price. Design icons [George Nelson](/artist/george-nelson), [Eero Saarinen](/artist/eero-saarinen), [Dieter Rams](/artist/dieter-rams), and [Charles and Ray Eames](/artist/charles-and-ray-eames) all embraced this mix-and-match method of construction, producing storage units and sectional sofas that could take on a variety of shapes. More recently, the Dutch architect [Rem Koolhaas](/artist/rem-koolhaas) designed the modular unit “04 Counter” (2013), consisting of three beams that can turn into shelves, tables, or benches depending on their configuration. Emerging designers [Aranda\\Lasch](/artist/aranda-slash-lasch) and [Ian Stell](/artist/ian-stell) are known for their innovations in modularity, producing intricately constructed items that can shapeshift from tables to seating to storage.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "573a4823cb4c274cf800078a",
    "slug": "bars-and-restaurants",
    "name": "Bars and Restaurants",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Bars, cafes, taverns, and restaurants have been important social spaces since at least the Middle Ages, and so, unsurprisingly, there is a rich tradition of representing such spaces in works of art. Dutch Baroque painters like [Frans Hals](https://www.artsy.net/artist/frans-hals) and [Adriaen van Ostade](https://www.artsy.net/artist/adriaen-van-ostade) showed inns and taverns as places of both joyous revelry and moral laxity, while the rowdy nightlife of [Edo Period](https://www.artsy.net/gene/edo-art) Toyko was a favorite subject for Japanese painters and printmakers. In late 19th and early 20th century Europe, cafe culture nurtured the development of the [Impressionists](https://www.artsy.net/gene/impressionism), who depicted their favorite haunts as sites of modernity. More recently, artists continue to explore bars and restaurants as spaces for social observation, or symbolic of transition and decay, from [Rod Penner](https://www.artsy.net/artist/rod-penner)'s photorealistic paintings of empty roadside cafes to [Wijnanda Deroo's](https://www.artsy.net/artist/wijnanda-deroo) photographs of iconic New York City dining establishments.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5771ddc37622dd65e7000bd5",
    "slug": "chandelier",
    "name": "Chandelier",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "57156147cb4c276590000aa9",
    "slug": "dance",
    "name": "Dance",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "From the Theatre of the [Bauhaus](/gene/bauhaus)’s _Triadisches Ballett_ in Weimar Germany to Japanese Butoh following World War II, dance encompasses a diverse range of rhythmic movements and performance techniques. American choreographer [Merce Cunningham](/tag/references-to-merce-cunningham), a student of modern dance pioneer [Martha Graham](/tag/references-to-martha-graham), began experimenting with interdisciplinary collaborations between visual and performing artists while at [Black Mountain College](/gene/black-mountain-college). Developed in tandem with his longtime partner, the avant-garde composer [John Cage](/artist/john-cage), Cunningham used “chance operations” such as coin-tossing or dice-rolling to generate sequences of unanticipated choreographic variations devoid of plot or narrative. Influenced by Cunningham, Judson Dance Theater incorporated objects and gestures from everyday life and paired performers such as [Trisha Brown](/artist/trisha-brown), [Yvonne Rainer](/artist/yvonne-rainer), and [Carolee Schneemann](/artist/carolee-schneemann) with artists-cum-scenic designers like [Donald Judd](/artist/donald-judd) and [Robert Rauschenberg](/artist/robert-rauschenberg). Such practices heralded dance’s contemporary (or postmodern) era. Contemporary choreographers [Rashaad Newsome](/artist/rashaad-newsome) and Trajal Harrell have inserted themselves into this lineage by featuring improvisation as a compositional device in multimedia performances that abstract the intricate bodily gestures of voguing and vernacular dance.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5771ddb17622dd65eb000b4e",
    "slug": "shelving",
    "name": "Shelving",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "Boards, planks, or slabs of rigid material, typically wood or metal, either fixed to a wall or forming part of a case to store or display objects.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "56fd4aa7275b243a460001ab",
    "slug": "projection",
    "name": "Projection",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "As Greek myth would have it, cast shadows created the world’s first artwork: the daughter of a famous potter [traced the outline of her lover’s shadow](/artwork/joseph-wright-the-corinthian-maid) on the wall as he departed on a journey, and from these lines her father modeled the first sculpture. In the [Renaissance](/gene/renaissance), artists began to employ [camera obscuras](/gene/camera-obscura)—optical devices that project images from life onto a surface—as aids for painting in [one-point perspective](/gene/emphasis-on-linear-perspective). In more recent decades, projection has moved from the artist’s studio to the gallery space, acting as a prominent display method for [video art](/gene/film-slash-video) and [light art](/gene/light-art/artworks?for_sale=false&include_medium_filter_in_aggregation=true&sort=-year), as in [James Turrell](/artist/james-turrell)’s installation _Aten Reign_ (2013). Contemporary artists [Paul Chan](/artist/paul-chan), [Bill Viola](/artist/bill-viola), [Steve McQueen](/artist/steve-mcqueen), and [Shirin Neshat](/artist/shirin-neshat) have all displayed their video footage using projection, favoring the medium for its ability to transform a space into an immersive viewing environment.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5771dda0b202a365e7000a68",
    "slug": "console",
    "name": "Console",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5730c4cc139b216eeb003081",
    "slug": "cityscapes-and-city-scenes",
    "name": "Cityscapes and City Scenes",
    "family": "Subject Matter",
    "description": "Artworks that incorporate long-distance views of cities as well as intimate scenes of city life. For centuries, artists the world over have been fascinated by the architecture, rapid development, and dense population of cities. From small views of towns, such as those dotting the background of [Rogier van der Weyden](/artist/rogier-van-der-weyden)’s 15th-century painting _[Saint George and the Dragon](/artwork/rogier-van-der-weyden-saint-george-and-the-dragon)_, to the panoramic views of 18th-century Venice in the work of [Canaletto](/artist/canaletto), to images of 19th-century Paris painted by the French [Impressionists](/gene/impressionism), artists have long found inspiration in the cityscape and the intricacies of urban daily life. This tendency has continued through the 20th century up to today: photographer [Berenice Abbott](/artist/berenice-abbott) dedicated most of her career to documenting the transformation and growth of 1930s New York City, while contemporary Chinese painter [Liu Xiaodong](/artist/liu-xiaodong) focuses on Ordos, a city in Inner Mongolia, as a model to visually explore the effects of urbanization and industrialization on a small population.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "577ff0889c18db0a00000029",
    "slug": "musical-instrument",
    "name": "Musical Instrument",
    "family": "Antiquities, Artifacts, and Religious Objects",
    "description": "Musical instruments—not depictions of them, in paintings or photographs, but the physical objects. Musical instruments might be exquisitely designed objects intended to be played, or components of sculptures.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "574df694275b244f9200069b",
    "slug": "design-by-architects",
    "name": "Design by Architects",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe](/artist/ludwig-mies-van-der-rohe), [Oscar Niemeyer](/artist/oscar-niemeyer), and [David Adjaye](/artist/david-adjaye) are among the many architects who have produced furniture, product, and jewelry designs. While some architects create design objects to furnish their buildings, others use this smaller scale to experiment with ideas or expand their brand to a larger audience. American architect [Frank Lloyd Wright](/artist/frank-lloyd-wright) was as meticulous about the interiors of his buildings as he was their exteriors, and designed custom furniture for his “Prairie Houses,” often favoring geometric forms and wooden finishings for his tables, desks, and storage units. Starchitects [Zaha Hadid](/artist/zaha-hadid) and [Frank Gehry](/artist/frank-gehry), on the other hand, produce furniture designs for the commercial market, creating fluid glass tables and curving cardboard chairs that reflect their architectural aesthetics.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "57320f488b3b8105a2004362",
    "slug": "gestural-abstraction",
    "name": "Gestural Abstraction",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "“Gestural” is used to describe expressive and vigorous mark-making, while “abstraction” refers to art that does not represent the visible world. These qualities can be observed both in the practice of an [East Asian Calligrapher](/gene/east-asian-calligraphy), whose state of mind may be reflected in the pressure, rhythm, and speed of an inked brush across paper, and in the movements of [action painters](/gene/action-painting), who revealed their psychological states through a variety of bodily techniques that included dabbing, dripping, pouring, pulling, smearing, and streaking paint on canvas. Contemporary artists like [Cecily Brown](/artist/cecily-brown) and [Amy Sillman](/artist/amy-sillman) continue to work in this energetic tradition, captivating viewers with their paintings’ brushy forms and evocative lines.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5771de6c7622dd65eb000b57",
    "slug": "sconce",
    "name": "Sconce",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "57321086cb4c27660900055b",
    "slug": "faux-naif",
    "name": "Faux Naïf",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "_“Children also have artistic ability, and there is wisdom in their having it! The more helpless they are, the more instructive are the examples they furnish us.” —[Paul Klee](/artist/paul-klee)_\n\nIn the early 20th century, artists like Paul Klee sought to transcend art's conventional notions of beauty by returning to a supposedly primal mode of visual expression. Klee employed the simplified forms found in the art of children and people with mental disorders in search of an authentic experience untainted by contemporary society. This strategy can be called “faux naïf,” from the French for “falsely naïve.” Since Klee, many artists have pursued the unmediated expression of creativity by eschewing traditional painting techniques like [linear perspective](/gene/emphasis-on-linear-perspective) and naturalism. In Europe in the 1950s, the [Art Informel](/gene/art-informel) movement embraced an intuitive and painterly mode of abstraction. More recently, artists like [Tal R](/artist/tal-r) and [Jules de Balincourt](/artist/jules-de-balincourt) have addressed the modernist search for authenticity by adopting a childlike style.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "573b1fb8cb4c27660600020f",
    "slug": "women-designers",
    "name": "Women Designers",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "As long as there have been design and decorative art, there have been female makers. The advent of Modernism in the 20th century ushered in the careers of many women designers whose impact on the field was outstanding, yet these creatives often did not receive the same critical attention as their male counterparts. Expanding the reach of avant-garde furniture, [Florence Knoll](/artist/florence-knoll) co-founded the design company Knoll, which reissued some of the most iconic pieces of the 20th century. Meanwhile, [Charlotte Perriand](/artist/charlotte-perriand), [Anni Albers](/artist/anni-albers), [Ray Eames](/artist/charles-and-ray-eames), and [Greta Magnusson Grossman](/artist/greta-magnusson-grossman) furthered the lessons of the [Bauhaus](/gene/bauhaus) in their streamlined products, textiles, and furniture designs. Shining a light on underrecognized female visionaries, [MoMA](/museum-of-modern-art) presented “Designing Modern Women 1890–1990” in 2014. Featuring April Greiman’s computer graphics, [Lucie Rie](/artist/lucie-rie)’s ceramics, and [Eileen Gray](/artist/eileen-gray)’s furniture pieces, among many others, the exhibition demonstrated the impact and diversity of design by women. Just five years earlier, Gray’s “Dragon Armchair” (1919) sold for over $21 million at a Phillips auction, setting the record for the highest price at auction for any 20th-century design work.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5756e0b9cb4c276602000434",
    "slug": "crystalline-and-geological-forms",
    "name": "Crystalline and Geological Forms",
    "family": "Visual Qualities",
    "description": "In a convergence of art and [science](https://www.artsy.net/gene/science), crystalline and geological forms can create a range of beautiful visual effects, from rough or rustic unworked stone to recurring linear crystal [patterns](https://www.artsy.net/gene/patterns). [Jeff Zimmerman](https://www.artsy.net/artist/jeff-zimmerman), for example, replicates natural crystals he has discovered in the wild in glass sculptures and design objects. The use of these natural forms can also allude to [environmental concerns](https://www.artsy.net/gene/the-environment) about the changing climate and earth’s uncertain future. To represent the all-encompassing effects of pollution, [Liz Hickok](https://www.artsy.net/artist/liz-hickok) constructs and photographs small environments that are slowly engulfed by growing crystals. In a work that similarly incorporates [chance](https://www.artsy.net/gene/chance), [Jeremy Everett](https://www.artsy.net/artwork/jeremy-everett-untitled-centrefold) submerges books and newspapers in chemicals to create crystalline clusters. These striking works symbolize the [decay](https://www.artsy.net/gene/decay) of the manmade and a return to a natural state.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "56fbf6f99c18db1cb0006332",
    "slug": "ephemera",
    "name": "Ephemera",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "The word ephemera comes from the Greek word _ephēmeros_, which means “‘lasting only a day.” Although not originally intended to be collected as art objects, some ephemera is preserved and collected for its artistic merit or historic interest. Typically made on paper, ephemera often comes from the visual and written materials surrounding the art world or [popular culture](/gene/popular-culture), like posters for exhibitions, concerts, or films, exhibition catalogs, brochures for events, and other forms of [printed matter](/gene/printed-matter) such as magazines, and newspapers.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "579693ae7076d00685000594",
    "slug": "plate",
    "name": "Plate",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "582e244aa09a675611000105",
    "slug": "memphis-design",
    "name": "Memphis Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "Bright colors, graphic patterns, and bold geometric shapes characterize the aesthetic of the Memphis Group, the Italian Postmodern design collective founded by [Ettore Sottsass](/artist/ettore-sottsass) in 1980. Active through 1987, the group included architects, furniture designers, product designers, as well as writers—[Alessandro Mendini](/artist/alessandro-mendini), [Nathalie du Pasquier](/artist/nathalie-du-pasquier), and [Martine Bedin](/artist/martine-bedin), among them—who aimed to produce radical designs that liberated form from function. Named after the Bob Dylan song “Stuck inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again,” Memphis drew upon a variety of influences, from [Art Deco](/gene/art-deco) to [Pop Art](/gene/pop-art) to 1950s [Kitsch](/gene/kitsch), and marked a significant departure from the restrained, Minimalist designs of the 1970s. Over the past decade, Memphis designs have witnessed a resurgence, inspiring fashion lines by [Christian Dior](/artist/christian-dior), [Missoni](/artist/missoni), and [Karl Lagerfeld](/artist/karl-lagerfeld) (who is also an avid collector of Memphis furniture). In 2015, the Wall Street Journal coined the term “Neo-Memphis” to describe contemporary designers inspired by this playful and eccentric movement, pointing to [Kelly Behun](/artist/kelly-behun-studio) and [Matthew Sullivan](/artist/matthew-sullivan) as some of the emerging talent reviving this distinctly ‘80s aesthetic.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "58a5fdc5cd530e4c9f66ed30",
    "slug": "brass",
    "name": "Brass",
    "family": "Materials",
    "description": "Functional objects, sculptures and other three dimensional works made of brass.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "58c71824cb4c276b9630c1cf",
    "slug": "frame",
    "name": "Frame",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "A general category for antique and modern functional frames—cases that are intended to support, protect, or add a decorative element to another work of art for display.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5840adfb9c18db0bd8000347",
    "slug": "british-furniture-and-design",
    "name": "British Furniture and Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "The history of British design centers on the tension between ornamentation and simplicity, handcraft and mass-production. In the 17th century, the Jacobean and Restoration styles embraced embellishment, featuring elegantly carved hardwood, swirling motifs, and opulent materials such as gold and mother of pearl. The Georgian Era, which roughly lasted from 1714 to 1820, rejected this [Baroque](/gene/baroque) extravagance, looking to the stately motifs of [Ancient Greece](/gene/greek-and-roman-art-and-architecture) for inspiration. The [Aesthetic Movement](/gene/the-aesthetic-movement) of the 1860s promoted the beauty of decorative forms, while the [Arts and Crafts Movement](/gene/arts-and-crafts-movement) decades later encouraged simple, handcrafted furniture designs stripped of ornamentation. Representing a wide variety of styles and time periods, leading British designers include the Georgian polymath [William Kent](/artist/william-kent), the textile designer [William Morris](/artist/william-morris-1834-1896), the retailer [Liberty & Co.](/artist/liberty-and-company), and the Modernist [Robin Day](/artist/robin-day), as well as contemporary talents such as [Zaha Hadid](/artist/zaha-hadid), [Ron Arad](/artist/ron-arad), and [Max Lamb](/artist/max-lamb).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5840afaac9dc2466500003ab",
    "slug": "dutch-furniture-and-design",
    "name": "Dutch Furniture and Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "From the “ZigZag” chairs of [Gerrit Thomas Rietveld](/artist/gerrit-thomas-rietveld) to the “Tour Eiffel” lamps of [Studio Job](/artist/studio-job), Dutch design is often characterized by a quirky, yet minimalist aesthetic. The design collective Droog, founded by [Gijs Bakker](/artist/gijs-bakker) and historian Renny Ramakers, brought Dutch design to the international stage in 1993 at the Milan Furniture Fair, presenting objects with simple forms and dry senses of humor. Iconic Droog designs include [Tejo Remy](/artist/tejo-remy-1)’s “‘You Can't Lay Down Your Memory’ Chest of Drawers” (1991), [Rody Grauman]()’s \"85 Lamps\" (1992-1993), and [Marcel Wanders](/artist/marcel-wanders)’s “Knotted Chair” (1996). Dutch design is also known for its innovative use of materials. Contemporary Dutch designer [Lex Pott](/artist/lex-pott) juxtaposes rough with smooth stone in his furniture designs, [Maarten Baas](/artist/maarten-baas) creates wood objects that mimic plastic forms, and [Studio Markunpoika](/artist/studio-markunpoika) produces elegant lighting and furniture made from steel mesh.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "580e12a77622dd658100141e",
    "slug": "artist-merchandise-and-multiples",
    "name": "Artist Merchandise and Multiples",
    "family": "Tableware, Vessels, and Objects",
    "description": "The art multiple is an object reproduced by an artist in numerous copies. This category focuses on the kind of art multiple that is three-dimensional, small scale, and produced in editions, such as [Marcel Duchamp](https://www.artsy.net/artist/marcel-duchamp)'s _[Box in a Valise](https://www.artsy.net/artwork/marcel-duchamp-boite-en-valise-box-in-a-valise)_ works in the 1940s or Fluxus's [Fluxkits](https://www.artsy.net/artwork/george-maciunas-flux-year-box-1-book-version) of the sixties. By the end of the twentieth century, artists began making art merchandise—a mass produced, cheaper, and populist alternative to art, exemplified by [Keith Haring](https://www.artsy.net/artist/keith-haring)'s [Pop Shop](https://www.artsy.net/tag/pop-shop). Art merchandising has become a prevalent practice by many contemporary artists, notably [Shepard Fairey](/artist/shepard-fairey) and [Takashi Murakami](/artist/takashi-murakami).",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5840ac418b3b81767c000343",
    "slug": "art-deco-furniture-and-design",
    "name": "Art Deco Furniture and Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "579693bd139b2106620004ec",
    "slug": "design-by-artists",
    "name": "Design by Artists",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "Many artists have also forayed into the field of design. In the 1940s and ‘50s, the [Cubist](https://www.artsy.net/gene/cubism) [Pablo Picasso](https://www.artsy.net/artist/pablo-picasso) created ceramic plates, the [Surrealist](https://www.artsy.net/gene/surrealism) [André Masson](https://www.artsy.net/artist/andre-masson) produced biomorphic vessels, and the [Fauvist](https://www.artsy.net/gene/fauvism) [Henri Matisse](https://www.artsy.net/artist/henri-matisse) designed colorful tapestries inspired by his paper cut-outs. In the 1960s, the American sculptor [Donald Judd](https://www.artsy.net/artist/donald-judd) and the French painter [Yves Klein](https://www.artsy.net/artist/yves-klein) designed signature furniture pieces. While some artists produce one-of-a-kind design objects, others mass-produce merchandise to expand their artistic reach. [Keith Haring](https://www.artsy.net/artist/keith-haring), [Cindy Sherman](https://www.artsy.net/artist/cindy-sherman), [Jeff Koons](https://www.artsy.net/artist/jeff-koons), [Roy Lichtenstein](https://www.artsy.net/artist/roy-lichtenstein), [Kara Walker](https://www.artsy.net/artist/kara-walker), and many others, have all worked with manufacturers to release more affordable versions of their works.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "585820778b3b8164cf0015a8",
    "slug": "virtual-and-augmented-reality",
    "name": "Virtual and Augmented Reality",
    "family": "Medium and Techniques",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5840ae58275b2419380003c8",
    "slug": "danish-furniture-and-design",
    "name": "Danish Furniture and Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "Despite the country’s small size, Denmark has had an outstanding influence in the field of design, ushering in the careers of [Arne Jacobsen](/artist/arne-jacobsen), [Hans Wegner](/artist/hans-j-wegner), and [Finn Juhl](/artist/finn-juhl), among others. Inspired by the functional designs of the [Bauhaus](/gene/bauhaus), these modern designers produced furniture and household items with a clean-lined, minimalist aesthetic, adopting new industrial technologies to bring these products to the masses. Some of the most celebrated Danish design objects of the 20th century include Jacobsen’s “Egg” and “Swan” chairs, Wegner’s “Round” and “Wishbone” chairs, [Verner Panton](/artist/verner-panton)’s “Panton” chair, and [Poul Henningsen](/artist/poul-henningsen)’s “Artichoke” lamp. Denmark is also home to many esteemed design manufacturers, from high-end producers like the [Royal Copenhagen Porcelain Manufactory](/artist/royal-copenhagen-porcelain-manufactory) and Georg Jensen to more accessible retailers like HAY and Flying Tiger Copenhagen.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5851c12f8b0c140e670003b4",
    "slug": "mid-century-modern-design",
    "name": "Mid-Century Modern Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "From [Joaquim Tenreiro](https://www.artsy.net/artist/joaquim-tenreiro)’s handcrafted wooden furniture pieces to [Arne Jacobson](https://www.artsy.net/artist/arne-jacobsen)’s mass-produced “Egg” and “Swan” chairs, Mid-Century Modernism was a global and diverse movement. Grounded in the principles of the [Bauhaus](https://www.artsy.net/gene/bauhaus) school, Mid-Century Modern designers rejected ornamentation, embraced new materials and technologies, and promoted the idea that good design can transform society. Thriving during the 1940s and ‘50s, the movement included design icons such as [Charles and Ray Eames](https://www.artsy.net/artist/charles-and-ray-eames), [Harry Bertoia](https://www.artsy.net/artist/harry-bertoia), [Eero Saarinen](https://www.artsy.net/artist/eero-saarinen), [Charlotte Perriand](https://www.artsy.net/artist/charlotte-perriand), [George Nelson](https://www.artsy.net/artist/george-nelson), [Alvar Aalto](https://www.artsy.net/artist/alvar-aalto), and [Jean Prouvé](https://www.artsy.net/artist/jean-prouve). In the 1990s, the Mid-Century aesthetic became popular once again, as manufacturers such as Knoll and Herman Miller began reissuing modern furniture designs and selling them directly to consumers.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "579693a28b3b8133930004e8",
    "slug": "sideboard",
    "name": "Sideboard",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "579693cacb4c27736c00057b",
    "slug": "coffee-table",
    "name": "Coffee Table",
    "family": "Furniture and Lighting",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5840ace0a09a6709e0000370",
    "slug": "art-nouveau-furniture-and-design",
    "name": "Art Nouveau Furniture and Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "From the 1880s until World War I, the decorative style of [Art Nouveau](/gene/art-nouveau) influenced all aspects of artistic production, including graphic design, furniture, consumer products, and architecture. The aesthetic that favored sinuous, natural forms and dense decoration went by many names across Europe and North America, such as the Glasgow Style in Scotland and _Stile Liberty_ (after the London firm) in Italy. In France, [Hector Guimard](/artist/hector-guimard) popularized the so-called _Style Metro_ with his swirling designs for the Paris subway stations, while [Louis Comfort Tiffany](/artist/louis-comfort-tiffany)’s opalescent stained glass windows and lighting designs became iconic examples of the style in the United States. Working across Europe, leading Art Nouveau furniture designers include the Austrian [Josef Hoffman](/artist/josef-hoffmann), [Louis Majorelle](/artist/louis-majorelle) from France, and the Belgians [Henry van de Velde](/artist/henry-van-de-velde) and [Victor Horta](/artist/victor-horta).",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5840ad19c9dc246697000337",
    "slug": "brazilian-furniture-and-design",
    "name": "Brazilian Furniture and Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "The history of Brazilian design is strongly tied to material, from the rosewood designs of [Carlos Motta](/artist/carlos-motta-b-1952) to the recycled belt chairs of [Rodrigo Almeida](/artist/rodrigo-almeida). A distinctly Brazilian aesthetic emerged in the 1940s and ‘50s, when furniture designers [Joaquim Tenreiro](/artist/joaquim-tenreiro) and [Sergio Rodrigues](/artist/sergio-rodrigues) began incorporating local woods, such as cane and jacaranda, into their impeccably-crafted pieces. Meanwhile, the Brazilian architect [Oscar Niemeyer](/artist/oscar-niemeyer) (who frequently commissioned designs from Tenreiro and Rodrigues) gained international acclaim for his free-flowing buildings, which challenged the typically sedate lines of modern architecture with curving and swirling structures. Today, the brothers [Fernando and Humberto Campana](/artist/humberto-and-fernando-campana) continue the Brazilian tradition of “upcycling” found materials—incorporating discarded objects such as stuffed animals and rope—in their playful furniture designs influenced by Brazil’s history.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5833716f9c18db29d2000363",
    "slug": "iconic-works-of-design",
    "name": "Iconic Works of Design",
    "family": "Design Concepts and Techniques",
    "description": "Iconic works of design are all around us, from [Massimo Vignelli](https://www.artsy.net/artist/massimo-vignelli)'s New York City Subway Map (1972) to [Jonathan Ive](https://www.artsy.net/artist/jonathan-ive) and Apple's iPhone (2007). These groundbreaking designs often incorporate new shapes, materials, and technologies, or epitomize the style of an historic art or design movement—such as [Marcel Breuer](https://www.artsy.net/artist/marcel-breuer)'s Wassily Chair, developed at the [Bauhaus](https://www.artsy.net/gene/bauhaus). Highlights in furniture design, graphic design, and product design include [Charles and Ray Eames](https://www.artsy.net/artist/charles-and-ray-eames)'s \"Lounge Chair and Ottoman\" (1956), [Milton Glaser](https://www.artsy.net/artist/milton-glaser)'s \"I Love New York\" logo (1977), and [Michael Graves](https://www.artsy.net/artist/michael-graves)'s Alessi Tea Kettle (1984). As touchstones in design history courses, these items are prime examples of the marriage of form and function and the timeless nature of good design.",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "58c71879cb4c276b629e9e5c",
    "slug": "the-anthropocene",
    "name": "The Anthropocene",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": false
  },
  {
    "id": "5845d1449c18db7330001c5d",
    "slug": "american-furniture-and-design",
    "name": "American Furniture and Design",
    "family": "Design Movements",
    "description": "_“The real questions are: Does it solve a problem? Is it serviceable? How is it going to look in ten years?” —Charles Eames_\n\nRefined, utilitarian, and far less ornamental than their European counterparts, American designs and their ethos trace back to the Puritan values of the Colonial era. During the 18th century, the American Chippendale style presented a simplified take on the British Baroque and French Rococo aesthetics with its elegantly-carved mahogany furniture. In the 1920s and ‘30s, designers of the [American Studio Craft Movement](/gene/american-studio-craft-movement) such as [Sam Maloof](/artist/sam-maloof) and [George Nakashima](/artist/george-nakashima) continued the tradition of hand-crafted furniture, looking to these historic methods of construction for inspiration. The advent of Modernism in the mid-20th century ushered in some of the biggest names in American design—[Charles and Ray Eames](/artist/charles-and-ray-eames), [Isamu Noguchi](/artist/isamu-noguchi), [George Nelson](/artist/george-nelson), and [Florence Knoll](/artist/florence-knoll) among them—while capitalizing on wartime innovations in materials and manufacturing. In the 1960s, [Wendell Castle](/artist/wendell-castle) produced items that blurred the line between art and furniture, a legacy that is continued by the Texas-born [Haas Brothers](/artist/the-haas-brothers) today.",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5a3abd56cd530e51752600ba",
    "slug": "impressionism-and-contemporary-impressionist",
    "name": "Impressionism and Contemporary Impressionist",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "",
    "automated": true
  },
  {
    "id": "5b155c74b202a3138283e69e",
    "slug": "studio-museum-in-harlem-artist-in-residence-air-program",
    "name": "Studio Museum in Harlem Artist-in-Residence (AIR) Program",
    "family": "Styles and Movements",
    "description": "[The Studio Museum in Harlem](/studio-museum) takes its name from its founding commitment to providing studio space for artists of African and Latinx descent. For nearly fifty years, the Museum’s signature Artist-in-Residence program has championed the careers of [emerging artists](/gene/emerging-art), hosting them in studios overlooking 125th Street and showcasing their work in annual exhibitions. Over 130 artists have participated to date, from [David Hammons](/artist/david-hammons), [Kerry James Marshall](/artist/kerry-james-marshall), and [Alison Saar](/artist/alison-saar) in the 1980s to [Kevin Beasley](/artist/kevin-beasley), [Njideka Akunyili Crosby](/artist/njideka-akunyili-crosby), and [Simone Leigh](/artist/simone-leigh) in recent years. Other notable alumni include [Sanford Biggers](/artist/sanford-biggers), [Titus Kaphar](/artist/titus-kaphar), [Julie Mehretu](/artist/julie-mehretu), [Wangechi Mutu](/artist/wangechi-mutu), [Mickalene Thomas](/artist/mickalene-thomas), [Nari Ward](/artist/nari-ward), and [Kehinde Wiley](/artist/kehinde-wiley).",
    "automated": false
  }
]